Impact Assessments of Abandoned Improvised Mines (AIM)
& Anti-Vehicle Mines (AVM) in Afghanistan
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
4
INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT
6
ABANDONED IMPROVISED MINES – THE NEW KILLERS
6
ANTI-VEHICLE MINES – BLOCKING ACCESS TO LARGE TRACTS OF LAND
8
IMPACT ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
9
THE IMPACT OF ABANDONED IMPROVISED MINES (AIM) AND AIM CLEARANCE
10
1.
AIM CLEARANCE SAVES LIVES
11
2.
AIM CLEARANCE LINKED TO PEACE AND STABILITY
12
3.
A SAFE RETURN HOME
13
4.
IMPACTS ON LIVELIHOODS THROUGH AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK, RESOURCES AND MARKET ACCESS
14
5.
TRANSPORT, ACCESS TO SERVICES AND A NECESSITY FOR OTHER INITIATIVES
16
6.
IMPACTS OF AIM ON WOMEN AND CHILDREN
17
7.
ROAD DAMAGE, REMAINING MINES AND RECONTAMINATION: NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF AIM CLEARANCE
19
THE IMPACT OF ANTI-VEHICLE MINES (AVM) AND AVM CLEARANCE
21
1.
LIVELIHOODS AND ECONOMIC GAINS
21
2.
ACCESS TO ROADS, INFRASTRUCTURE AND SOCIAL SERVICES
23
3.
SOCIAL IMPACTS AND COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
26
4.
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES AND MIGRATION PATTERNS
27
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
28
CONCLUSIONS: THE IMPACTS OF AIM AND AVM
28
RECOMMENDATIONS: POTENTIAL FOR ACTION ON AIM AND AVM
29
R
ECOMMENDATION#1
–
E
XPANDAIM
OPERATIONS29
R
ECOMMENDATION#2
–
C
ONCERTED ACTION ONAVM
29
R
ECOMMENDATION#3
–
C
ONTINUE TO ADDRESS AND REDRESS UNINTENDED NEGATIVES29
R
ECOMMENDATION#4
–
B
OLSTER DATA,
STANDARDS,
AND RESEARCH29
R
ECOMMENDATION#5
–
A
CALL FOR ADVOCACY,
A CALL FOR ACTION30
R
ECOMMENDATION#6
–
F
ORGE MEANINGFUL PARTNERSHIPS TO MAXIMISE IMPACT30
BIBLIOGRAPHY
31
ANNEX 1 – IMPACT ASSESSMENT RESEARCH QUESTIONS
32
Acknowledgements: The Samuel Hall team gives thanks to the people and communities that participated in the research, all who have been affected by anti-vehicle mines or abandoned improvised mines. The research team is also grateful to the stakeholders who supported the impact assessment.
Front cover photo: Samuel Hall 2020 ©. A community cleared of Abandoned Improvised Mines (AIM) in Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan
TABLE OF FIGURES
Photos
Photo 1 A HALO Trust vehicle leading the way in Nangarhar Province for the AIM Impact Assessment ... 7
Photo 2 HALO Trust Photograph: Mechanical clearance of anti-vehicle mines, Gorbuz ... 8
Photo 3 A female focus group discussion on AVM and AVM clearance impacts in Herat Province ... 9
Photo 4 A house compound in Nangarhar which had abandoned improvised mines cleared nearby ... 12
Photo 5 A checkpoint near to the AIM fieldwork location in Nangarhar. Government presence was felt to increase after AIM clearance and provide greater feelings of peace and stability for some local community members. ... 12
Photo 6 Agricultural fields with paths running alongside in Nangarhar, in a village recently cleared of AIM ... 15
Photo 7 A man cleaning recently cultivated wheat in a Nangarhar village cleared of AIM ... 15
Photo 8 High value saffron cultivation on lands released from AVM in Sarai Naw, Herat ... 22
Photo 9 A panorama of construction in Talab-e-Ulia, Herat, where AVM lands were released by the HALO Trust ... 25
Photo 10 A Nangarhar community where the HALO Trust conducted AIM clearance ... 28
Maps Map 1 HALO Trust humanitarian AIM clearance and surveys have taken place in Helmand, Nangarhar and Kunar provinces ... 10
Map 2 Two children's drawing of their community before AIM clearance in Nangarhar from the Child Pair Interview ... 19
Map 3 Map showing Herat province where data collection took place ... 21
Map 4 HALO Trust spatial imagery of Jebrael and Sara Naw, Herat before AVM clearance ... 24
Map 5 HALO Trust spatial imagery of Jebrael and Sarai Naw, Herat after AVM clearance ... 24
Tables Table 1 AVM Impact Assessment Tools ... 9
Table 2 AIM Impact Assessment Tools ... 9
Figures Figure 1 AIM respondents who experienced improved physical security resulting from landmine/ERW clearance (n=60) ... 4
Figure 2 How safe did/do you feel about children playing and being involved in activities outside of the home before/after mine clearance? (n=60) ... 4
Figure 3 The economic cost of losing livestock to landmine incidents from lands previously contaminated by AVM ... 5
Figure 4 Afghanistan Landmine/ERW and Improvised Mine Civilian Casualties from 1995-2019. IMSMA Afghanistan. ... 11
Figure 5 AIM clearance and the impact on peace and coexistence (n=60) ... 13
Figure 6 AIM clearance and the impact on stability and rule of law (n=60) ... 13
Figure 7 AIM casualties from 2011 - 2020, by gender and age category ... 17
Figure 8 The historical economic cost of losing livestock to landmine explosions on lands previously contaminated by AVM ... 23
Figure 9 The types of development projects witnessed after AVM clearance (n=79) ... 25
Figure 10 Transportation options which increased after AVM clearance (% of all respondents, n=79) ... 26
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AIM Abandoned Improvised Mines
AP Anti-personnel (mine)
AVM Anti-vehicle mines (also known as anti-tank mines)
CHA Confirmed Hazardous Area
CLSSI Community leader semi-structure interview
DMAC Directorate of Mine Action Coordination (Afghanistan) EORE Explosive Ordnance Risk Education
ERW Explosive Remnants of War FGD Focus Group Discussion GFFO German Federal Foreign Office IMAS International Mine Action Standards
IMSMA Information Management System for Mine Action KII Key Informant Interview
MA Mine Action
MAPA Mine Action Programme of Afghanistan MFA [Netherlands / Dutch] Ministry of Foreign Affairs SHA Suspected Hazardous Area
SSI Semi-structured interview
UN United Nations
UNMAS United Nations Mine Action Service
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Abandoned Improvised Mines (AIM) and Anti-Vehicle Mines (AVM) in
Afghanistan: Assessing the impact of two pressing categories of landmines
As mine action stakeholders in Afghanistan continue to address one of the largest contaminations in the world, two types of landmines and their clearance hold wide-reaching impacts across the country. Abandoned Improvised Mines (AIM) have caused over half of all landmine/explosive remnants of war (ERW) civilian casualties in Afghanistan over the past half decade, killing thousands of men, women and children. Anti-Vehicle Mines, while not as deadly, themselves comprise over half of the remaining suspected and confirmed hazardous areas in Afghanistan - blocking vast areas of land. The HALO Trust are the major clearance organisation for both types of landmines, with the resultant changes forming the basis for this impact assessment.The impact assessments were based on primary research directly with communities affected by AVM and AIM and their subsequent survey and clearance. Working with community members in Herat, Nangarhar, Helmand and Kunar provinces, the research set out to better understand AVM and AIM and the multi-faceted impacts of their clearance.
The impacts of AIM and their clearance: Action against the new killers
Abandoned improvised mines are left over after conflict between armed opposition groups such as Daesh/Islamic State in Khorasan Province, the Taliban and the government. They contaminate roads, paths, fields, pastures, homes and even schools, posing grave risks to people's lives. AIM have killed thousands of Afghan civilians since the inception of their surging usage over the past decade.
The clearance of AIM creates immediate impacts in people's physical security. In all communities where there had been AIM clearance, community members had known of people in the area being killed or injured by AIM - 58 of 60 survey participants and all qualitative research participants in the community in Nangarhar. After clearance, these dangerous items could no longer impact people's safety, lifting a major threat and burden from people's lives. This threat removal meant that people felt far safer to return to normal activities, including livelihoods activities. The communities where AIM removal took place are rural villages where people are predominantly reliant on agriculture and livestock for their livelihoods. Clearance of AIM meant people could return to their fields and pastures without fear. It also opened up roads and paths to get goods to markets, creating tangible differences in people's abilities to make an income and feed themselves. 18 out of the 60 survey participants across three provinces had roads surrounding their villages cleared of AIM.
Markets were not the only place made more accessible by AIM clearance. Children who were not allowed to go to school out of fear of AIM before clearance were now able to pursue their education again. Accessing healthcare and transporting sick people to health facilities was now made much easier and safer. People could visit families again, attending culturally important events such as weddings and funerals in nearby villages. And children could again not only get to school and support households in livelihoods activities without fear, but also resume sports and leisure activities such as cricket in Nangarhar. There were also positive implications for peace and stability cited by community members. 47 out of the 60 survey participants had felt the stability and the rule of law had either increased (n=13) or increased a lot (n=34) as a result of the AIM clearance. However, the deeply-affecting conflict and improvised mine explosions were still causing people, especially women, long-lasting mental health issues long after their cessation.
7
53
No Yes
Figure 1 AIM respondents who experienced improved physical security resulting from landmine/ERW clearance (n=60) 57 2 1 0 0 5 2 1 8 43 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Very
unsafe Unsafe Neutral Safe Very safe
Before AIM clearance After AIM clearance
Figure 2 How safe did/do you feel about children playing and being involved in activities outside of the home before/after mine clearance? (n=60)
People also discussed the negatives - there were risks and reports of recontamination in parts of Afghanistan where conflict has again flared, though the HALO Trust are limited in which IM they can clear due to active conflict. There was also widespread suspicion of remaining mines in the area, which also demonstrated the potential need for greater clearance as communities identified important and far-reaching positive impacts.
The impacts of AVM and their clearance: A view to productive use of lands
While AVM were less directly dangerous to people's physical security, AVM clearance had wide-ranging impacts on people's abilities to provide for their families and secure economic livelihoods. 94 out of the 118 (80%) of the AVM impact assessment survey participants in two villages in Herat responded that they or their households have more farmland to use as a direct result of landmine/ERW clearance. Just under half of survey participants reported an estimated additional income from agriculture resulting from AVM clearance of at least AFN 10,000 per year, (approximately USD 130), a significant amount for a rural Afghan household. Many people in the qualitative research cited being able to grow high value saffron and caraway seeds along with wheat and vegetables. Others said they could increase their livestock usage. Conversely, where AVM were still present in villages in Herat, agriculture, livestock herding and economic activity was largely constrained. In the two villages reflecting back before AVM clearance, major tolls in terms of livestock loss were remembered.
Figure 3 The economic cost of losing livestock to landmine incidents from lands previously contaminated by AVM
47%
of AVM survey respondents said that cows had died due to landmine incidents40%
reported at least 5 cows were killed, worth an average equivalent AFN 250,000 ($3,250)33%
of survey respondents reported that sheep they owned were killed by landmines in areas where there was high AVM contamination65%
of those said that at least 10 sheep were killed, or the equivalent of AFN 50,000 ($650) This impact is amplified given just how much land and how many communities have AVM suspected or confirmed contaminated land proximate to their locations, with over 50% of suspected or confirmed hazardous areas (SHA/CHA) in the whole of Afghanistan attributed to AVM, which have largely been blocking safe and productive uses for many decades. AVM clearance unlocked building and construction, both of residential houses as well as infrastructure such as roads and electricity. The roads were a key part of access to surrounding villages and markets. The positive changes in livelihoods and economic activity saw cascading effects, such as on migration and return.Recommendations: Addressing Abandoned Improvised Mines and Anti-Vehicle
Mines
Six major recommendations were formulated based on the findings of the Impact Assessment.
1. Donors and mine action organisations should expand AIM clearance, given the lifesaving imperatives and the multifaceted positive impacts.
2. Measures to address the widespread suspected and confirmed AVM hazardous areas should be accelerated, including with progress on implementation of recommendations posed in the 2018 "AVM in Afghanistan Impact & MAPA Response" report1.
3. The HALO Trust and other mine action stakeholder should continue to redress unintended, negative impacts such as mitigating against the degradation of soils and roads that may result from landmine/ERW clearance.
4. Enhanced investments should be made into data and research, for mine action in general but also on specific categories of landmines such as AVM and AIM. These investments should improve mine action.
5. The HALO Trust should continue advocacy efforts, including with potential advocacy partners, in order to call wider attention to the impacts of AVM and AIM as well as their clearance, and also to work towards prevention of widespread and deadly AIM use
6. The HALO Trust should further develop meaningful partnerships across the triple nexus of humanitarian, development and peace agendas - building bridges with actors who can amplify impacts such as on safe return from displacement, rebuilding infrastructure and transportation, longer-term rural development, and working to improve mental health and psychosocial wellbeing after conflict and landmines/ERW.
INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT
Afghanistan remains one of the most landmine contaminated countries in the world.2 In response, the Mine Action Programme of Afghanistan (MAPA), led by the Afghanistan Directorate of Mine Action Coordination (DMAC), supported by multiple international donors, and of which the HALO Trust is a driving force and implementing partner, has cleared thousands of square metres of landmines and ERW across the country. Both the protracted and more recent
landmine/ERW contamination, along with the efforts in mine action in response, have wide-reaching impacts on people across Afghanistan.
Two categories of landmines create particular, often unique issues, and the subsequent need to address them. Anti-Vehicle Mines (AVM), also known as Anti-Tank Mines (ATM) were predominantly laid in the 1980s during the Afghanistan-Soviet War by Mujahadeen fighters targeting Afghanistan-Soviet military vehicles. Abandoned Improvised Mines (AIM) in contrast are much more recent. They have risen in prominence alongside and as part of the recent conflict which has intensified since 2014.
Samuel Hall was commissioned by the HALO Trust to conduct an impact assessment of AVM and AIM and their clearance in Afghanistan. The AIM component studies the effects of improvised explosive devices and their clearance on people’s physical security, livelihoods, psychosocial welfare, and the ability to stabilise after conflict whilst guaranteeing the safe return of displaced people. The AVM component of the assessment works to gain a better understanding of how anti-tank mines and their clearance affect the lives and economic conditions of contaminated communities.
Evidence gathered through these impact assessments was designed to support these understandings of two critical categories of landmines. They were also intended to be used for the HALO Trust's AVM and AIM programming in Afghanistan, alongside informing mine action in other countries that face similar challenges.
Abandoned Improvised Mines – The New Killers
Between 2013 and 2020, over half of all landmine/ERW civilian
casualties in Afghanistan were caused by improvised mines - 7,686
civilians injured or killed, almost 1000 each year. This includes
thousands of children under the age of 18
Abandoned Improvised Mines (AIM) are recently responsible for over half of civilian casualties in Afghanistan and present grave risks to lives and livelihoods.3 914 civilian casualties resulting from IM were recorded in 2020, making up 59.1 percent of the total national landmine and explosive remnants of war (ERW) victims last year.4 These casualty figures from AIM as well as landmines/ERW are almost certainly undercounted.5 Along with the humanitarian toll, AIM is also
understood to create obstacles to safe return of displaced persons as well as barriers in access to resources, land, and social services.
AIM are victim-operated improvised-explosive devices (VOIED), which notably fall under the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention.6 The Convention makes no distinction between mines of an improvised nature and those manufactured in a factory. Improvised mines (IM) adhere to the Convention's definition of ‘a mine designed to be exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person and that will incapacitate, injure or kill one or more persons,’ with the term 'mine' referring to ‘a munition designed to be placed under, on or near the ground or other surface area and to be exploded by
2 Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor (2020). Afghanistan.
3Directorate of Mine Action Coordination (DMAC) Afghanistan (2021). Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA),
Afghanistan.
4 Directorate of Mine Action Coordination (DMAC) Afghanistan (2021). Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA),
Afghanistan.
5 Suzanne Fiederlein and SaraJane Rzegocki (2019). The Human and Financial Costs of the Explosive Remnants of War in Afghanistan. Costs
of War.
6 Tan, Alexander. (2019). "The Development of a Humanitarian IED Clearance Capacity in Afghanistan". Journal of Conventional Weapons
Destruction. Vol 23, Iss 3, Art 12; also: Wen Zhou and Andrea Raab (2019). "IEDs and the Mine Ban Convention: a minefield of definitions?" ICRC, Humanitarian Law and Policy. September 17, 2019.
the presence, proximity or contact of a person or a vehicle.’ In Afghanistan, it was agreed to add the term 'abandoned' for when the improvised mines are no longer part of the active conflict.7,8
Armed opposition groups (AOGs) such as Islamic State or Daesh – Khorasan (ISKP) and the Taliban place improvised mines to target government-aligned military troops. Improvised mines are often placed during conflict and remain after the conflict ceases, which means they are often mixed with explosive remnants of war (ERW), unexploded ordnance (UXO) and small arms ammunition (SAA) in areas where there was fighting. Community members in an area cleared of AIM in Nangarhar province said that along with AIM, unexploded grenades were also commonly found.9
“We lived in a situation where from one side the Taliban and from the other side the government trapped us. Behind our house, landmines were planted, and every day and night the sound of blasts and fires awoke us. These landmines were from the times of Daesh when Taliban, government, and Daesh were all fighting each other.”
Female Community Member, Nangarhar [FGD5] The HALO Trust are currently the only mine action organisation able to clear AIM for humanitarian purposes in
Afghanistan. The HALO Trust commenced AIM surveys and clearance in 2018 in Helmand Province, later expanding AIM operations to Nangarhar and Kunar Provinces in the country's east. The HALO Trust have conducted AIM clearance in Helmand and Nangarhar, and non-technical surveys in Kunar. The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) and the German Federal Foreign Office (GFFO) financially support the ongoing AIM operations. This support helps address the significant unmet humanitarian needs that result from AIM contamination.
Photo 1 A HALO Trust vehicle leading the way in Nangarhar Province for the AIM Impact Assessment
7 Tan, Alexander. (2019). "The Development of a Humanitarian IED Clearance Capacity in Afghanistan".
8 The "abandoned" definition importantly signifies the humanitarian clearance of the landmines and makes clear distinctions with
military-security work to clear improvised mines or improvised explosive devices, as discussed in: MAG (2016). Humanitarian Response, Improvised Landmines and IEDs - Policy issues for principled mine action
Anti-Vehicle Mines – Blocking Access to Large Tracts of Land
Anti-vehicle mines make up over 50% of suspected or confirmed
hazardous areas in Afghanistan, according to the calculations of
the Afghanistan Directorate of Mine Action Coordination (DMAC)
According to the Directorate of Mine Action Coordination (DMAC), anti-vehicle mines (AVM) represent over 50 percent of landmine-contaminated land in Afghanistan, covering an estimated 350 million square metres of land.10 While AVM do not account for high numbers of civilian casualties in comparison with other explosive ordnance, they block expansive areas of land from potential productive use, including farming, grazing, construction and access to social services. In addition to hindering access to livelihoods opportunities, AVM-contaminated land prevents large infrastructure and development projects intended to improve the living conditions and resilience of local communities.
Principally laid beginning in the 1980s during the Soviet war without location documentation, large tracts of land have suspected or confirmed hazardous AVM areas, including across Herat and Kandahar provinces. These areas comprise of difficult-to-detect, dispersed anti-vehicle mines. Like abandoned improvised mines, AVM may also be part of mixed contaminations: The UNMAS Handbook notes that “AP mines are often used to prevent AV mines from being removed, and the technique of laying AP mines and AV mines together in clusters is common."11 This was also the case in the GICHD, Kings College London and SIPRI 2019 AVM impact study in Angola.12
In her 2018 report on AVM in Afghanistan, Rebecca Roberts noted that “qualitative and quantitative information available about the impact of AVM contamination and clearance at the local socio-economic level and macro-economic level [remains] limited.”13 While the Afghan government has designated AVM clearance as one of its top priorities to ensure national security, to this day little evidence exists to this day on the varied impacts of AVM contamination on the lives of Afghan communities.
Photo 2 HALO Trust Photograph: Mechanical clearance of anti-vehicle mines, Gorbuz14
10 Roberts, R. (2018). "Anti-Vehicle Mine Contamination in Afghanistan Impact and MAPA Response". Roberts also notes however that
different data on the extent of contamination and clearance are used, highlighting the need to resolve discrepancies for credible public information.
11 UNMAS (2015). Landmines, explosive remnants of war and IED Safety Handbook
12 Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD), SIPRI and King’s College London (KCL), (2019). The Socio-economic
Impact of Anti-vehicle Mines in Angola.
13 Roberts, R. (2018). "Anti-Vehicle Mine Contamination in Afghanistan Impact and MAPA Response".
14 HALO Trust photograph. HALO Trust (nd.). The Impact of Anti-Vehicle Mines in Afghanistan. Accessed at:
IMPACT ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
Impact Assessment Objectives
•
Assess the impact of anti-vehicle mines (AVM) and of AVM clearance on people, communities, sustainable development and access opportunities•
Assess the impact of abandoned improvised mines (AIM) and of AIM clearance on people’s lives and livelihoods, psychosocial welfare, ability to stabilise after conflict and the safe return of displaced people.Research Approach: Impact from the community perspective
The research for both the AIM and AVM impact assessments used a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative tools and data. The research was framed and informed by literature, including mine action research and HALO Trust documentation, but the focus was on gaining an understanding of impact from communities who had experienced abandoned improvised mines or anti-vehicle mines as well as their clearance.15
Mixed methods tools and sampling
A range of research tools were used to work directly with community members living proximate to AVM and AIM contamination and clearance. Primary data collection took place in two communities in Herat for the AVM component, and in one community in Nangarhar for the AIM component. The AIM study conducted phone surveys with participants across eight communities and three provinces, Nangarhar, Kunar and Helmand, where the HALO Trust have implemented AIM operations. The AVM quantitative surveys were conducted in-person in the two primary research communities in Herat. The qualitative in-person research consisted of focus group discussions (FGDs) with men and FGDs with women; semi-structured interviews (SSI) with community leaders, displaced people or returnees, as well as pairs of children in order to gain an understanding from different members of the communities afflicted by AVM and AIM.
Table 1 AVM Impact Assessment Tools
Tools TOTAL
Key Informant Interviews 3 Community Leader Interviews 2 Focus Group Discussions 4 Child Pair Interviews 1 Community Member Interviews 4 Quantitative Surveys 118
Table 2 AIM Impact Assessment Tools
Tools TOTAL
Key Informant Interviews 2 Community Leader Interviews 1 Focus Group Discussions 2 Child Pair Interviews 1 Community Member Interviews 2 Quantitative Phone Surveys 60
Photo 3 A female focus group discussion on AVM and AVM clearance impacts in Herat Province
THE IMPACT OF ABANDONED IMPROVISED MINES (AIM)
AND AIM CLEARANCE
Abandoned Improvised Mines (AIM) and their clearance hold far-reaching impacts on people’s lives and in the communities where they are laid and removed. Since the AIM are placed to target troops in deliberate attacks, defend territory, and block or restrict movement, they are found in a wide variety of locations - next to roads, along walking paths, hidden within fields and pasturelands and inside people’s houses. Targeted attacks have also seen improvised mines used even against schools.16
Samuel Hall conducted sixty surveys with people living in communities cleared of AIM by the HALO Trust. Agricultural fields (n=42) and lands used for grazing (n=56) were identified widely as areas where AIM were found, along with pathways (n=34) and roads (n=27). The improvised mines placed on roads blocked access to district and provincial centres17, making movement and transportation extremely dangerous or needing long detours. Houses (n=13) were also confirmed by community members as areas where AIM were found. Survey participants also noted that improvised mines could be found in the hills and mountains surrounding their village (n=19). One community member who had returned to his village after being internally displaced explained “These landmines were mostly buried in mountains and hills because Daesh was
living in mountains.18” Finally, five survey participants responded that AIM were in schools in their area, and four survey
participants responded that they were in healthcare clinics.
“From our village to the next, all roads, hills and deserts were covered by landmines. We were living in minefields, and it was very hard to spend our lives here, so due to the landmines, we were forced to leave and move to a different area. Before we left, every day and every moment we were expecting a landmine explosion. Daesh had control in the area until a few years ago. The landmines were in the shape of bricks, or hand grenades. When the mine action organisation arrived to clear the contaminated areas, we told them that we grow vegetables and wheat on these lands… Landmines have forced not only humans, but birds as well to leave the area.”
Female Community Member, Nangarhar - FGD5
Map 1 HALO Trust humanitarian AIM clearance and surveys have taken place in Helmand, Nangarhar and Kunar provinces
A woman living through conflict and improvised mines planted by Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISKP) “The house we live in is the inheritance left by our forefathers. We grew up in this area, but when the Taliban and Daesh arrived, they even put mines on our doorsteps. The roads were covered in landmines, and vehicles were not allowed to pass. The Taliban and Daesh sent us warnings, which forced us to send our family to a different district. Me and my husband remained. I constantly recited the Holy Quran and prayed that Allah would protect my husband and I. Due to the constant fear, I became mentally unstable.
There was a police check point beside our house at one point. When the police asked us for water or food, we begged them to please leave this place. If Taliban or Daesh found out that you are based here, they will kill us. Previously, the militants threw a hand grenade into our compound which hit my chicken cage, killing some of the chickens. At another time, our house was surrounded by Daesh for several days, and they accused us of helping the government forces. It was five years ago when Daesh used to control our village. We were trapped between Daesh and government forces.
16 United Nations News (2018). Afghanistan: UN condemns latest school bombings as ‘repulsive acts of terrorism’. 11 September, 2018.
Accessed at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/09/1018982
17 FGD5 [Female FGD, Nangarhar] and FGD6 [Male FGD, Nangarhar] 18 SSI2 [Male IDP-Returnee Semi-Structured Interview, Nangarhar]
The mines came in different shapes such as bricks, remote controlled mines, barrel-shapes, and others. The explosives around our house were mostly hand grenades. The landmines caused us great trouble as we could not come out of our house, and I wasn’t even able to go to my mother’s house.
Later on, when the mine action organisation arrived, God bless them, they cleared our house, the roads and the fields.”
1. AIM clearance saves lives
Improvised mines kill or maim hundreds of Afghans each year. In the five years from 2015, IM caused 5,391 civilian casualties, which total 57.9% of recorded civilian casualties from all landmines or ERW in Afghanistan.19,20 While overall
civilian casualties from landmines/ERW decreased steadily in the decade after 2001 - largely attributable to mine action led by organisations such as the HALO Trust – improvised mines have been one of the driving factors in the sharp rise in casualties since 2015. This includes 1,538 total deaths in 2019 alone, the highest number of casualties for any country globally that year. Like the longer half-decade window from 2015, improvised mines were responsible for over half of the deaths. Many of these improvised mine civilian casualties are children: 3,704 Afghans under the age of 18 were casualties of improvised mines across the four years from the start of 2016 to the end of 2019 - making up just under half (48.1%) of overall civilian casualties.
Figure 4 Afghanistan Landmine/ERW and Improvised Mine Civilian Casualties from 1995-2019. IMSMA Afghanistan.
Out of the 60 survey participants living in areas cleared of AIM by HALO Trust, 58 knew someone who had been killed in the area. All except one of these 58 responded that there were multiple deaths resulting from improvised mines. The area in Nangarhar where qualitative research was conducted had seen three casualties from improvised mines in one
community alone. "Before mine action, we had three mine incidents in this community, in which two people got injured and
one of them got martyred."21As one woman from the community stated: "Every day we saw death and we always feared
that one of us would be killed by these landmines."22
One of the largest impacts of AIM clearance is the improved physical security and safety of the communities in the area of clearance. "Before, there were a lot of mine incidents but now, there are none," stated one focus group discussion participant plainly.23 53 of the 60 survey respondents said they have experienced improved physical security as a result of the AIM clearance. The seven who had not experienced improved physical security had seen the return of active conflict in their area. This sometimes also resulted in newly laid improvised mines. However, the large majority of people cited safety for themselves, their relatives and their children from AIM clearance.
19 Information Management System for Mine Action, IMSMA (2021), Afghanistan.
20 Casualties of landmines and ERW generally are almost certainly undercounted; see: Suzanne Fiederlein & SaraJane Rzegocki (2019). The
Human and Financial Costs of the Explosive Remnants of War in Afghanistan; and: Jo Durham, Peter S Hill, & Damian Hoy (2012). "The underreporting of landmine and explosive remnants of war injuries in Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam”. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2013;91:234-236. AIM may be even more undercounted, as many areas with AIM are in non-government controlled or contested areas where the barriers to reporting deaths or injuries can be higher.
21 FGD6 [Male FGD, Nangarhar] 22 FGD5 [Female FGD, Nangarhar] 23 FGD6 [Male FGD, Nangarhar] 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9
"There have been a lot of changes in people’s lives after landmine clearance. Before, the lives of people were endangered due to the landmines, but now they are safe. The places where people previously went were contaminated, including public roads. Now, our road is cleared of mines and we are safe and more secure."
Male Community Member, Nangarhar - FGD6
Photo 4 A house compound in Nangarhar which had abandoned improvised mines cleared nearby
2. AIM Clearance Linked to Peace and Stability
The impact assessment commenced initial exploration of the impact of AIM clearance on local sentiments on community stability, peace and the rule of law. Feelings of peace generally increased with the AIM clearance, though this often coincided with the cessation of conflict. However, research participants did draw a line between the AIM clearance and the increased feeling of stability in the area. Reduction in AIM was also connected to the increasing presence of security providers such as the police. "After the demining, stability and peace returned to our village. Police forces have established a checkpoint and enforced law which is relieving for our people. Now, the police tell us that if you see a landmine
immediately come and tell us so we can inform the mine action organisation. Presently, our ears don’t hear the sounds of mine blasts."24
This police presence cited in Nangarhar can be correlated to trust in government which roundly rose as a result of the AIM clearance. 47 of the 60 participants said that the landmine/ERW clearance either had a positive (n=23) or a very positive (n=24) impact on their trust in government. 11 were neutral and two said it had a negative impact on their trust in government. Despite the majority citing increased trust, this result area should be taken with some caution given the fluid security dynamics and potential for areas to be recontested or for the government to lose control and authority. Caution should also be high because of the humanitarian imperatives of neutrality in AIM clearance, whereby the HALO Trust focus on mine action for lifesaving humanitarian purposes, rather than be seen as an agent of government in contested areas.
Photo 5 A checkpoint near to the AIM fieldwork location in Nangarhar. Government presence was felt to increase after AIM clearance and provide greater feelings of peace and stability for some local community members.
The survey included a number of other different questions around these concepts of stability, peace and the potential for future violence.
Almost all participants said that the impact of the AIM clearance on stability and the rule of law25 as well as peace and coexistence26 was positive. Just as resoundingly, 56 of the 60 survey participants responded that the AIM clearance indeed reduced the risk of violence and future conflict.27
3. A safe return home
With improvised mines often laid as part of intense conflict, many people flee their homes to escape the fighting. After the conflict ceases, the abandoned improvised mines that are left behind present imminent dangers for those returning home alongside those who stayed. Over 20% of all civilian mine/ERW casualties recorded by DMAC up to 2015 were internally displaced persons (IDPs).28
"We moved to Kabul due to Daesh and wars – we were scared of Daesh and conflict. We were also scared of landmines. It has been 2 years since we have returned here."
Male IDP-Returnee, Nangarhar - SSI3 The community leader in the Nangarhar community cleared of AIM noted that much of his village had previously fled during assaults by ISKP and fighting between militant groups and government forces. While some were still living elsewhere in Afghanistan or abroad, approximately 300 people had returned to the village. A male in a focus group discussion in the same community explained: “After the landmine clearance, most of the people returned back here from
the cities such as Kabul because they wanted to live in their ancestral homelands.”29This was a widespread experience
across the different provinces where HALO had conducted AIM clearance. Only nine of the 60 survey participants were living in their homes and had never been displaced - 15 were currently internally displaced, 24 had returned from seeking refuge abroad, and 10 had returned from internal displacement.30 The 15 people currently living in internal displacement is a common experience in Afghanistan where much of the country is on the move, having to flee conflict and disasters.
25 The survey question was formulated: "As a result of the landmine/ERW removal, what has been the impact on the stability of the area
and the rule of law?"
26 The survey question was formulated: "Did the mine action work influence the level of peace and co-existence experienced in the
village?"
27 The survey question was formulated: "Does the AIM clearance reduce the risk of violence / future conflict?"
28 Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor (2015). Landmines/ERW, Refugees and Displacement: Briefing Paper for World Refugee Day. 20
June 2015.
29 FGD6 [Male FGD, Nangarhar]
30 Most of the IDP returnees and IDPs stayed within the province they were originally displaced from, either within Kunar, Nangarhar or
Helmand.
29 22
9
Strongly increased Increased No change
Figure 6 AIM clearance and the impact on stability and rule of law (n=60)
Figure 5 AIM clearance and the impact on peace and coexistence (n=60) 1 2 10 13 34 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Worsened a lot Worsened Remained the same &
No Impact
Increased Increased a lot
“About 70 internally displaced families who fled to our village still live here. These families are almost all from insecure villages and they don’t have access to their lands. Their properties and livestock were taken by Daesh. When those lands were attacked by Daesh, they burned people’s houses, and they informed all the people to send any widows and virgins to Daesh. Likewise, they told people that if you have cows, goats, or sheep, you must give that to Daesh. Upon hearing this, people left their harvests and their houses. In order to protect themselves, they fled. They also feared that Daesh would kidnap women, which forced entire villages to leave.”
Community Leader in a village cleared of improvised mines in Nangarhar, CLS3 For those able and willing to return home, improvised mines were dangerous on both the journeys as well as after arrival. Of the 36 people who had returned back to their place of origin, 17 responded that landmines were an issue for them while travelling. 29 out of 43 survey participants found that landmines were a direct issue when they returned home, contaminating their lands, houses, and/or pathways around their homes. The returnee in Nangarhar explained: “When we returned from Kabul, we didn’t know which lands were contaminated with landmines and we were therefore afraid. Those who stayed here told us about the contaminated lands. We limited our mobility. After a few days, we got to know better about the contaminated lands. But now that the deminers have come to our area, we are feeling safer as the area is
currently being cleared of landmines.” AIM clearance increases security for those returning to their areas of origin after
conflict, both for those who have already returned and for those who are assessing whether they are able to.
Because AIM clearance makes the route and areas safer for return, it can play a role in decision-making for return. When survey participants were asked how many people have returned because of landmine clearance, only seven said there had been no change in the number of returns, 16 said there were “some” returnees because of clearance, while 37 said there were “many” returnees because of clearance. “When the mine action organization came to demine our village, then people started to return, and today they live here as before,” explained a community leader.31 Alongside the security benefits, a woman in an FGD discussed that people who have been able to return to their place of origin in the village have seen their economic situation improve too, partially because families do not have to pay rent like when they were displaced.32
4. Impacts on livelihoods through agriculture, livestock, resources and
market access
In addition to the fundamental impacts for people’s physical security, AIM clearance also allowed people to resume safe farming, livestock herding and resource gathering. The same number of survey participants who said they had experienced improved physical security, 53 of 60, also responded that had experienced improved livelihoods because of the AIM clearance.
A common lament in the qualitative research was how poor the economic situation was before AIM clearance. In addition to killing and maiming people, abandoned improvised mines were often responsible for the deaths of important livestock animals. Multiple qualitative research participants expressed their dismay at losing cows, sheep or goats, important sources of food and income for rural villagers.33 AIM clearance removes the threat for both people and for a major source of their livelihoods in herded animals. AIM also contaminated agricultural fields, placed in areas to deter or kill soldiers but after cessation of conflict, threatening people needing to use the land for farming. In rural Afghanistan, where the large majority of people’s livelihoods and ability to provide for themselves stem from these two areas, AIM clearance takes on renewed importance. When asked about different community dynamics, a community leader described how most of the village is reliant on farming or livestock. He noted they grow wheat, corn, rice, tomatoes, cotton and other vegetables alongside herding cows, sheep, goats and chickens. Only a few people in the community work in other sectors, such as in education and health.
31 CLSSI3 [Community Leader SSI, Nangarhar] 32 FGD6 [Male FGD, Nangarhar]
Photo 6 Agricultural fields with paths running alongside in Nangarhar, in a village recently cleared of AIM
When asked what the land cleared of AIM is used for now, almost all survey participants cited productive livelihoods uses. 48 of the 60 participants said the lands were now used for pastureland, and 45 of the 60 participants said they were used for farming. “It is very good that our lands have been demined,” explained one woman in Nangarhar.34 “Now, people come together and grow crops on these lands, which we share amongst each-other after harvest. We grow wheat, tomatoes, corn, and other vegetables on the cleared lands, and now we work without fear of landmines, which we were very afraid of previously.” More wheat was grown by 44 survey participants across Nangarhar, Helmand and Kunar. Also popular was corn, leafy vegetables and tomatoes on land made newly available by AIM clearance.
Photo 7 A man cleaning recently cultivated wheat in a Nangarhar village cleared of AIM
The AIM clearance is also often key to accessing markets for buying and selling goods. The village in Nangarhar where the qualitative research took place had the main road to the district capital Haska Meyna, and provincial capital Jalalabad, blocked by AIM. This made the road effectively impassable, with people having to seek longer and more difficult ways to move. The local market has approximately two dozen shops and was able to provide 20% of the goods needed by the village – but the provincial centre of Jalalabad is the most important market for buying and selling goods, with the village reliant on motor vehicles to transports goods along the road. With AIM clearance, the road to Jalalabad was again safe to use.
“Compared to the past, our economic situation has gotten better. For example, we can now carry our vegetables to the market, our ability to buy and sell has improved. Earlier, when we wanted to go somewhere, we were forced to pay high amounts, but now we commute for less money.”
Male Community Member, Nangarhar, FGD6 Community members also had increased access to resources such as wood for fuel. Removal of AIM from paths and from the hillsides surrounding villages makes these resources much safer to access. A small number of villagers earn some income from selling resources such as wood and stones. The large majority however use the resources which saves money
from purchases and can supplement household amenity. A man in Nangarhar notes the village can now access a variety of these resources after AIM clearance. “Before mine action, life was hard for people but now our life has been eased due to the mine action. For example, we collect wood and vegetables from the mountain and sell them in the market. Some people also extract rocks from the mountain and sell it in the market for their livelihoods. Besides, we collect sand and gravel from the river and sell it in the market and through these means, support our households. The whole community uses these
resources.”35Over half of those surveyed from across the three provinces collected wood (n=34), eleven collected stones,
and nine survey participants said either they or their households gathered food such as chives, mushrooms or herbs from the areas made available through AIM clearance.
5. Transport, access to services and a necessity for other initiatives
Visiting relatives and accessing healthcare
One of the major benefits stemming from AIM clearance is increased freedom of movement and mobility, especially given that abandoned improvised mines are often placed on roads or walking paths. Where AIM were cleared from roads, which occurred in a number of the communities (n=18 out of 60 survey participants), there was profound feelings of change from before clearance to after. In Nangarhar, qualitative participants felt trapped by AIM blocking the main roads, making travel difficult and dangerous. A woman in Nangarhar noted: "We were forced to stay home as there were landmines all around
our house.”36Many could not visit relatives or attend culturally important weddings and funerals in surrounding villages.37
AIM clearance lifted this feeling of oppression and allowed people access to markets (described above in livelihoods), relatives, education and healthcare.
48 of the 60 survey participants responded that they had better or safe access to healthcare because of the AIM clearance. One community member summarised: “Because before, we were carrying our patients on our back but now we carry them in cars.”38
“Landmine clearance was very effective because they cleared the main paths to the market. In the same way, the sub-roads connect villages because men and women use them go from one village to the next in order to take part in funerals or weddings. Similarly, people use them to get to mosque on Friday. As a result, if the HALO Trust didn’t help us by decontaminating our village, we couldn’t have rebuilt our community.”
Community Leader in a village cleared of improvised mines in Nangarhar, CLS3
A requisite precursor to humanitarian and development assistance
The AIM clearance paved the way for other humanitarian and development initiatives to take place. Intuitively, communities where there was still a high presence of abandoned improvised mines are dangerous, especially for programmes such as road construction. When asked whether the AIM clearance led directly to programmes by
government, NGOs or local civil society organisations, 38 of the 60 survey participants responded in the affirmative. A high number of these communities now had roads and infrastructure which were under construction or which had been completed (n=26). This included 10 people who said a bridge was being built in the area, made possible through landmine clearance. There was also a resumption of education initiatives (n=13). Finally, there were smaller numbers of agricultural programmes (n=9), construction building (n=6), and health activities (n=5).
Many of these programmes, including road construction, link to wider-scale initiatives such as the Citizens Charter National Priority Programming (CCNPP) which could either resume or commence after abandoned improvised mines were removed. Along with the government programmes, international and national NGOs distributed agricultural supplies as well as cash in some of the communities cleared of AIM. When asked the reason that AIM clearance led to these activities, 31 respondents cited that it was too dangerous before. A further 22 noted that there was now more land to conduct the activities, such as road building.
35 FGD6 [Male FGD, Nangarhar] 36 FGD5 [Female FGD, Nangarhar] 37 FGD6 [Male FGD, Nangarhar] 38 FGD6 [Male FGD, Nangarhar]
6. Impacts of AIM on Women and Children
Improvised mines do not only impact Afghan men, but also have dire impacts on women and on children.
Female casualties of AIM - Men make up a higher proportion of AIM-caused civilian casualties compared to women - in Afghanistan, men have greater mobility and are at higher risk when farming, herding livestock and travelling. However, AIM have caused a large number of female victims. Historically, the Directorate of Mine Action Coordination (DMAC) of Afghanistan has recorded a total 8,019 improvised mine casualties to March 2021. These have almost entirely been recorded since 2010, the large majority after 2013. 6,758 (84.2%) of those injured or killed have been men. 1,261 (15.7%) of AIM casualties have been either women or girls - hundreds of Afghan women and girls each year for a decade.
Figure 7 AIM casualties from 2011 - 2020, by gender and age category
The perception of safety and physical security means that women are often restricted when AIM are present. This impacts women's mobility, mental health, and abilities to engage in livelihoods activities. When AIM are cleared, women
experience enhanced freedom of movement, even in culturally gender-conservative areas where demining has taken place.
Demining has positively impacted women in our village. After the demining, women can freely go to fields near their houses to grow vegetables, and other grains. In the same way, women are very pleased with the mine clearance here in our village. When there were landmines, women couldn’t even go outside their houses. We lived in confinement.
Female community member, Nangarhar - FGD5 Due to cultural sensitivities, men were the only participants in the quantitative survey. When asked if there were changes in women's conditions as a result of the AIM clearance, only eight participants said there was no change: 23 cited beneficial change for women, and 28 responded that there had been very beneficial change for women. Women were asked about any changes relating to gender in the qualitative research. Alongside the wider impacts for the community such as safety, livelihoods and access, there were gender-specific angles to these areas of change. Visiting relatives and friends was discussed, which represented opportunities to see family and get out of the house. One woman also noted that widows could better access resources including wood.
With the landmine clearance, we can more freely collect wood. After our lands were demined, people became happy because everybody, poor people, orphans, and widows, can all use the land without fear.
Female community member, Nangarhar - FGD5
Improvised mines and women’s mental health
Women experienced profound mental health issues resulting from the improvised mines, which while ameliorated by clearance, continue to cause issues long after the cessation of conflict. While men who took part in the qualitative research described a change in people's feelings after AIM clearance, and noted that people experienced mental health issues during the AIM, women discussed their vulnerability in-depth.
55 57 566 726 934 836 541 584 521 134 254 291 317 259 224 225 63 143 103 138 84 88 108 68 74 72 72 67 60 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Male - 18+ Male - <18 Female - 18+ Female - <18
Devastating tolls: Women's mental health after conflict and improvised mines
"I was cooking bread in the oven outside in the yard when a landmine exploded and I fell down upon seeing the smoke and broke my leg. Now, it hurts a lot and I cannot walk properly. These mines have made me addicted to sleeping pills. Every night I take two sleeping pills or else I can't sleep. Now, if anybody knocks the door forcefully, I think either a mine has exploded or Daesh has killed someone. Now it is peaceful, but I still take pills when I sleep."
"The landmines forced our people into depression and mental problems. One day, when a landmine exploded behind our house, my daughter was in the yard and she went into mental shock."
"We have spent our lives amongst the explosions and gunfire of the Taliban and Daesh. Once a landmine exploded which made a terrible and horrifying sound, suddenly a heart attack struck me. From that time on, I have had heart problems. In the same way, when I hear such sounds, I think someone is either killed or injured."
"Landmines and Daesh have made our people crazy. Everybody is mentally disturbed now. One day I heard the horrifying sound of an explosion, and suddenly the left side of my body stopped responding. Now, my left foot and left hand don't work. Even now, I hear the sounds of gunfire and mines, and whenever I close my eyes, I see explosions. Now, I thank God for the peace, but we are still deeply impacted."
The severe mental health impacts of the AIM align with Paterson, Pound and Ziaee's findings for landmines more generally in their 2013 Afghanistan Landmines and Livelihoods journal article, which saw women bearing high psychological burdens.39 These effects were felt despite lower risk profiles and exposure to landmines/ERW and were heightened by women's seclusion and dependence on second-hand information. While there remains a paucity of data on mental health more generally in Afghanistan40, the women's experience of conflict and improvised mines made clear the deep impacts on people's mental health and well-being. Despite removal resulting in positive changes in this regard, the negative impacts of improvised mines continue even after AIM are removed.
Dangers, inhibited education and no play: The impact of improvised mines on children
Children are deeply impacted by AIM and AIM clearance. Many Afghan children under the age of 18 are injured or killed each year by improvised mines. In the three years from 2018 to 2020, just under a third of civilian casualties of improvised mines were children (907 children and 1,926 adults over the age of 18). While this is lower than landmine/ERW as a whole across categories - where almost half of casualties each year are children - improvised mines are still deadly for children in Afghanistan.Children often engaged in livelihoods activities, and are often the members of the households to fetch water and collect wood. Children also often herd livestock, placing them at high risk of improvised mines such as those placed along roads. Children are also at risk along these roads and paths when trying to reach school. As part of the AIM Impact Assessment, the research team conducted a child pair interview with two sixteen-year-old boys in Nangarhar. One child envisioned a future career as an economist, the other as an engineer. "I want to become an engineer in the future. I like all of my school
subjects but my favourite ones are math and chemistry." Improvised mines inhibit children's education - parents would
keep children at home rather than risk them being endangered by hidden, abandoned improvised mines. This major impediment to education is removed when AIM are cleared. 44 of the 60 survey participants across the three provinces responded that it was safer or easier to access school because of the AIM clearance.
"Now, children go to schools. Patients can go to the clinics and hospitals. All these were made possible after landmine clearance. Before mine clearance, people were scared and they didn’t go anywhere. We did not let our children go to school due to the fear of mine accidents."
Male community member, Nangarhar - FGD6 The two children in Nangarhar were asked to draw the village and the situation of the abandoned improvised mines. Their visualisation depicts a dark picture, with landmines contaminating almost all areas in and surrounding the community.
39 Paterson, Pound and Ziaee (2013), Landmines and Livelihoods in Afghanistan: Evaluating the Benefits of Mine Action. 40 Jonathan Pedneault (2019). "Afghanistan’s Silent Mental Health Crisis”. Human Rights Watch. October 7, 2019.
Map 2 Two children's drawing of their community before AIM clearance in Nangarhar from the Child Pair Interview
As seen in the picture, both school and other activities were severely curtailed when there was abandoned improvised mines present. The two boys supported their families with household chores, on the farmlands (one boy described how he helped with the irrigation of crops), herding livestock and collecting wood to bring home. Both sixteen-year-old boys loved cricket. Being able to leave the home, see friends and play sport was understood to be a major impact in the lives of children. Survey participants were asked how safe they felt about children playing and being involved in activities outside of the home before AIM clearance. Two responded they felt it was unsafe, an almost total 57 people responded they felt it was very unsafe. This changed after AIM clearance. While seven respondents still felt it was unsafe or very unsafe for their children to play outside, mostly attributable to renewed active conflict, eight felt it was now safe and 43 now very safe for children to be involved in activities outside of the home.
We play cricket about 3-4 times a week. Before, we were not able to play cricket because there were landmines in the area. Now, we can play in our school because our school grounds are very big and it is cleared of mines.
Child Pair Interview, Nangarhar
7. Perceptions of road damage from probably security operations,
remaining mines and recontamination: Negative impacts of AIM clearance
Both the quantitative and qualitative research found few negative impacts resulting from the AIM clearance activities. In the Nangarhar community where qualitative research was conducted regarding the impacts of AIM, there was widespread critique of the destruction of a road during AIM clearance, which actually matched the operations of an Afghanistan National Security Forces (ANSF) IED removal rather than HALO Trust abandoned improvised mine clearance.41 The quantitative research across the other communities revealed no other references to road damage, with the HALO Trust noting that their AIM clearance operations do not include active IEDs and should not result in destruction to paves roads. This suggests that clearer community liaison may preclude community confusion about who is responsible for the different landmine/ERW clearance operations in locations where AIM clearance is taking place.41 Male community members in Nangarhar [FGD6] noted: "The only thing as negative was that our road was torn into pieces as a result of
demining. I wish that our area needed to be decontaminated before the road was built… It is ok now, and I don’t want to complain as it is far better, we have lost and injured a lot of people, and the destruction of a road is nothing compared to the lives saved…". Another participant responded: "Yes, the negative outcome of the mine action is that before mine clearance, our road was decent but post-mine clearance, it is damaged. This is because the mine action organisation had to dig into the road in order to extract the landmines, but no one has rebuilt it again yet."
Remaining landmines/ERW and risks of AIM recontamination
There were widespread reports of landmines still remaining in areas around the villages - either improvised mines which fell outside the priority areas of the HALO Trust or older landmines/ERW from previous conflicts. A community leader in Nangarhar stated: "Land near our village still contains mines. The deminers were asked to clear that, but they said that this
area is not in our program." 50 of the 60 survey participants responded in the affirmative when asked if there were still
remaining landmines/ERW in the area after the conclusion of the AIM clearance. This inhibits full and safe access and usage of land surrounding communities. The HALO Trust are restricted by insecurity, lack of continuous funding and also
prioritisation of tasks, but the need for further clearance was clear from communities across Helmand, Nangarhar and Kunar.
Conflict recommenced in a small number of locations previously cleared of AIM. This was notably the case in Helmand Province. Where conflict recommenced, survey participants said that there were newly laid improvised mines, meaning that the positive impacts of clearance were no longer perceived. Many survey respondents and people participating in the qualitative research deemed that the risk of recontamination was low and that they would resist groups that wanted to lay improvised mines again. When asked whether the positive impacts could be guaranteed into the future, a man in
Nangarhar captured both the tensions around future potential recontamination, but also the hope about the sustainability of positive impacts.
"It cannot be ensured by anyone that the positive impacts from landmine clearance will continue into the future because the situation in Afghanistan is not stable. Every day, there is war across Afghanistan. But still, there is the possibility that our area will be kept clear of landmines in the future, because we ourselves want this area to be cleared of mines so that our children can continue their education here. Besides, the level of local acceptance of mine action is really high because everyone wants the area cleared of mines."
THE IMPACT OF ANTI-VEHICLE MINES (AVM) AND AVM
CLEARANCE
Aligned with other categories of landmines and ERW, anti-vehicle mines have detrimental effects on contaminated communities’ sense of security and access to income-generating options. While their humanitarian toll is not as high as that of other explosive hazards, they have nonetheless been responsible for human and livestock casualties in Herat province, with half of the impact survey respondents reporting 12 landmine incidents or more that they know of in the area. Estimating the land cleared at around 100 jerib (or the equivalent of 20 hectares), respondents stated that AVM were mainly blocking farmland and grazing land, suggesting that AVM act as severe inhibitors of local communities’
development and ability to be self-sufficient. This is particularly relevant insofar as AVM, which were planted more than three decades ago, continue to resurface until today, sometimes accidentally42, and consequently block access to areas that were being used until their re-appearance.
“A few days ago, shepherds came to me and told me that they have found some landmines which got exposed by the rain. The rainwater washed away the soil and the landmines and revealed landmines unknown by the community. Different types of landmines can be found: anti-tank landmines planted by the Mujahideen for the government, and anti-personnel landmines planted by the government for the Mujahideen.”
Community Leader, Kamana Gulran, Herat - PSSI2 While lands still suspected or confirmed to be contaminated with AVM prolong adverse impacts on proximate
communities, community members living in areas where they have been cleared continue to praise the improvements they have witnessed in their physical security, livelihoods and resilience as a result of HALO Trust’s mine action.
Map 3 Map showing Herat province where data collection took place
1. Livelihoods and economic gains
AVM clearance in Afghanistan’s Herat province had significant impacts on local communities’ economies and improvements in livelihoods. In the largely agricultural villages of Talab-e-Ulia and Sara Naw, privately-owned contaminated lands were smoothly handed over to their owners after landmine clearance. These private land holdings were predominantly used to carry out farming activities. 80% of impact assessment survey respondents confirmed that, as a result of AVM clearance, they have more farmland to use and almost 50% of respondents reported an estimated additional annual income from agriculture resulting from AVM clearance of at least AFN 10,000 per year (approximately USD 130, a significant amount in rural Afghanistan). This benefited both men and women with a large share of respondents stating that landmine clearance improved women’s conditions mainly by granting them income opportunities in farming and livestock herding. The main crops that have been cultivated since the HALO Trust’s mine action operations in the two Herat communities are wheat, barley and beans, along with high value saffron and caraway.
42 Like other landmines and ERW, AVM can shift with changing weather conditions such as rockslides and floods. See: The Arms Project of
