Dissertation on parametric forms

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The advent of the industrial revolution, mass production and large-scale manufacturing industries during the last two centuries has had a revolutionary effect on architecture. The fathers of modern architecture, such as Le Corbusier, Mies van der rohe and Walter Gropius were inspired by the automobile factories and methods of the era; this gave birth to the computer as a design tool.

Parametric design is a method of intelligently designing architectural objects based on relationships and rules using the computer. These are defined in parametric software and are easily manipulated to quickly generate multiple iterations of the design in 3d. The use of this tool has allowed for more complex free form, shapes as well as multiple reactive yet repeating elements to be created.

Parametric design has been pioneered by architects such as Frank o. Gehry who begun to exploit digital technology originally developed for the automotive and airplane industry for architecture. Offering new ways of controlling form, parametric design allows architecture to react to its context, the environment and rules and regulations, enabling a completely digital workflow from design to manufacturing.

With the use of parametric software, architects are able to study relationships and incorporate basic aspects of the actual construction including material, manufacturing technologies and structural properties into the design process. It has allowed for architectural design to become an iterative, generative and reactive process rather than one of evolution; some argue that this is closer to nature, as d’Arcy Wentworth

Thompson book on growth and form he argues, "an organism is so complex a thing, and growth so complex

a phenomenon, that for growth to be so uniform and constant in all the parts as to keep the whole shape unchanged would indeed be an unlikely and an unusual circumstance. Rates vary, proportions change, and the whole configuration alters accordingly."

Such tools transform complex issues into rational, simple decisions. But this trend toward complexity leads to new design problems requires a deeper understanding of geometry, mathematics and computer software; the architect mustn't forget that he must be a master of and control the tool, rather than the other way around.

PARAMETRICS IN ARCHITECTURE:

Loosely defined, parametric in architecture (parametricism) implies the design of buildings not as static objects, but in terms of a series of relationships, controlled by a set of inputs, or parameters. By

programming a certain amount of intelligence into the way geometry is generated in the computer, the designer shifts his role from the design of a single object to the design of a system in which many solutions are possible and which is controlled by a defined set of values. This holds many practical benefits for architecture, as an entire design can be regenerated automatically if any design parameter is changed. The wide-scale adoption of this technique has also had a range of effects on the theory of architecture and a reconceptualization in how many architects view the design of buildings and the practice of architecture.

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1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

AIM

Are complex buildings made through parametric design practically possible?

OBJECTIVE

 To understand parameters and parametric approach to design.

 To find techniques and material to which the conceptual form will executed in reality.

 To investigate parametric techniques helpful to increase the performance of the building.

 To find the whether or not parametric design has a role in future architecture.

 How parametric design have been used in exterior and interior facades.

1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

SCOPE

This dissertation contains projects relating to current and future possibilities of the digital architectural visualization process. Parametric design helps to create complex free form buildings.

 Case studies conduct on building based on parametric designs

Shanghai Tower

Shanghai Tower, China’s tallest building and the world’s No. 2 in height at 125 stories, held a topping-out ceremony today, more than four years after the start of construction in 2008.

Riverside museum

The Riverside Museum building was designed by Zaha Hadid Architects and engineers Buro Happold..The internal exhibitions and displays were designed by Event Communications. Replacing facilities at the city's Kelvin Hall, the new purpose-built museum is the first to be opened in the city since the St Mungo Museum of Religious Life and Art in 1993 and is expected to attract up to 1 million visitors a year.

LIMITATION

 As this dissertation is based on emerging field, case studies will be virtual due to absence of projects in the country.

 This dissertation will focus on parametric elements not its programming.

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1.4 METHODOLOGY

The following steps will be followed in the study of parametric design: UNDERSTANDING THE NEED FOR SMATER

DESIGNING TOOL

UNDERSTANDING PARAMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENTS

IMPLEMENTATION OF PARAMETRIC DESIGNS

CONDUCT CASE STUDIES

METHODOLIGIES OF PARAMERTIC DESIGN

UNDERSTATNDING IT’S CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

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INTRODUCTION

Architecture is not limited to gothic churches and ornate baroque constructions. Parametric design illustrates how the 20th century was not a rest period for architecture. Since the inception of design software on

computer systems in the 1940′s, great revolutions in design have taken place. Even today innovations in the evolving field of architecture are using parametric design.

Figure 1: Parametric design

The most important feature of parametric design, as you can tell from its name, is to do with its application of parameters. The seminal conception of parametric design actually has nothing at all to do with parametric processes. Internationally the industrial boom was affecting the architectural scene, modules were the vogue. However modules were ineffective, they didn’t make the most of the space that they had, they were not very adaptable, monotonous and were considered a fast, budget conscious way of housing people. In response to this a more fluid form evolved that deviated from the square rigidity of modular design. Antoni Gaudi may be an early precursor to this innovation as he moved architecture towards organic forms, even considering how natural light would enter the building. However Gaudi did not create parametric buildings, only after the introduction of computer aided design (cad) would such design be possible.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 5 Cad programs made it possible to design without draftsmen, and drafts were infinitely adaptable. Computers allowed designers to calculate areas and spaces in a way that would be otherwise impossible to calculate. Buildings no longer needed to be boxes; they could be created to fit spaces, to respond to the local

environment and to natural elements. In collaboration with computer numerical control machines (CNCS), which custom cuts unique pieces for construction one by one, architecture was and has been revolutionised

Cutting with the CNC makes economical use of available resources and reduces the amount of waste created. The CNC cutter is precise and ranges from small iron car parts to huge curved wooden ceiling beams. Architects typically use the Rhinoceros design program, along with the Grasshopper plug-in to design for the CNC. This software is designed to calculate intelligently how an architectural construction might be built whilst retaining maximum efficiency. Parameters that are determined by the architect or designer ultimately determine the possible forms of the end design

The first bureau to implement this system did so without all of this knowledge, they were Frank O. Gehry & Partners. After winning the Guggenheim Museum commission in Bilbao with their curvy model, they started looking for ways of making the design a reality. Realising that existing architectural design programs would not suffice, they turned to software (CATIA) intended for the airplane and automotive industry. This

unusual methodology was an unprecedented success; the building was finished before the settled deadline and with less money spent than expected.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 6 This represents the beginning of an era; however it was not without problems. Frank O’Gehry’s designs required heavy duty structures in order to sustain their grand facades. Later this trend would evolve and the structure and façade began to share roles, the structure even doubling as the building’s façade. Today, architects are challenged to innovate ways of making the best use of space and location. Better control of the interior climate of the space is preferable, less air-conditioning equipment will be needed and less energy will be consumed.

Parametric design can be used for making sure that the space within a building is being used at its maximum capacity. The new category of buildings that have their structure working as the facade include Jacques Herzog, de Meuron and Li Xing gang’s The Bird’s Nest.

The purpose of building using parametric design is to warrant sustainability. The better it is designed for use, the longer it ought to be inhabited and preserved. Similarly, buildings consume energy and create

pollution during their life cycle as well as during their construction. If this is reduced and is manageable then it will be more valuable to the people who inhabit and use it.

The Introduction of computer-aided design and manufacturing tools, together with computational design approaches such as parametric design, associative geometry, algorithmic procedures and scripting, imposed not only a change from analog to the digital medium, but also a change in the definition of the architectural design process.

Importance of Technology

“New technologies not only provide greater speed, size and reliability at lower cost, but more importantly these dictate the kinds of structures that can be considered and thus come to shape our whole view of what a computer is.”

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2.1 COMPUTING IN ARCHITECTURE

Today’s Computer assisted design (CAD) systems automate traditional ways of working with tracing paper and pencil. As hardware becomes faster and memory less expensive, more sophisticated fundamental software technologies will be adopted. This shift in the basis of CAD will provide powerful capabilities and offer new ways to think about designing.

Fifteen or twenty years ago, when Computer assisted design (CAD) vendors set out to make computers useful for basis drafting tasks. Simple CAD was a means to draft architectural plans more rapidly, and so concentrated on two dimensional and on the graphical aspects of plan production i.e. line thickness / weight; hatching patterns ; correct symbols for electrical / mechanical features, etc. Where some lines represented walls and others represented windows, doors, stairs, space boundaries, etc.

With the use of computers and computational design tools the architectural design practice have gone beyond drafting and visualising, defining a departure from the conventional architectural design and representation processes. Designers have introduced new design strategies that would respond to these emerging changes and open up new grounds for the exploration of transformations. Hence, the architectural design and representation processes have been redefined in order to take full advantage of the potentials offered through computational design strategies and tools, where the aim was to define the conceptual and perceptual paradigm shifts subsequent to these changes.

2.2 CURRENT SCENARIO- CONVENTIONAL DESIGN

There is always a continues tension in every project between design exploration and process efficiency. The design phase is virtually endless. The designer can stop designing when he feels that the time invested in the process is not equal to the value added to the artifact. In the meantime, with tight working schedules and tense project delivery dates, not all design exploration are thoroughly studied, assessed and evaluated, and thus better performing designs are likely left undiscovered.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 8 A recently conducted study by Gane and Haymaker (2007), made a benchmarking survey of existing

conceptual high-rise design practice to determine the performance of leading design teams. It was found that a multidisciplinary team averaging 12 people can normally produce only 3 design options during a design process that lasts 5 weeks. It was also found that most of this time is spent by architects on generating and presenting a small number of design options. Little time is dedicated to establishing and understanding project goals and running multidisciplinary analysis. These analyses are inconsistent and primarily governed by architectural rather than multidisciplinary criteria.

From this discussion, we can point out a real need for an approach to design that can explore the

undiscovered solutions. In order to understand the potential change in the organization and composition of the design process, we need to develop an in-depth understanding of the meaning of parametric design, parametric thinking and the terms associated with their use in contemporary architecture.

The current market economy requires project teams to design quickly, efficiently and cheaply; however, research shows that successful design is largely a function of clear definition of end-user requirements and the generation of multidisciplinary analyses of a large quantity of options. (Karle, 2011).

2.3 NEED FOR SMARTER DRAFTING TOOLS

Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of computer-aided drawing systems (CAD). Computer-aided design is the use of computer software to create drawings. Today the vast majority of technical drawings of all kinds are made using CAD. Instead of drawing lines on paper, the computer records equivalent information electronically. There are many advantages to this system: repetition is reduced because complex elements can be copied, duplicated and stored for re-use. Errors can be deleted, and the speed of draughting allows many permutations to be tried before the design is finalised. On the other hand, CAD drawing encourages a proliferation of detail and increased expectations of accuracy, aspects which reduce the efficiency originally expected from the move to computerisation.

There are two types of computer-aided design systems used for the production of technical drawings" two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D").

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 9 2D CAD systems such as AutoCAD or Micro Station replace the paper drawing discipline. The lines,

circles, arcs and curves are created within the software. It is down to the technical drawing skill of the user to produce the drawing. There is still much scope for error in the drawing when producing first and third angle orthographic projections, auxiliary projections and cross sections. A 2D CAD system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its greatest strength over direct to paper technical drawing is in the making of revisions. Whereas in a conventional hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a modification the is required, a new drawing must be made from scratch. The 2D CAD system allows a copy of the original to be modified, saving considerable time.

3D CAD systems such as Autodesk Inventor or Solid Works first produce the geometry of the part; the technical drawing comes from user defined views of the part. Any orthographic, projected and section views are created by the software. There is no scope for error in the production of these views. The main scope for error comes in setting the parameter of first or third angle projection, and displaying the relevant symbol on the technical drawing. 3D CAD allows individual parts to be assembled together to represent the final product.

Figure 3: 2d drawing and 3d drawing

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2.4 CONVENTIONAL VS PARAMETRIC DESIGN TOOL

 In traditional CAD modelling every single change in any portion of geometry needs to be edited or altered manually by a designer while in parametric modelling, geometry is capable to respond modifications and changes automatically. Consequently, geometry can be interactively adjusted depending on a set of predefined rules and relations.

 Furthermore, in conventional CAD modelling each instance of a building design such as window or wall needs to be designed individually, conversely as parametric modelling as demonstrates “a designer first defines an element class or family which defines mixture of fixed and parametric geometry, a set of relations and rules to control the parameters by which element instances can be generated and objects within an element family can be differ according to its contextual conditions.

 In addition to these main advantages, parametric design tools enables architects to approach generative forms. In other words, in parametric design, it is the elements of a particular design that are clarified, not its shape. Hence , different generative forms can be created by modifying some specific values to the parameters. We have abilities to experience all possibilities of the imaginations.

 Unlike traditional CAD software which are merely based on geometric objects that every single change needs to modify all appropriate components in order to fix the design, parametric design tools can make associations between geometrics and operations as well as link them together and with others via explicit or implicit stated relationships.

In conventional design tools it is “easy” to create an initial model-you just add parts, relating them to each other by coping, moving and pasting etc. Making changes to a model can be difficult. Even changing one dimension can require adjusting many other parts and all of this rework is manual. So all these limitations lead the designers to make a system which more flexible and help to explore innovative design.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 11 During the past decade, the practice of architecture has changed radically. The commercial availability of complex software and its hardware technologies has created a fast, accurate and globally transferable design, culture and community. Architects attempt to cope with the changes being brought to them by the virtual world.

Parameter in its definition in Science dictionary is “a quantity or number on which some other quantity or number depends”. So a parameter exists only in its relation with others. Parametric design as an approach to architecture relies on establishing relationships (parameter) between elements, in such a way that it will allow for changes to percolate through the different elements of the design and update dynamically

whenever modified. Using the computational concepts of evolutionary programming or fitness algorithms, the user sets up a set of rules and goals (variants) , and computer tests an unlimited number of scenarios until the ideal solution is found.

Parametric design is also called “associative geometry” controlled by parameters and constrains via

assembly of associative operations. Equations can be used to describe the relationships between objects, thus defining an associative geometry.

Nguyen, M., 2009 states that “the parametric design has variable and fixed features while variables are

known as parameters (which are geometrical relations and numbers) and fixed features are called constraints.

Consequently, modelling a form needs values to be assigned for parameters while mathematical equations are capable to define the relations between objects ( Stavric and Marina, 2011). When the architect alters the parameters to explore various alternative solutions for particular problem the model will respond to

modifications through automatically updating itself without deleting or modelling and elements.

Branko kolarevic defines the parametric design as a process where the designer deals with mathematical formulas and parametrical values, and breeds variations within family of entities. Equations are used to represent the mathematical and geometric relations between objects.

By expressing the relational network within and between objects, the designer acquires the capacity to regenerate, redefine and reconfigure relations. Since, in parametric design approach, parameters are related to each other through equations and relations, when one entity is modified in the defined model, other entities will automatically update themselves. Such an interactive simulation of the variation is possible via the transformation and modification of parameters.

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2.6 DESIGN EXPLORATION

Parametric design systems support in the generation of design and becoming a “source of inspiration” for designers it also considered as tools for variable design representations. These systems support creativity by enabling designers in generating, managing, and organizing highly complex design models, particularly when the “beauty” and “efficiency” of the model is also desired.

Figure 4: Dubai towers, Dubai

Figure 6: Lansdowne Road Stadium, Dublin

Figure 5: THESE FORMS CREATED IN THE EXAMPLES ARE NOT CONVENTIONAL AND TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS REQUIRE USING COMPLEX GEOMETRY

SOLVERS I.E. PARAMERTIC DESIGN TOOLS.

DUBAI TOWERS, DUBAI

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ELEMENTS OF PARAMETRIC DESIGN

Parametric design is the first step to understand that changes, variations and information are the world’s foundations and matter properties that will bring your mind to the doorstep of the boundless land of complexity.

- Andrea Graziano

Figure 7: Showing steps to execute a design

Learn

Learn skills and techniques from proven computational designers.

Create

Create your own algorithms, automate and optimize your design processes.

Execute

Know the best practices for executing your skills in real projects.

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3.1 TERMS AND DEFINITION

For better understanding of parametric design process it is necessary to define the following terms:

VARIABLES- Variables are the drivers of geometric variations. Two types of variables: independent and

dependent.

CONSTRAINTS- Constraints help delineate the range of variations that a parametric model can sustain.

Two types of constraints: dimensional and geometric.

Dimensional constraints are essential in defining the geometry of a design concept. For example one might define an arc by constraining its radius, and length. Such constraints establish a dependency of the geometric elements on the variable(s) that defines them.

The "independent variables" is a user defined

numeric inputs, whose value can actively be controlled and changed whereas the "dependent variable" is the output, whose value changes as a

result.

Figure 8: Relationship between independent and dependent variable

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 15 • Capital Height + Shaft Height + Base Height = Height of Ceiling (fixed)

NURBS - Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines, are mathematical representations of 3-D geometry that can

accurately describe any shape from a simple 2-D line, circle, arc, or curve to the most complex 3-D organic free-form surface or solid. Because of their flexibility and accuracy, NURBS models can be used in any process from illustration and animation to manufacturing.

Figure 11: Column basic constraint

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 16 NURBS geometry has five important qualities that make it an ideal choice for computer-aided modelling.

 Several industry-standard methods are used to exchange NURBS geometry. This means that customers are able to move their valuable geometric models between various modelling, rendering, animation, and engineering analysis programs. They can store geometric information in a way that will be usable for the foreseeable future.

 NURBS have a precise and well-known definition. The mathematics and computer science of NURBS geometry is taught in most major universities. This means that specialty software vendors, engineering teams, industrial design firms, and animation houses that need to create custom software applications, can find trained programmers who are able to work with NURBS geometry.

 NURBS can accurately represent both standard geometric objects like lines, circles, ellipses, spheres, and tori, and free-form geometry like car bodies and human bodies.

 The amount of information required for a NURBS representation of a piece of geometry is much smaller than the amount of information required by common faceted approximations.

 The NURBS evaluation rule, discussed below, can be implemented on a computer in a way that is both efficient and accurate.

TOPOLOGICAL SPACE- Architectural or curviliearity, NURBS make the heterogeneous and coherent

forms of the topological space which is computationally possible.

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ALGORITHMIC-Step by step procedure designed to perform an operation, and which (like a map or

flowchart) will lead to the sought result if followed correctly. Algorithms have a definite beginning and a definite end, and a finite number of steps. An algorithm produces the same output information given the same input information, and several short algorithms can be combined to perform complex tasks such as writing a computer program.

SCRIPT-A script language is a programming language that supports the writing of scripts, programs written

for a software environment that automate the execution of tasks which could alternatively be executed one-by-one by a human operator.

Figure 14: Voronoi the Algorithmic Design Floating Paradise by Hyun-Seok Kim

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GENERATIVE COMPONENET (GC)- Generative Components is parametric CAD software developed

by Bentley Systems which enables the designer to set up complex design models using any combination of geometric relations, algebraic expression, logical dependencies and scripting techniques to get the essential design intent. GC is an application for designers with no programming experience.

GRASSHOPPER-Grasshopper is a software in which graphical algorithmic can be edited tightly with

Rhino’s 3-D modelling tools. Unlike Rhino script, Grasshopper requires no knowledge of programming or scripting, but still allows designers to build form generators from the simple to the awe-inspiring.(Davidson, 2010)

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 19 Geometry plays a critical role in the generation of building form and structure. Geometry in the schematic design plays to explore design ideas. A geometric shape has own architectural and structural characteristics.

3.2.1 CONTROL ON GEOMETRY

By using the parametric approach we can regulate and control the complex geometry by defining the control points or through the mathematical programming to get desired form.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 20 Figure 18: Geometric control under parametric guideline

For generating given geometry we have to define two geometric controls.

First the dotted line along the circles are repeated, second the repeating pattern of circles. In the same way a particular pattern of geometry can be transformed on a given curved surface. This type of actions is not possible through the conventional design tools where the geometric element automatically transformed itself along the curved surface.

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PARAMETRIC STUDY:

Figure 19: Parametric Study for National Stadium, Beijing

NATIONAL STADIUM-“THE BIRD’S NEST” Ground Floor Area [footprint]:

780,122 ft2 The stadium is 330 meters (1,082 ft) long by 220 meters (721 ft) wide, and is 69.2 meters (227 ft) tall

Number of floors:

7 floors (Including 2 Elevated tiers)

Total Building area:

2,777,112 ft2 . Stadium uses 258,000 square meters (2,777,112 square feet) of space and has a usable area of 204,000 square meters (2,195,856 square feet).

Number of occupants:

91,000-100,000

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NATIONAL STADIUM-“THE BIRD’S NEST”

“THE BIRD’S NEST”- with its unique outer casting of tangled steel girders is one of the key landmarks of the games

National stadium:

Location : Olympic green, Beijing

Total land surface : 258,000 sq m Ground breaking : December 2003

Seating : 91,000 (including 11,000 temporary)

Designer : Herzog and De Meuron(Swiss) : China Architecture design : Institute, Arup Sport Initial budget : US$500 million

Main body composed of 24 columns of trusses, surrounding bowl-shaped stands. Events Competitions: opening and closing ceremonies

 Athletics

 Football _{Red lighting}

For night-time view

ETFE panels

(Ethylene Tretrafluorcethylene) 1. 40,000 sq meters provided by German firm co vertex.

2. Strength over wide temperature range.

3. High corrosion resistance.

Steel roof

330mX220m weighs 45,000 tones Interwoven series of

steel box sections

Special design tools were developed to-analyses complex geometry at speed -check strength of steel girders

against the Chinese Steel Code.

Acoustic membrane

On lower surface, reflects and absorbs sound to maintain the

atmosphere in stadium. Original design incorporated a

sliding roof, later eliminated for cost and safety concerns. Seven layers to the stadium

Concrete work of main stands completed first,

and then steel skeleton was welded together.

Outer surface

Inclines at 13 degrees to the vertical

Green features

1. Rainwater collecting system

2. Translucent roof for natural lighting

3. Natural ventilation system Olympic green Olympic forest park Olympic village National indoor stadium National Aquatics center National stadium Olympic green Tiananmen Square

Figure 21: National Stadium, Beijing

Source:http://beijingbirdsnest.wordpress.com/architecture/beijin g-national-stadium-facts/

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 23 The parametric geometry is represented by parametric functions, which describe a range of possibilities. The continuous, highly curvilinear surfaces are mathematically described as NURBS-Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines. Due to which parametric model enables high precision rapid-prototyping despite complex

geometries.

In architectural curvilinearity Frank Gehry offers examples of new approaches to design that move away from deconstructivism’s logic of conflict and contradiction to develop a more fluid logic of connectivity. This was achieved through folding of discrete volumes, and employs topological, metal-sheet geometry of continues curves and surfaces as shown in figure.

Figure 22: The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao

The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao was built between October 1993 and October 1997 and the site chosen, on a former wharf with port and industrial use on a curve of the Nervión, represented recovery of the banks of the river for the city, redeveloping them for culture and leisure.

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3.3 ALGORITHMS

Parametric systems are principally based on algorithmic principles. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the role of algorithms and algorithmic thinking in design. An algorithmic is a finite set of instructions that aim to fulfil a clearly defined purpose in a finite number of steps. An algorithmic takes one value or a set of values as input, executes a series of computational steps that transform the input, and finally produces one value or a set of values as output.

On the algorithmic level the focus is on the development of computational design logic that is a sequence of algebraic, analytical, and geometric operations for the manipulation of data and its translation into

architectural properties. One of the first built examples based on an algorithmic design approach was the pavilion for the Serpentine Gallery by Toyo Ito and Cecil Balmondin 2002. The use of an interactive

subdivision of adjacent sides resulted in a dense field of lines that defined the location of structural members as well as the distribution of openings for the enclosed cubic space.(kotnic,2007).

Due to the mathematical complexity of Gehry's design, he decided to work with advanced software initially conceived for the aerospace industry, CATIA, to faithfully translate his concept to the structure and to help construction. For the outer skin of the building, the architect chose titanium after ruling out other materials and seeing the behaviour of a titanium sample pinned outside his office. The finish of the approximately 33,000 extremely thin titanium sheets provides a rough and organic effect, adding to the

material's color changes depending on the weather and light conditions. The other two materials used in the building, limestone and glass, harmonize perfectly, achieving an architectural design with a great visual impact that has now become a real icon of the city throughout the world. Figure 23: Showing thin titanium sheets in Guggenheim Museum construction

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Figure 24: The diagrammatic representation of the associative geometric elements

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3.3.1 ALGORITHMIC PROCEDURES AND SCRIPTING

An algorithm, defined as computational procedures to work off complex situations and problems, identifies a problem in a finite number of steps. The algorithmic description of the geometry and the procedures is enabled through a network of mathematical models and generative procedures where a set of parametric variables and regulations are defined.

Through coding the relations and regulations, s/he can define his/her own procedure and write the script of the design process. Scripting, defined as writing simple computer programs, make possible to control and automate operations through a series of codes and instructions.

Through modifying the internal structure, that is, the script, the whole process can be manipulated and a set of possibilities defined. As a consequence, every new execution of the algorithmic may rise to the evolution of design solutions tracked by new outcomes. On the other hand, scripted algorithm does not only define numerous outcomes subsequent to the changes, but also assist their selection or elimination according to the constraints integrated into the script. This makes possible to define a set of potential solutions through controlling the script rather than making a selection according to formal criteria

.

3.3.2 EXPLORATION OF PARAMETRIC DESIGN THROUGH ALGORITHMS

The design of the national swimming centre in Beijing by PTW Architects (Peddle Thorp and Walker) is another example of design development based on algorithmic construction of the underlying geometric structure. The formal description of the space filling was defined by behaviour of foam bubbles and its abstraction as Wearie-Phelan geometry enabled the use of complex polyhedral cells as a construction system, a rational and efficient solution that appears to be random.(Xia,2008)

Figure26: The National Swimming Center in Beijing by PTW architects, bubble pattern Source: http://www.eikongraphia.com/?p=63

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 27 Figure 27: Parametric model of National Swimming Center

Source: http://aecmag.com/case-studies-mainmenu-37/251-creating-a-er-cubem

Geometry of the British museum great court roof

In some cases the criteria in form-finding may not be purely technical. The British museum roof provides a dramatic example. Its configuration was determined by a relaxation algorithm, in which the goal criterion was visually continuity, not structure. Structural strength was gained partly by sectional properties and foe the same of the corner members are nearly made of solid steel.

Techniques such as non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) surfaces have been used to define the roof surface. The geometric pattern generated by using the mathematical algorithmic, shown below.

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3.4 PARAMETRIC SOFTWARE

Parametric and generative modelling have become increasingly popular in the world of architectural design. This has caused many software developers to release applications that support this kind of modelling. One of the most popular of these Bentley’s Generative Components, which based on their Micro station CAD software. While being a very powerful tool, GC also has a number of disadvantages. It is a very complex piece of software that requires extensive training to master. It is also expensive, which may put it out of reach of individuals, schools, and smaller architectural practices. There are alternatives to GC though, such as Rhino, which has a much lower price tag. It does not however address the issues of complexity and the steep learning curve that are associated with GC.GC has a number of built-in components that are used to create geometry, and while they may be hard to find and use without training, they enable models to be built without needing to write any code (although custom components can be written by the user). To do

parametric modelling in Rhino however, the user must write scripts (using Visual Basic, C++, or Rhino Script) to generate the geometry.

3.4.1 GENERATIVE COMPONENTS

The smarter Geometry group uses “Generative Components” which was invented by Robert Aish at Bentley Systems consists of founding partners of ,KPF , Forster and Partners, and Arup Sport.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 29 line , face) by giving its specific definition, thus a collection of defined objects provide the ability to control the entity of design through controlling objects.

Features



Generative Component (GC) enables the designer to set up complex design models using any combination of geometric relations, algebraic expressions, and logical dependencies and scripting techniques to capture the essential – design intent.



GC also can facilitate feedback loops between parametric associative modelling and environment analysis.



GC is both an application for designers with no programming experience, who want to design by establishing associatively between geometric elements, and for designers who are actively interested in exploring the overlap between conventional design and programming design (using scripting techniques). (Kudless,2007)



Designers can be refined by either dynamically modelling or directly manipulating geometry, by applying rules and capturing relationships among building elements, or by defining complex building forms and systems through concisely expressed algorithms.



GC is integrated with Building Information Modeling (BIM) analysis, and simulation software, providing feedback on building materials, assemblies, systems performance, and environmental conditions.

3.4.2 RHINO’S GRASSHOPPER

There are two main types of object in grasshopper: Parameters and Components. Parameters are used to input Variables and feed them into Components that transform them and output the result, which may be geometry or simply data that can be input into further Components. This visual system allows highly complex systems to be created in a flexible and non-linear way, and enables relationships between different operations to be easily laid bare. The components can be arranged on the canvas in whatever way the user wishes, so they can effectively create a map of the logic of their design. It must be said that GC does make an effort to lay out the model‘s operations in a similar way, but it d o e s s o i n a c u m b e r s o m e w a y t h a t o n l y t e l l s the designer in general terms which operations rely on others, and does not allow for direct editing of the parameters of these operations.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 30 Grasshopper was initially very simple, but more features have been added over time, which allow for very complete systems to be modelled, and like GC, it allows users to create custom components using C# or Visual Basic in order to extend

Grasshopper‘s capabilities to suit their own individual needs. Furthermore, Grasshopper is still in

development, which means features are being added or refined on a regular basis, based on user feedback. As around 90% of registered Grasshopper users are architects, one could say that makes them the driving force for new features and improvements, so shaping Grasshopper to the needs of architectural design first and foremost.

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Features

 An advantage of grasshopper is that users with little programming experience can manipulate graphic nodes to define relationships for each element to generate parametric model.

 Each graphic node in grasshopper is similar to a modeling element which enables users to learn the logic of modeling process to build parametric models.

 Because it has a flat learning curve and it is until now still freeware, many rhino users begin to learn it rather than using other parametric modeling software’s.

 Grasshopper lets users manipulate graphic nodes, and allow users to script in VB. Net, C# and python. This scripting portal is used by advanced users to develop free applications for non-programming users to manipulate new functions.

 Like other parametric software’s Grasshopper enables users to use spread sheets to read and export data to control elements.

 Because Grasshopper is working with Rhino, can be comparison to Genitive Components, which generates small text file as definition of the models, unlike digital project models that turn into large 3d models after its final process.

 The weakness of Grasshopper is that it is difficult to assemble many parametric elements.

Grasshopper is powerful to generate parametric architectural forms, detail design models, material strategy analyze and to analyze models, but it is very difficult to assemble all predefined elements foe entire building design.

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Parametric Methods

• When we define the object in a general sense, using variable attributes (parameters) we allow for a large (possibly infinite) number of specific design instances.

• When we use parameters to define a large number of instances, and then select the best one, we are performing parametric design.

• When the values of parameters are real numbers, we call this parametric variation. • Parameters can also have entities besides real numbers as values. For examples:

A list of available materials (material) Number of wings (integer)

A list of available circuits (component)

• Hernandez talks about parametric combinations and parametric hybrid models, depending on what type of entities the parameters are.

• We will use the term parametric models in a more general sense, and admit parameters with different types of entities.

Developing Parametric Models

Figure 32: Parametric model of Rectangle

• Start with a rectangle

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Parametric Model – Case I

• Parameter = Width

• Height = 2 (we say it is constrained)

• We have defined a family with 1 parameter • Parameter = Width

• Height = 2 (we say it is constrained)

• We have defined a family with 1 parameter

• We have defined an infinite number of design instances

Figure 33: Parametric model of Rectangle consider width as a parameter rhino/

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Parametric Model – Case II

• Parameter = Height • Width = 3 (constrained)

• We have defined a family with 1 parameter.

• We have defined an infinite number of design instances.

Parametric Model – Case III

• x- and y-coordinates of 3 nodes are parameters

• Instances are not constrained to rectangles

Figure 35: Transformation in Parametric model of Rectangle consider height as a parameter

Figure 36: Transformation in Parametric model of Rectangle consider coordinates as a parameter

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 Project Architect: Zaha Hadid Architects

 Project: Riverside Museum

 Location: Glasgow, Scotland

 Client: Glasgow City Council

 Design: Zaha Hadid Architects

 Project Director: Jim Heverin

 Program: Exhibition space, cafe, retail, education

Size/Area  Total Area: 11 000 m2  Exhibition Area: 7000 m2  Site Area: 22,400 m2  Footprint Area: 7,800 m2 Materials  Steel Frame

 Corrugated Metal Decking  Zinc Cladding

 Glass-reinforced gypsum interior surface Figure 37: Riverside Museum by Zaha Hadid Architects, Glasgow, UK

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Location plan

Located where the Kelvin joins the Clyde, the museum’s design flows from the city to the river; symbolizing a dynamic relationship where the museum is the voice of both, connecting the city to the river and also the transition from one to the other.

Concept and design

The Riverside Museum is derived from its context. The historic development of the Clyde and the city of Glasgow is a unique legacy. Located where the Kelvin joins the Clyde, the museum’s design flows from the city to the river; symbolizing a dynamic relationship where the museum is the voice of both, connecting the city to the river and also the transition from one to the other. The museum is situated in very context of its origins, with its design actively encouraging connectivity between the exhibits and the wider environment.

Riverside museum in Glasgow, Scotland River Clyde River Kelvin River Clyde River kelvin

Scottish Exhibition and Conference centre Royal hospital for

sick children

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 37 from its external context into the world of the exhibits. Here, the internal path within the museum becomes a mediator between city and river, which can either be hermetic or porous depending on the exhibition layout. Thus, the museum positions itself symbolically and functionally as open and fluid, engaging its context and content to ensure it is profoundly interlinked with not only Glasgow’s history, but also its future. Visitors build up a gradual sense of the external context as they move through the museum from exhibit to exhibit.

The design is a sectional extrusion, open at opposing ends along a diverted linear path. This cross-sectional outline could be seen as a cityscape and is a responsive gesture to encapsulate (enclose something in) waves on water. The outer waves or ‘pleats’ are enclosed to accommodate support services. This leaves the main central space column-free and open, offering greatest flexibility to exhibit the museum’s world-class collection.

Open at opposite ends

Tunnel like configuration

River City

 Zigzagging profile in section

 Column-free spans

 Some savvy structural

manoeuvres beneath its sleek skin of zinc.

Sectional extrusion

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Construction

The building’s form is akin to folding a piece of paper into pleats and then bending it twice – 120 degrees in opposite directions – along its length. Such manoeuvres (a movement or series of moves requiring skill and care) are easily accomplished with paper, but real-life constraints, including supporting the weight of building materials and resisting wind loads, call for careful calculations.

Buro Happed articulated the roof structure to function as a single unit that spans lengthwise like a rigid beam rather than crossways between side walls, explains Wolf Mangelsdorf, head of structural engineering. “We are accustomed to dissecting a structure into individual elements that perform different functions – a column, beam, secondary beam, or floor plate,” he points out, “but in this case, they all function together and you can’t take one piece away.”

Consider the roof structure to function as a single unit that spans lengthwise like a rigid beam rather than crossways between side walls which leaves the main central space column free.

Columns

Beams

Column free-space

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 39 External building envelope

covered with zinc cladding

Glass-fibre reinforced gypsum fillet

Internal plasterboard lining on supporting structure

Horizontal, continues fire break in wall cavity

Air plenum in wall cavity

Acoustical lining 175mm polished concrete layer

Structural slab

Glass-fibre reinforced gypsum service strip to conceal services

700mm structural zone Ceiling lining on contractor-designed

substructure

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 40 These integral pieces include a series of latticed trusses made of structural steel. Steel tubes form ridges and valleys that ultimately span a length of over 100 m (328'), including those two twists-and-turns. While typical A-frames rely on horizontal members to complete the "triangle" and provide stiffness.

 Achieving a Column Free Vision: The steelwork solution utilises the folded plate geometry of the roof, translating from the façade, the side walls and the structurally stiff zones where the roof changes direction if possible to minimize the depth of the structure which is hidden within the building shell to 700mm.

 Integrated services: Substantial tunnels below the floor, up to 3.5m deep are the main routes for the building services including lighting, heating, IT cables and pipe work. Rainwater, brought in from the roof via a network of pipes is also transmitted through these conduits.

 Functional façade: Providing a low level of air leakage and substantial insulation to reduce the extremes of

temperature and thus reducing the demand for heating and cooling. The north and south glass facades are also multi-purpose.

“Creating the spectacular roof was an achievement in itself but many other, hidden aspects of this museum required exceptional engineering even although they will go un-noticed by most visitors.”

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 41 Another major load consideration was the force of the wind, which can gust in at over 100 mph from the Atlantic. The engineers conducted wind tunnel analyses on a physical model to accurately study how the wind pressure distribution would work and anticipate peak suctions and stresses at overhangs. They placed portal frames and cross bracing in the periphery of the building that provide lateral stability, located along the retail areas, cloak rooms, cafe area, and workshops.

With weight transferred effectively down through the side walls and with proper bracing in place, the end walls of the Riverside Museum could open, allowing natural light to permeate the building and creating a symbolic link between the River Clyde and the city of Glasgow. These glazed ends also expose the jagged section of the roof. However, opening the ends involved a little “structural trickery,” according to

Mangelsdorf. The mullions behind the glass are actually structural columns holding up the ends of the roof.

“When you look out the window, you don’t actually see that they’re quite chunky, because you see the short side,” explains Mangelsdorf.

One load consideration is the weight of the roof itself: the steel members weigh 2,500 metric tons (over 5.5 million pounds) and they are topped with

185 metric tons (over 400,000 pounds) of zinc cladding. The architect's design called for an open

interior to provide flexibility for ever-changing exhibitions, so internal columns were not an option. The engineers did place columns along the exterior walls to transfer the weight of the roof to the ground. These columns are spaced 6 m (19.7') on centre with a depth of 700 mm (just over 2') and were designed with stiff connections. As well,

the brackets on the columns support platforms that cantilever from the wall like shelves to create display space for the Riverside Museum’s collection

of cars.

Figure 43: brackets on the columns support platforms that cantilever from the wall like shelves to create display space for the Riverside Museum’s collection of cars

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Software used

The design team used three-dimensional software to work out the specifics of the structure required to support such a complex form. The architect defined the inner and outer envelope in CATIA, and Buro Happold used Rhino to visualize and analyze their structural design. They articulated the connections between members with Tekla, a program also used by the steelwork fabricator.

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Shanghai Rising

Shanghai Tower will anchor the city’s Lujizui district, which has emerged as one of East Asia’s leading financial centers.Designed by a local team of gensler architects to embody Shanghai’s rich culture, the

632-meter-high mixed-use building will complete the city’s super-highrise precinct.It is the most forward-looking of the three towers symbolizing Shanghai’s past,present and future.Its curvred façade and spiraling

form symbolize the dyanmic emergence of modern China.By incorporating sustainable best practice Shanghai Tower is at the forefront of a new generation of super-highrise towers,achieving the highest level

of performance.632 metres (2,073 ft), have 128 stories, and contain an area of 380,000 m2.It will be the tallest building in China and is slated to be the second tallest in the world.Tower features office space,

luxury residences, a high-end hotel, retail space, restaurants and a public observatory.

Project facts

SITE

Location : Lujiazui Finance and Trade zone,

Pudong district, Shanghai, China

Area : 30,370 square meters

TOWER

Height : 632 meters

Stories : 121 occupied floors

Area : 380,000 square meters above grade

141,000 square meters below grade Program : Office, luxury hotel, entertainment, retail,

and cultural venues

PODIUM

Height : 36.9 meters

Stories : 5 occupied floors

Area : 46,000 square meters

Program : luxury retail, bank, restaurant, conference, meeting, and banquet functions. Below grade levels will house retail, 1,800 parking spaces, and services.

DESIGNER ARCHITECT

Gensler

LOCAL DESIGN INSTITUTE

Architectural Design and Research Institute of Tongji University

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

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Location

Concept and design

Shanghai tower

Pearl River Rose garden Shanghai Pudong Mosque Oriental Riverside Hotel Huangpu River

Self – Contained city

Shanghai tower is a city within a city comprising nine vertical zones, each 12 to

15 stories high. Each zone is encircled by public space within the double – skin façade. Within each neighborhood, a mix

uses caters to the daily needs of occupants. Separate elevators shuttle people among zones and below – grade parking links via walkways to the nearly

super – high-rise parking links via walkways to the nearly super - high-rise

towers.

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Zone 9

Observation /cultural facilities

Zone 8 Hotel/boutique office Zone 7 Hotel Zone 6 Office Zone 5 Office Zone 4 Office Zone 3 Office Zone 2 Office Zone 1 Retail Observation level

The highest of the nine zones houses public amenities: restaurant, an exhibition center, and enclosed and open observation decks by the tallest single-lift elevator in the world

Offices

Zones 2 through 6 are comprised of high performance offices, all is which are filled with natural light and connect to the atriums with expansive views of the city.

Sky lobbies

Each office zone rises from a sky lobby at its base – a light-filled garden atrium that fosters community and supports daily life. Shops and restaurants in each lobby lower the demand for trips to the ground level which saves energy.

Retail podium

Zone 1 is the base level retail podium of luxury boutiques, high-end dinning destinations, cafes and lounges.

Ground – floor lobbies

Both the office tower and the hotel conference center functions will be accessed through separate, dedicated lobbies.

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Construction moves ahead as the technical

complexities of the tower’s structure, glass enclosure,and mechnacial

systems are skillfully managed.

 Soil conditions in Shanghai- a clay-based mixture typical of a river delta- meant supporting the tower on 831 reinforced concrete bore piles sunk deep into the ground.  61,000 cubic meters of concrete has been used to create

the six-meters-thick mat foundation.

 Erecting gigantic composite columns- measuring 5X4 meters at the base and reinforced with steel plates that weigh 145 meters tons each- that will provide structural support for the tower.

 To carry the load of transparent glass skin, Gensler designed an innovative curtain wall that that is suspended from the mechanical floors above and stabilized by a system of hoop rings and struts.

 And the strategic division of the tower into nine vertical zones will supply the lifeblood of the building’s heating, cooling, water, and power throughout with less energy and at lower cost.

HOOP RINGS MECHANICAL FLOOR STRUTS MAT FOUNDATION

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The spiralling form of the tower rotates as it rises, signifying the emergence of china as a global financial power.

“This tower is symbolic of a nation whose future is filled with limitless opportunities,” said Mr. Qingwei Kong, president of the Shanghai tower construction and Development co.,Ltd.,a.

Shanghai tower’s footprint was reduced to make more room for green spaces, pedestrian paths, and entryways to the tower, creating a public space for respite and social interaction.

Shanghai tower, at 632 meters, is a 121-story”vertical city “comprising office spaces as well as dining, shopping, hospitality, and entertainment destinations. The Chrysler Building is shown for scale.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 48 Gensler’s team used a series of wind tunnel tests to simulate the region’s greatest natural forces, the

typhoon. Results produced a structure and shape that reduce wind loads by 24 percent-ultimately yielding a saving of $58 million in construction costs. A simple structure, public spaces within the double facade , and sky gardens based on shanghai traditional open courtyards will make Shanghai tower an unrivalled asset for the Lujiazui district.

A 16 meter tall scale model of the tower passed ashake table test simulating earthquakes measuring up to 7.5 on Richter scale.

Planning concept

Shaped to reduce wind loads

Gensler’s design team anticipated that three important design strategies – the asymmetrical of the tower’s form, it’s tapering profile, and rounded corners – would allow the building to withstand typhoon wind forces common to Shanghai. Using wind tunnels tests, Gensler and structural engineer Thornton refined the tower’s form, ultimately reducing building wind loads by 24%. The result is a simpler and lighter structure with unprecedented transparency and a 32% reduction of costly materials.

Figure 46: Many options were studied, but wind tunnel tests pinpointed a 120-degree rotation as optimal for minimizing wind loads.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 49 regular intervals throughout the

buildings

Tuned-mass damper minimizes building movement.

The innovation design incorporates two independent curtain walls - the outer skin is cam – shaped in plan, the inner one is circular. The space between them

forms atriums that will house landscaped public gardens at regular intervals throughout the building. These sky gardens will improve air quality, creative visual connections between the city and the tower’s

and provides a place where building users can interact and mingle.

The landscaped sky lobbies will be social and retail hubs foe each neighbourhood within the building.

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 50 `

Concerns over light pollution had significant impact on the design of the outer curtain wall. Two

curtain-wall schemes – “staggered” and “smooth” – were studied extensively. The test revealed that a staggered skin made up of glass panels set vertically

was far superior to a smooth skin of angled glass, which would reflect much more light onto

neighbouring buildings.

The outer curtain – wall design incorporates metal shelves at each floor level, producing the preferred

staggered configuration.

Light reflectance off the curtain wall was modelled using Ecotech software, which showed that the “staggered” curtain wall design was much more

desirable.

Minimizing reflection and glare

A fast tracked super-high-rise tower

Figure 47: The outer skin gradually narrow at each floor level, giving the glass tower an elegant tapered profile

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Software used

The design team used three-dimensional software to work out the specifics of the structure required to support such a complex form. For Light reflectance off the curtain wall was modeled using Ecotech software. Software’s like 3ds MAX and Revit are used in this project.

The simplicity of Shanghai tower’s structure is a response to many challenges: a windy climate, an

active earthquake zone, and clay-based soil. The heart of the structural system is a concrete core. The

core acts in concert with an outrigger and super column system, with double – belt trusses that support the base of each vertical neighbourhood.

This series of drawings illustrates the layering of structure, composite floors, inner skin, and

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PARAMETRIC DESIGN: NEW FORMS THAT FUNCTION BETTER Page 52 This development in computational design tools, altered the conventional architecture design approach, and opened up new grounds for the generation and experimentation of design ideas.

Changes in architectural design processes have followed paradigm changes in mathematics and geometry, and the increasing use of computer as a generative device, altogether altering design processes in

architecture. The parametric computational tools blurred the boundaries between different phrases of the process of design.

Parametric design is a method of intelligently designing architectural objects based on relationships and rules using the computer. The use of this tool has allowed for more complex free form, shapes as well as multiple reactive yet repeating elements to be created. With the use of parametric software, architects are able to study relationships and incorporate basic aspects of the actual construction including material, manufacturing technologies and structural properties into the design process.

Parametric design does not reduce design complexity. Complexity is probably one of the central terms that describe the contemporary design problems in architecture. The increasing design complexity in architecture is not only due to external stimuli such as increasing building performance requirements, new building functions, design processes etc., but also due to new formal interest in free-form geometry and the underlying mathematical and geometric concepts.

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