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(2) COURSE LECTURE TOPICS • • • • • • • • • •. The Irony Of Democracy Elites and Masses Democracy and the Survival of Democracy Elitism Being The Most Realistic Elite Theory Supporting Upward Mobility Defining The Elite Consensus Elitism And Public Policy Mass Behavior And Mass Threats Pluralism In A Democracy Elitism Versus Pluralism.
(3) ELITISM Elitism does not promote elite rule. It merely helps us to understand how the rules of a society, especially a democratic one, may actually obstruct the social progress of the masses. Elitism argues that elites are needed, due to the ignorance of the masses and their unwillingness to act responsibly. One thing that elites are particularly fearful of is the tendency for masses to be vulnerable to demagogic appeals. Demagogues or counter elites are mass-oriented leaders who express outright hostility toward established order and appeal to the mass sentiments. This can be from the far left or far right. This also helps to explain why domestic elites remain fearful of direct democracy and why the Founding Fathers were against the establishment of national referenda..
(4) ELITISM SUMMARIZED 1. Society is divided between the powerful few and the majority weak. 2. Governing few are not typical of the governed masses. Elites are not drawn mostly from the upper class socioeconomic section of society. 3. Non-elites have to be given the opportunity to rise up to elite positions. The masses have to believe that the process is continuous or revolution may occur. Barriers prevent finite elite positions from being overtaken by unqualified individuals. This is a classic rat and cheese scenario. 4. Elites share a common belief on the basic values of the elite. Any change of public policy will be incrementally slow rather than revolutionary. 5. Elites may base their actions either on narrow, self-serving motives and risk undermining mass support, or they may initiate reforms, curb abuse, and undertake public-regarding programs to preserve the system. 6. Active elites are not typically influenced from apathetic masses. Elites influence masses more than the masses influence elites.. Sufficient Cheese. Sufficient Cheese. Lack Of Cheese.
(5) ELITISM – HOW INFORMATION FLOWS Elite theory also argues that information flows from opinion elites down to opinion leaders who are looked to the public for information. News is first “created” by opinion elites and then sent to opinion leaders to help disseminate the information. Those at the very top of the elite network decide what information is deemed as necessary to offer society. These elites may be news makers themselves or in charge of large media corporations. Opinion leaders may be thought of as journalists, news anchors, expert pundits or even celebrities who possess legitimacy among those in society..
(6) MANIPULATION – BIOLOGICAL WARFARE How can we protect ourselves against the threats of germs and toxins? Cold War America gears up to fend off threats from unconventional bioweapons. This is another example of how propaganda is utilized to foster fear within society. Enjoy the video..
(7) MANIPULATION & MIRROR MYTH News media outlets possess a great power. They are able to “decide what will be decided”. Bias is exhibited throughout the mainstream press. This is also true for nontraditional news sources as everyone is biased in some way. Many in the news media stress that they are nonbiased since they only reflect reality. Even if the news is merely reflected or reported, it is their choice of subjects that proves their bias. All news is biased. This is the “Mirror Myth”..
(8) WHAT WE CALL THE NEWS Claims have been made regarding the motivations behind what stories are chosen by the major media. Advertising revenue greatly influences those stories chosen. Securing market share is vital, for without it, the major media would lose advertising revenue. It is really our fault that the major news networks willfully focus on sex, violence and various negative pieces. This short clip provides a humorous spin to “What We Call The News”. Enjoy..
(9) PROPAGANDA – CINEMOCRACY (1) Governmental elites may believe that their national policies are so concrete that it is necessary to utilize various forms of propaganda gage in propaganda to incite specific reactions from its citizens. Various forms of propaganda have been utilized to drum up mass support to better assure elite legitimacy. Cinemocracy, the relationship between motion pictures and government is one way governmental elites sell their agenda. Enjoy this classic cartoon where “Popeye The Sailor Man” battles the Nazis..
(10) PLURALISM – SPHERES Pluralism insures that groups are restricted from single handedly influencing public policy. Rather, cross-cutting cleavages would form, as groups seek compromise with others to build coalitions that would succeed in affecting change. This helps to assure that minority factions are protected from an overwhelming majority. Majority power-holders among the “Spheres of Influence” are essentially “checked” by the formation of cross-cutting cleavages in an effort to balance against overwhelming forces.. Political Parties “Checking” Each Other.
(11) PROPAGANDA – CITIZEN BASED Technological advancements have empowered common citizens with creative minds to produce their own propaganda. “The War On Terror” sparked a great deal of media distributed via the Internet. Elites no longer maintain total control over distribution. Many citizens may deem these video as offensive. Keep in mind that propaganda is meant to produce an “Us” versus “Them” mindset. Does this video have any impact over your belief system?.
(12) PLURALISM SUMMARIZED (1) 1. Society is divided into numerous groups with all making demands on government while none of the participants are able to dominate all decisionmaking. 2. Citizens do not directly participate in decision-making, but they are able to vote for leaders to make decisions through a process of bargaining, accommodation, and compromise. 3. Competition among leadership groups helps protect individuals’ interests. Countervailing centers of power – for example, competition among business leaders, labor leaders and government leaders – can check one another and keep each interest from abusing its power and oppressing the individual. Each of these individual “spheres of influence” allies themselves with other spheres that possess similar goals. See “Spheres Of Influence”. 4. Individuals may not participate directly in decision-making, but they can exert influence through active participation in organized groups, political parties and elections..
(13) PLURALISM SUMMARIZED (2) 5. Leadership groups are open; new groups can form and gain access to the political system. 6. Political influence in society is unequally distributed, but power is widely dispersed. Access to decision making is often determined by how much interest people have in a particular decision. Because leadership is fluid and mobile, power depends on one’s interest in public affairs, skills in leadership, information about issues, knowledge of democratic processes, and skill in organization and public relations. 7. Multiple leadership groups operate within society. Those who exercise power in one kind of decision do not necessarily exercise power in others. No single elite dominates decision making in all issues. 8. Public policy does not necessarily reflect majority preference, but is an equilibrium of interest interaction – competing interest group influences are more or less balanced, and the resulting policy is therefore a reasonable approximation of society’s preferences..
(14) ELITISM VERSUS PLURALISM (1) Comparing and contrasting elitism and pluralism allows us to observe how they differ: 1. Elitism asserts that the most important division in society is between elites and masses. 2. Elitism emphasizes the importance to leaders to maintain their position of power – Pluralism emphasizes this devotion to their group interests. 3. Elitism asserts that mass membership of organizations rarely exercises influence on elite leadership. That these organizations have no democratic processes and are controlled by leaders who operate for their own self-interest. Pluralists offer no evidence that the giant organizations represent the interests of their individual members..
(15) ELITISM VERSUS PLURALISM (2) 4. Elitism takes into account of all power holders – private and public. Pluralism focuses on governmental leaders and those who interact directly with them. 5. Elitism emphasizes shared characteristics of leaders on top of their interest in preserving the social diversity among leaders, differences in backgrounds, ideologies, and viewpoints. Pluralism also argues that decisions made by leaders are a product of their role perception, institutional constraints, interest group pressure, public opinion, etc. Elitism focuses on leadership consensus – Pluralism focuses on elite conflict..
(16) PROPAGANDA – CINEMOCRACY (2) “Hemp For Victory” is a classic example of Cinemocracy. This government propaganda film made during WWII touted the virtues of hemp. The film was aimed at farmers at a time when the military was facing a shortage of hemp. It shows how hemp is grown and processed into rope and other products. Why do you think hemp was later vilified?.
(17) SPHERES OF INFLUENCE Pluralism is best in describing how competing spheres of influence protect minority rights against majority factions. These majority factions may consist of individual powerful elite entities or groups of “spheres of influence”. Alliances will form among once competing spheres in order to “check” another sphere or individual elite base that acquires too much power. This constant “checking” as described in the “competing spheres of influence” diagram describes how this plays out in all systems. Individual spheres of influence are always on the alert for one of their peers assuming too much power..
(18) COMPETING SPHERES Competing Spheres of Influence essentially check each other within the political system. This is seen as essential for the protection of minority rights especially as it pertains to majority factions. Elites in our society are not defined according to race, gender, religion, etc. They are seen mainly as those who hold positions of power with society. Our Founding Fathers considered the protection of minority rights as those few individuals who retained control over society. These individuals were property holders, policy makers or those who possessed positions of power..
(19) TRANSITIONAL EFFECTS Competition among spheres of interest produces great returns for humanity. The constant strive for marketplace acceptance has resulted in America progressing from a predominantly agricultural society to an industrial, nuclear, and information based society. The United States is unique in that it excels in more than one particular capitalist endeavor. Innovation has led to advancements that have greatly influenced every aspect of society. Society has benefited from constant advancements in energy harvesting, computers, communication, water purification, medicine and all other areas not listed for the list would be enormous. Every significant discovery has in turn greatly influenced societal norms of behavior. Masses today view internet communications as a vital necessity. It is nearly impossible to operate in a complex society without easy access to the web. The majority of masses did not have this belief fifteen years ago. Only society determining that the internet allowed for greater efficiency was it adopted as a societal norm. Those not willing to adapt became obsolete..
(20) STABILIZATION Sudden instability is the greatest threat to humanity for it threatens to cause irreparable harm to the individual. One may never consider harming another person in a state of nature. Elimination of one’s sustenance throws the individual into a state of war, because their survival is now threatened. Nation-states consist of multiple spheres of interest in turn consisting of individual units consisting of people. As survival is the primary goal of man, so it is the ultimate pursuit of nation-states. The primary concern is that of stability. This philosophy has prevented a major war from taking place over the last sixty years. Instability is the primary cause of all conflict both within and between nation-states..
(21) SPHERES OF INFLUENCE Spheres consist of individuals who share a common set of interests and/or belief systems. Individual participants are the absolute micro-level of every sphere. Here are some examples of spheres: family, work, school, political parties, and religion. Different spheres of influence communicate with one another through the individual who is a member of those same spheres. Various societal interactions influence individual behavior..
(22) ELITE STAGES Elites are the true minority not only within the United States, but in all societies, regardless of location. The triangle illustration shows that the true minorities are elites in possession of large capacities of power. Maximum level of education acquired is used for our argument..
(23) PLURALISM – ALLIANCES Pluralism is best in describing how competing spheres of influence protect minority rights against majority factions. These majority factions may consist of individual powerful elite entities or groups of “spheres of influence”. Alliances will form among once competing spheres in order to “check” another sphere or individual elite base that acquires too much power. This constant “checking” as described in the “competing spheres of influence” diagram describes how this plays out in all systems. Individual spheres of influence are always on the alert for one of their peers assuming too much power. Certain situations may also call for certain spheres of influence to realize that they share a common agenda with one or more of their respective peers. Cooperation among spheres sharing a common agenda serves to hasten anticipated results.. Interdependent Spheres. Government. Business. Individual.
(24) POWER THEORY (1) To exert power one must first possess adequate reserves to draw upon. This is defined simply as “capacity of power”. Achieving higher positions is dependent on various factors that may include: education; wealth; profession; charisma and other talents either developed or engrained from birth. This “capacity of power” is not determined according to a single resource, ability or possession. It is instead a combination of different variables that serve to make up the individual. This is just like a battery consisting of energy resources drawn upon when it comes time to draw power in order to achieve a set objective. Just like a battery powering a flashlight so does one’s individual “capacity of power” serve to assist one in achieving a set goal or in this case influencing or affecting political behavior to maintain, expand or protect one’s standing in order to survive in society..
(25) POWER THEORY (2) Our example of “capacity of power” is applicable to individual capacity of power and all associations up to the nation state as all combined units consist of individuals pursuing their set of priorities or self-interest that is in turn based on survival. Drawing upon these reserves allows one to pursue agendas of self-interest. Power is the ultimate pursuit, as the ultimate goal of humanity is survival. Individual participants in pursuit of these goals join together in common pursuits under the umbrella of common interest. These resulting “spheres of interest” in turn join under broader umbrellas that also offer another distinct set of common goals that in turn competes with respective peers..
(26) POWER THEORY (3) Power equals resources (capacity of power) times compliance squared, divided by force. Every accounting of power theory is taken into consideration in the construction of this formula. We have explored the contention that the pursuit of self-interest encourages man to engage in political behavior. This serves as the foundation for rational choice theory, which in turn has led us to power theory. One may argue that the pursuit of power maintains the never ending cycle of political: conflict; compromise; alliances; and wars..
(27) POWER THEORY (4) Many have countered this argument with a direct assault on the statement that “there is no morality in politics”. These critics are both right and wrong. It is true that morality has no direct correlation with political science if the pursuit of self-interests and power resources maintains utmost priority. On the other hand they may be correct if one party sells their pursuit as a moral cause in order to achieve their agenda. For example, one may argue that good may come from conflict even if it leads to the destruction of a nation-state and the slaughtering of thousands or millions of people if the seed of democracy is planted and nurtured to maturity..
(28) POWER THEORY (1) To exert power one must first possess adequate reserves to draw upon. This is defined simply as “capacity of power”. Achieving higher positions is dependent on various factors that may include: education; wealth; profession; charisma and other talents either developed or engrained from birth. This “capacity of power” is not determined according to a single resource, ability or possession. It is instead a combination of different variables that serve to make up the individual. This is just like a battery consisting of energy resources drawn upon when it comes time to draw power in order to achieve a set objective. Just like a battery powering a flashlight so does one’s individual “capacity of power” serve to assist one in achieving a set goal or in this case influencing or affecting political behavior to maintain, expand or protect one’s standing in order to survive in society..
(29) POWER THEORY (2) Our example of “capacity of power” is applicable to individual capacity of power and all associations up to the nation state as all combined units consist of individuals pursuing their set of priorities or self-interest that is in turn based on survival. Drawing upon these reserves allows one to pursue agendas of self-interest. Power is the ultimate pursuit, as the ultimate goal of humanity is survival. Individual participants in pursuit of these goals join together in common pursuits under the umbrella of common interest. These resulting “spheres of interest” in turn join under broader umbrellas that also offer another distinct set of common goals that in turn competes with respective peers..
(30) POWER THEORY (3) Power equals resources (capacity of power) times compliance squared, divided by force. Every accounting of power theory is taken into consideration in the construction of this formula. We have explored the contention that the pursuit of self-interest encourages man to engage in political behavior. This serves as the foundation for rational choice theory, which in turn has led us to power theory. One may argue that the pursuit of power maintains the never ending cycle of political: conflict; compromise; alliances; and wars..
(31) POWER THEORY (4) Many have countered this argument with a direct assault on the statement that “there is no morality in politics”. These critics are both right and wrong. It is true that morality has no direct correlation with political science if the pursuit of self-interests and power resources maintains utmost priority. On the other hand they may be correct if one party sells their pursuit as a moral cause in order to achieve their agenda. For example, one may argue that good may come from conflict even if it leads to the destruction of a nation-state and the slaughtering of thousands or millions of people if the seed of democracy is planted and nurtured to maturity..
(32) TRANSPARENCY (1) America has grown from the days of a colony to major power, superpower, and hegemon, to its present empire status. American power is felt throughout the international community. Playing poker requires one to adopt what is commonly known as a “poker face”. Players will hide their true emotions, even faking their true intentions to catch other players off guard. Some have even taken to wearing sunglasses. The exact opposite tactic that the United States has adopted is “Transparency”. This involves disclosing all routes the nation-state will undertake with regards to all forms of public policy pertaining to its political, economic and military strategies..
(33) TRANSPARENCY (2) Alexander Hamilton initiated this policy as the chief financial philosopher of the United States even if he did not coin the term. Hamilton is regarded as the chief architect of our economic policy, which in turn was developed in order to win the confidence of domestic US business and financial elites as well as gaining the confidence of international business..
(34) TRANSPARENCY EXAMPLE (1) America possesses the most technologically advanced military hardware. This video demonstrates one of the first deployable force fields for light armored vehicles (LAVs). Welcome to the 21st Century..
(35) TRANSPARENCY EXAMPLE (2) America is not the only nation that utilizes Transparency. This video shows the Israeli Defense Force demonstrating a new type of gun that can shoot around corners. A brief interview with the inventor of this amazing weapon follows the demonstration..
(36) TRANSPARENCY EXAMPLE (3) Some forms of transparency are both political and military in nature. The military sponsored the development of the Massive Ordinance Aerial Burst (MOAB). It is commonly referred to as “The Mother Of All Bombs”. It is the largest conventional bomb in our arsenal. There is a psychological component to this bomb. A mushroom cloud forms following successful detonation. It looks somewhat like a nuclear device being detonated..
(37) TRANSPARENCY EXAMPLE (4) Javelin is a fire-and-forget missile with lock-on before launch and automatic self-guidance. The system takes a topattack flight profile against armored vehicles (attacking the top armor which is generally thinner) but can also take a direct-attack mode for use against buildings or fortifications. This missile also has the ability to engage helicopters. Javelin is supplied by Raytheon/Lockheed Martin's JAVELIN Joint Venture..
(38) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (A) THE IRONY OF DEMOCRACY Elitism in the United States is government by the few. Elites and the Masses in American Political Life. 1. Elites have power to decide who gets what, when, and how. 2. The lives of the masses are shaped by elite decisions. Democracy and the Survival of Democracy 1. Democracy is government by the people. 2. The survival of democracy is in the hands of elites. Evidence About Political Life Supporting Elite Theory 1. The Irony of Democracy explains American political life using elite theory. 2. American political history and contemporary political science provide evidence of life in a democracy shaped by elites..
(39) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (B) Italian political scientist Gaetano Mosca expressed the meaning of elitism. 1. In all societies there is a small ruling class and a more numerous ruled class. 2. French political scientist Roberto Michels stated the iron law of oligarchy. 3. American political scientist Harold Lasswell expressed that government is always by the few. 4. Elites are of society’s upper classes that control resources and societal institutions..
(40) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (C) A certain amount of upward mobility is basic for the stability of the elite system. 1. An open system discourages revolutionary behavior. 2. Upward mobility is a slow, continuous assimilation. 3. Upwardly mobile individuals are committed to the elite system and its values. There is a general consensus among elites about the basic values of the social system. 1. American political scientist David Truman wrote that elites have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo. 2. American political historian Richard Hofstadter writes that elites concur about the inviolability of private property, limited government, and individual freedom..
(41) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (D) Elitism and Public Policy. 1. Public policy reflects the interests and values of elites. 2. Incremental public policy reflects the conservative elites’ interest in preserving the status quo. Elite and Mass Behavior. 1. Elites sometimes initiate reform out of their publicregardingness. 2. Elites assert that the masses have an indirect influence over elite decision-making even if they vote in elections and evaluate political parties’ policy alternatives..
(42) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (E) Democracy means individual participation in the decisions that affect one’s life. The Values of Classical Democracy. 1. English political philosopher J. S. Mill expressed the idea of popular participation in the decisions that shape people’s lives. 2. There is the idea of government by majority rule with recognition of minority rights. 3. English political philosopher John Locke expressed the idea of individual dignity and the inalienability of life, liberty, and property. 4. There is the idea of commitment to equal opportunity for all people to develop their potential..
(43) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (F) Elitism in a Democracy. 1. The Founders feared that government by majority rule would threaten the freedom and property of minorities and individuals. 2. President Abraham Lincoln expressed the impracticality of mass government. 3. Representative democracy inevitably leads to elite government. 4. In Western democracies, elites have multiple institutional bases of power..
(44) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (G) Pluralism in a Democracy. 1. American society is democratic. 2. Democratic values can be preserved in a system of multiple, competing elites. 3. Public policy-making is achieved through bargaining and compromise. 4. Voters exercise meaningful choices in elections. 5. New elites can gain access to power. Pluralism in a Democracy 1. American society is democratic. 2. Democratic values can be preserved in a system of multiple, competing elites. 3. Public policy-making is achieved through bargaining and compromise. 4. Voters exercise meaningful choices in elections. 5. New elites can gain access to power..
(45) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (H) How Elitism and Pluralism Differ. 1. The most important political divisions in society are elites and masses or multiple, competitive groups. 2. The structure of power is hierarchical or polyarchal. 3. Interaction among leaders is consensus over values and goals or conflict and competition over values and goals. 4. Sources of leadership are common backgrounds and experiences or diversity in backgrounds and experiences. 5. Principle institutions of power are private organizations and government or government. 6. The principal direction of political influence is downward or upward. 7. Public policy reflects elite preferences or the balance of competing interest groups. 8. The principal protection for democratic values is elite commitments or competition among groups..
(46) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 1 (I) Elite and Mass Threats to Democracy. 1. Elite distemper is checked when elites realize that their behavior may endanger the system. 2. Mass unrest is checked when elites repress mass political movements to preserve democratic values. An Elitist Theory of Democracy. 1. It aids in understanding the realities of democratic politics. 2. It seeks to expose and analyze the way elites function in a democracy..
(47) ELITE CONSENSUS THE ELITE CONSENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES: 1. Liberty 2. Respect For Private Property 3. Limited Government NOTE: Elites argue over the “MEANS” and not the “ENDS” NOTE: Respect for private property does not necessarily mean safeguarding one’s home or personal possessions like a car. It really means providing adequate security to safeguard a person..
(48) THREATS TO A DEMOCRACY: ELITE REPRESSION (1) Elites primarily concern themselves with maintaining and/or enhancing their positions of power. This requires protecting the power system in which they dominate. Stability of the system is an issue of great concern. If the system is not stable then the mass class may no longer view elites as “legitimate. Mass activism inspires elite repression. Elites respond by limiting freedom and strengthening security, banning demonstrations, curtailing speech, etc. One can argue that sexual harassment laws may be a form of elite repression. Why is this so?.
(49) THREATS TO A DEMOCRACY: ELITE REPRESSION (2) The majority of the mass class may actually favor elite repression to some degree, especially during times of national conflict (war). Shortly after Pearl Harbor, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt authorized the internment of Japanese Americans living on the West Coast, which the Supreme Court upheld. Watch this video presentation detailing the internment of JapaneseAmericans. Could it happen to another group of citizens again?.
(50) POLITICAL MESSAGES -MASS PRODUCEDTechnology allows the common individual to cheaply create and distribute propaganda worldwide. Cartoons have a tendency to make light such terrible subjects that include warfare. “Little Saddam & Bush” and “Saddam On The Run” were produced and distributed prior to Persian Gulf War II. The intent was to increase mass support for a US led invasion of Iraq. Do these cartoons influence your personal opinion one way or the other? Would they have impact over political leaders? Why or why not?.
(51) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 2 (A) THE FOUNDING FATHERS: THE NATION’S FIRST ELITE The Founding Fathers were a truly exceptional elite. 1. The Founding Fathers were wealthy, educated, talented, and resourceful. 2. The Founding Fathers established a survivable and stable federal government. 3. The Founding Fathers established a constitutional government not based on heredity..
(52) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 2 (B) A tiny elite dominated the life of the new nation. There were five classes in the stratified structure of the new nation. 1. The elites were merchants, planters, lawyers, and bankers. 2. A small middle class was composed of successful farmers, shopkeepers, and independent artisans. 3. The great mass of White Americans was small farmers and workers in fishing, lumbering, and commerce. 4. The bottom of the white social structure consisted of indentured servants and tenant farmers. 5. Black slaves were an important component of the American economy considered property in the new democratic nation..
(53) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 2 (C) The Founding Fathers’ preferences for constitution forming were government, the economy, and nationalism. 1. The fundamental role of a republican form of government was to protect liberty and property and to suppress threats against dominant economic elites. 2. The strong central government was to open western land to speculation, protect shipping and manufacturing, and ensure the return of runaway slaves. 3. The politically and economically strong central government was to play a respectable role in the international community and exercise power in world affairs..
(54) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY: CHAPTER 2 (D) The formative elements of a national elite were evident at the Annapolis Convention and the Constitutional Convention. 1. The military, economic, and political prestige of George Washington qualified him to preside over the Constitutional Convention. 2. The Founding Fathers has extensive governing experience, having made all the major decisions, conducted the Revolutionary War, and held office in the Congress and state governments. 3. The Founding Fathers had attained high educational achievements and were legally trained political decision-makers. 4. The Founding Fathers formed a major part of the nation’s wealthy business and financial leadership. 5. The Founding Fathers viewed political, economic, and military issues from a nationalist perspective, looking beyond their state loyalties..
(55) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY CHAPTER 2 (E) There was an elite consensus on fundamental political questions about the new federal system of government. 1. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention agreed that the fundamental end of government is the protection of liberty and property. 2. The delegates believed that there was a contractual relationship between the people and their government, and that the ultimate legitimacy of government is popular sovereignty. 3. The delegates believed that a republican government was a representative, responsible, and nonhereditary government. 4. The delegates believed that limiting government by dividing government power among separate branches capable of checking each other was the greatest assurance against tyranny. 5. Most importantly, the delegates believed that only a strong national government could exercise its will directly on the people..
(56) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY CHAPTER 2 (E) There was elite conciliation and compromise on state representation in the federal government, slavery, export taxation, and voter qualification. 1. The Connecticut compromise was that representation in the House of Representatives would be based on population and representation in the United States Senate would be equal with two senators from each state. 2. The compromises on slavery were that three-fifths of the slaves of each state would be counted for the purpose of representation and taxation, and that the slave trade would not end before 1808. 3. The compromise on tariffs was that exported articles should not be taxed and only the national government could tax imported articles. 4. The delegates agreed that there would be state, not national, qualifications on voting according to property holdings..
(57) IRONY OF DEMOCRACY CHAPTER 2 (F) The Constitution was an elitist document. 1. Elites enjoyed constitutional benefits from congressional levy of taxes, regulation of commerce, protection of money and property, creation of the military, protection against revolution, protection of slavery, limitation of states in monetary and business affairs. 2. The elite’s support for a strong national government was realized by constitutional arrangements such as national supremacy, republicanism, separation of powers and checks and balances, and judicial review. 3. Elites skillfully used an extraordinary procedure, limited participation, and a Bill of Rights to achieve constitutional ratification..
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