urban design - streets

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Manual f

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Manual

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Section A

Context

and

process

Section C

Detailed

design

issues

Section B

Design

principles

Foreword

6 Foreword

6 Pref

Preface

ace

7

1

1 Introduction

Introduction

10

2

2 Streets

Streets in

in context

context

14

3

3 The

The design

design process

process -

- from

from policy

policy to

to implementation

implementation

22

4

4 Layout

Layout and

and connectivity

connectivity

40

5

5 Quality

Quality places

places

50

6

6 Street users’

Street users’ needs

needs

62

7

7 Street geometr

Street geometry

y

78

8

8 Parking

Parking

98

9

9 T

Traffic

raffic signs

signs and

and marking

markings

s

114

10 10 Street

Street furniture

furniture and

and street

street lighting

lighting

120

11 11 Materials,

Materials, adoption

adoption and

and maintenance

maintenance

126

126 Index

138 Index

138 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

Project team Project team

Manual for Streets was produced by

Manual for Streets was produced by a team led by a team led by consultantsconsultants WSP, with Llewelyn Davies Yeang (LDY), Phil Jones Associates WSP, with Llewelyn Davies Yeang (LDY), Phil Jones Associates (PJA) and TRL Limited on behalf of the Department for Transport, (PJA) and TRL Limited on behalf of the Department for Transport, and Communities and Local Government.

and Communities and Local Government. The core team comprised (all lists

The core team comprised (all lists in alphabetical order):in alphabetical order): •

• Annabel Annabel Bradbury Bradbury (TRL)(TRL) •

• Andrew Andrew Cameron Cameron (WSP)(WSP) •

• Ben Ben Castell Castell (LDY)(LDY) •

• Phil Phil Jones (PJA)Jones (PJA) •

• Tim Tim Pharoah Pharoah (LDY),(LDY), •

• Stuart Stuart Reid Reid (TRL)(TRL) •

• Alan Alan Young Young – Project – Project Manager, (WSP)Manager, (WSP) With additional research and assistance by: With additional research and assistance by:

Sam Carman (WSP), Tom Ewings (TRL), Una McGaughrin (LDY) Sam Carman (WSP), Tom Ewings (TRL), Una McGaughrin (LDY) Peter O’Brien (LDY), Ross Paradise (TRL), Christianne Strubbe Peter O’Brien (LDY), Ross Paradise (TRL), Christianne Strubbe (Hampshire County Council), Iain York (TRL)

(Hampshire County Council), Iain York (TRL) Graphic design by

Graphic design by Llewelyn Davies Yeang (Ros Shakibi,Llewelyn Davies Yeang (Ros Shakibi, Ting LamTang and Thanh Tung Uong, with artwork Ting LamTang and Thanh Tung Uong, with artwork by Alexandra Steed) and overseen by

by Alexandra Steed) and overseen by Ela Ginalska (Department for Transport) Ela Ginalska (Department for Transport) Steering group

Steering group

The Project Steering Group included: The Project Steering Group included:

Bob Bennett (Planning Ofcers Society), Edward Chorlton Bob Bennett (Planning Ofcers Society), Edward Chorlton (Devon County Council), Vince Christie

(Devon County Council), Vince Christie (Local Government(Local Government Association), Wayne Duerden

Association), Wayne Duerden (Department for Tran(Department for Transport)sport) Louise Duggan (Commission for Architecture and the Louise Duggan (Commission for Architecture and the BuiltBuilt Environment), Ray Farrow (Home Builders’

Environment), Ray Farrow (Home Builders’ Federation)Federation) George Hazel (Urban Design Alliance), Ed Hobson

George Hazel (Urban Design Alliance), Ed Hobson (Commission for(Commission for Architectu

Architecture and re and the Built Environment), Gereint the Built Environment), Gereint KillaKilla (Department for Tra

(Department for Transport), Grahame nsport), Grahame Lawson (Disabled PersonsLawson (Disabled Persons T

Transport Advisory Committee), Spencer ransport Advisory Committee), Spencer Palmer (Department Palmer (Department forfor Transport), John Smart (Institution of Highways and Transportation), Transport), John Smart (Institution of Highways and Transportation), Larry Townsend (Communities and Local Government),

Larry Townsend (Communities and Local Government), Polly Turton (Commission for Architecture and the Built Polly Turton (Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment), David

Environment), David Williams (Department for Transport),Williams (Department for Transport), Mario Wolf (Communities and Local Government), Mario Wolf (Communities and Local Government), Philip Wright (Health & Safety Executive) Philip Wright (Health & Safety Executive) Sounding board

Sounding board

Further advice was received from

Further advice was received from an invited Sounding Boardan invited Sounding Board consisting of:

consisting of:

Tony Aston (Guide Dogs for the Blind Association), David Balcombe Tony Aston (Guide Dogs for the Blind Association), David Balcombe (Essex County Council), Peter Barker (Guide Dogs for the Blind (Essex County Council), Peter Barker (Guide Dogs for the Blind Association), Richard Button (Colchester Borough

Association), Richard Button (Colchester Borough Council)Council)

Jo Cleary (Friends of the Lake District), Meredith Evans (Borough of Jo Cleary (Friends of the Lake District), Meredith Evans (Borough of Telford & Wrekin Council), Tom Franklin (Living Streets),

Telford & Wrekin Council), Tom Franklin (Living Streets), Jenny Frew (English Heritage), Stephen Hardy (Dorset County Jenny Frew (English Heritage), Stephen Hardy (Dorset County Council), Richard Hebditch (Living Streets), Ian Howes (Colchester Council), Richard Hebditch (Living Streets), Ian Howes (Colchester Borough Council), Andrew Linfoot (Halcrow), Peter Lipman Borough Council), Andrew Linfoot (Halcrow), Peter Lipman (Sustrans), Ciaran McKeon (Dublin Transport Ofce), Elizabeth Moon, (Sustrans), Ciaran McKeon (Dublin Transport Ofce), Elizabeth Moon, (Essex County

(Essex County Council), Nelia Parmaklieva (Colchester BoroughCouncil), Nelia Parmaklieva (Colchester Borough Council), Mark Sackett (RPS),

Council), Mark Sackett (RPS), Paul Sheard (LeicestershirePaul Sheard (Leicestershire County Council), Alex Sully

County Council), Alex Sully (Cycling England), Carol Thomas(Cycling England), Carol Thomas (Guide Dogs for

(Guide Dogs for the Blind Association), Andy Yeomansonthe Blind Association), Andy Yeomanson (Leicestershir

(Leicestershire County e County Council), Emily Walsh Council), Emily Walsh (Solihull Metropolitan(Solihull Metropolitan Borough Council), Leon Yates (London Borough of Lewisham) Borough Council), Leon Yates (London Borough of Lewisham)

Additional consultation and advice Additional consultation and advice

Additional consultation took place with the following: Additional consultation took place with the following:

Mark Ainsworth (George Wimpey), John Barrell (Jacobs Consultancy), Mark Ainsworth (George Wimpey), John Barrell (Jacobs Consultancy), Terry Brown (GMW Architects), Hywel Butts (Welsh Assembly Terry Brown (GMW Architects), Hywel Butts (Welsh Assembly Government), David Coatham (Institution of

Government), David Coatham (Institution of Lighting Engineers),Lighting Engineers), Mike Darwin (Leeds City Council), Adrian Lord (Arup /

Mike Darwin (Leeds City Council), Adrian Lord (Arup / Cycling England), Kevin Pearson (Avon Fire & Rescue Service), Cycling England), Kevin Pearson (Avon Fire & Rescue Service), Michael Powis (Nottinghamshire Police), Gary Kemp (Disabled Michael Powis (Nottinghamshire Police), Gary Kemp (Disabled Persons Tra

Persons Transport Advisory nsport Advisory Committee), Malcolm ListerCommittee), Malcolm Lister (London Borough of Hounslow)

(London Borough of Hounslow)

In addition to those already listed, substantial comments In addition to those already listed, substantial comments on drafts of the manual were received from:

on drafts of the manual were received from: Duncan Barratt (West Sussex County Council), Neil Duncan Barratt (West Sussex County Council), Neil BenisonBenison (Warwickshi

(Warwickshire County Council), re County Council), Daniel Black (Sustrans),Daniel Black (Sustrans), Rob Carmen (Medway Council), Greg Devine

Rob Carmen (Medway Council), Greg Devine (Surrey County Council), John

(Surrey County Council), John Emslie (MVA Consultancy),Emslie (MVA Consultancy), Heather Evans (Cyclists’ Touring Club), David Groves (Cornwall Heather Evans (Cyclists’ Touring Club), David Groves (Cornwall County Council), Steve Mead (Derbyshire County

County Council), Steve Mead (Derbyshire County Council),Council), Christine Robinson (Essex County Council), Mick Sankus Christine Robinson (Essex County Council), Mick Sankus (Medway Council), Mike Schneider (North Somerset (Medway Council), Mike Schneider (North Somerset BoroughBorough Council), Graham Paul Smith (Oxford Brookes University), Council), Graham Paul Smith (Oxford Brookes University), Fiona Webb (Mid Bedfordshire District Council), Bob White Fiona Webb (Mid Bedfordshire District Council), Bob White (Kent County Council)

(Kent County Council) Case studies Case studies

A number of case studies were

A number of case studies were investigated in the compilatiinvestigated in the compilationon if the Manual. These are listed

if the Manual. These are listed below, along with thebelow, along with the individuals who provided assistance:

individuals who provided assistance: •

• Beaulieu Beaulieu Park, Park, Chelmsford:Chelmsford:

Sarah Hill-Sanders, Chelmsford Borough Council Sarah Hill-Sanders, Chelmsford Borough Council Chris Robinson, Essex County Council

Chris Robinson, Essex County Council •

• Charlton Charlton Down, Down, Dorset:Dorset: Stephen Hardy, Dorset County Stephen Hardy, Dorset County CouncilCouncil Ian Madgwick, Dorset County Council Ian Madgwick, Dorset County Council •

• Crown Crown Street, Street, Glasgow:Glasgow:

Elaine Murray, Glasgow City Council Elaine Murray, Glasgow City Council Mic Ralph, Glasgow City Council Mic Ralph, Glasgow City Council Stephen Rigg, CZWG Architects Stephen Rigg, CZWG Architects •

• Darwin Darwin Park, Park, Licheld:Licheld:

Steve Clarke, Staffordshire County Council Steve Clarke, Staffordshire County Council Ian Thompson, Licheld District Council Ian Thompson, Licheld District Council •

• Hulme, Hulme, Manchester:Manchester:

Kevin Gillham, Manchester City Council Kevin Gillham, Manchester City Council Brian Kerridge, Manchester City Brian Kerridge, Manchester City CouncilCouncil •

• Limehouse Fields, Limehouse Fields, TTower ower Hamlets:Hamlets:

Angelina Eke, Tower Hamlets Borough Council Angelina Eke, Tower Hamlets Borough Council John Hilder, Tower Hamlets Borough Council John Hilder, Tower Hamlets Borough Council •

• New New Hall, Hall, Harlow:Harlow: Alex Cochrane, Roger

Alex Cochrane, Roger Evans AssociatesEvans Associates Keith Lawson, Essex County Council Keith Lawson, Essex County Council Mriganka Saxena, Roger Evans Associates Mriganka Saxena, Roger Evans Associates •

• Pirelli Pirelli site, site, Eastleigh:Eastleigh:

Dave Francis, Eastleigh Borough Council Dave Francis, Eastleigh Borough Council Eric Reed, Eastleigh Borough Council Eric Reed, Eastleigh Borough Council •

• Queen Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth Park, Park, Guildford:Guildford: David Barton, Guildford Borough Council David Barton, Guildford Borough Council David Taylor, Surrey County Council David Taylor, Surrey County Council •

• Staithes Staithes South South Bank, Bank, Gateshead:Gateshead: Alastair Andrew, Gateshead Council Alastair Andrew, Gateshead Council Andy Szandrowski, Gateshead Council Andy Szandrowski, Gateshead Council

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Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 

Status and application

Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets (MfS) supersedes(MfS) supersedes DesignDesign Bulletin 32

Bulletin 32 and its companion guideand its companion guide Places,Places, Streets and Movement

Streets and Movement , which are now, which are now

withdrawn in England and Wales. It complements withdrawn in England and Wales. It complements Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing

Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing andand

Planning Policy Wales

Planning Policy Wales. MfS comprises technical. MfS comprises technical guidance and does not set out any new policy or guidance and does not set out any new policy or legal requirements.

legal requirements. MfS focuses on

MfS focuses on lightly-trafcked residentiallightly-trafcked residential streets, but many of its key principles may be streets, but many of its key principles may be applicable to other types of

applicable to other types of street, for examplestreet, for example high streets and lightly-trafcked lanes in rural high streets and lightly-trafcked lanes in rural areas. It is the responsibility of users of MfS areas. It is the responsibility of users of MfS to ensure that its application to the design of to ensure that its application to the design of streets not specically

streets not specically covered is appropriate.covered is appropriate.

MfS does not apply to the trunk

MfS does not apply to the trunk road network.road network. The design requirements for trunk roads are The design requirements for trunk roads are set out in the

set out in the Design Manual for Roads andDesign Manual for Roads and Bridges

Bridges (DMRB).(DMRB).

MfS only applies formally in England and Wales. MfS only applies formally in England and Wales. The policy, legal and technical

The policy, legal and technical frameworksframeworks are generally the same in England and Wales, are generally the same in England and Wales, but where differences exist these are made clear. but where differences exist these are made clear.

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

 Manual for StreetsManual for Streets

Foreword

Streets are the arteries of our communities – Streets are the arteries of our communities – a community’s success can depend on how well a community’s success can depend on how well it is connected to local services and the

it is connected to local services and the widerwider world. However

world. However, it , it is all is all too easy to forget thattoo easy to forget that streets are not just there to get people from streets are not just there to get people from A to B. In reality, streets have many other A to B. In reality, streets have many other functions. They form vital components of functions. They form vital components of residential areas and greatly affect the overall residential areas and greatly affect the overall quality of life for local people.

quality of life for local people.

Places and streets that have stood the

Places and streets that have stood the testtest

of time are those where trafc and other of time are those where trafc and other activities have

activities have been integrated successfully,been integrated successfully, and where buildings and spaces, and the needs and where buildings and spaces, and the needs of people, not just of their

of people, not just of their vehicles, shape thevehicles, shape the area. Experience suggests that many of the area. Experience suggests that many of the street patterns built today will

street patterns built today will last for hundredslast for hundreds of years. We owe it to present and future

of years. We owe it to present and future generations to create well-designed places that generations to create well-designed places that will serve the needs of the local community well. will serve the needs of the local community well. In 2003, we

In 2003, we published detailed researchpublished detailed research11_which_which

demonstrate

demonstrated that the d that the combined effect of thecombined effect of the existing policy, legal and technical

existing policy, legal and technical frameworkframework was not helping to generate consistently good was not helping to generate consistently good quality streets. Without changes this framework quality streets. Without changes this framework was holding back the creation of

was holding back the creation of the sustainablethe sustainable residential environments that communities need residential environments that communities need and deserve.

and deserve.

As a society, we have learned to appreciate As a society, we have learned to appreciate the value of a clear

the value of a clear and well-connected streetand well-connected street

network, well dened public and private spaces, network, well dened public and private spaces, and streets that can be used in safety by a wide and streets that can be used in safety by a wide range of people. We also understand the benets range of people. We also understand the benets of ensuring that the different functions of streets of ensuring that the different functions of streets are integral to their design from the outset. But are integral to their design from the outset. But we need to do more to recognise the role that we need to do more to recognise the role that streets play in the life of a community, particularly streets play in the life of a community, particularly the positive opportunities that they can bring the positive opportunities that they can bring for social interaction. T

for social interaction. To achieve o achieve this we this we needneed strong leadership and clear vision. Importantly, we strong leadership and clear vision. Importantly, we need to tackle climate change, and helping and need to tackle climate change, and helping and encouraging people to choose more sustainable encouraging people to choose more sustainable ways of getting around will be key.

ways of getting around will be key. Manual for Streets explains how to

Manual for Streets explains how to respond torespond to these issues. Although it does not set out

these issues. Although it does not set out newnew

policy or legislation, it shows how the design policy or legislation, it shows how the design of residential streets can be enhanced. It also of residential streets can be enhanced. It also advises on how street design can help create advises on how street design can help create better places – places with local distinctiveness better places – places with local distinctiveness and identity. In addition, it establishes a

and identity. In addition, it establishes a commoncommon refer

reference point for all ence point for all those involved in those involved in thethe design of residential neighbourhoods. design of residential neighbourhoods.

This publication represents a strong Government This publication represents a strong Government and Welsh Assembly commitment to the creation and Welsh Assembly commitment to the creation of sustainable and inclusive public spaces. We of sustainable and inclusive public spaces. We hope that everyone who plays a part in making hope that everyone who plays a part in making and shaping the built environment will

and shaping the built environment will embraceembrace

its principles to help deliver places that work for its principles to help deliver places that work for communities now, and in the future.

communities now, and in the future.

1

1 DfT, DfT, ODPM ODPM (July (July 2003)2003) Better Streets, Better Better Streets, Better Places – Delivering Places – Delivering Sustainable Residential Sustainable Residential Environments: PPG3 Environments: PPG3 and Highway Adoption and Highway Adoption.. London: ODPM. London: ODPM. Gillian Merron MP Gillian Merron MP Transport Minister Transport Minister

Baroness Andrews OBE Baroness Andrews OBE Parliamentary Under Parliamentary Under Secretary of State Secretary of State Communities and Local Communities and Local Government

Government

Tamsin Dunwoody AM Tamsin Dunwoody AM Deputy Minister for Enterprise, Deputy Minister for Enterprise, Innovation and Networks Innovation and Networks Deputy Minist

Deputy Minister for Environment,er for Environment, Planning & Countryside

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Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 

Preface

Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets (MfS) replaces(MfS) replaces DesignDesign Bulletin 32

Bulletin 32, rst published in 1977, and its, rst published in 1977, and its companion guide

companion guide Places, Streets and Movement Places, Streets and Movement .. It puts well-designed residential streets at the It puts well-designed residential streets at the heart of sustainable communities.

heart of sustainable communities. For too long the focus has been on the For too long the focus has been on the movement function of

movement function of residential streets. residential streets. TheThe result has often been

result has often been places that are dominatedplaces that are dominated by motor vehicles to the extent that they by motor vehicles to the extent that they fail tofail to make a positive contribution to the quality of make a positive contribution to the quality of life. MfS demonstrates the benets that ow life. MfS demonstrates the benets that ow from good design and assigns a higher priority

from good design and assigns a higher priority toto

pedestrians and cyclists, setting out an approach pedestrians and cyclists, setting out an approach to residential streets that recognises their role

to residential streets that recognises their role inin

creating places that work for all members of the creating places that work for all members of the community

community. MfS refocuses on the . MfS refocuses on the place functionplace function of residential streets, giving clear guidance on of residential streets, giving clear guidance on how to achieve well-designed streets and

how to achieve well-designed streets and spacesspaces

that serve the community in a

that serve the community in a range of ways.range of ways. MfS updates the link between planning policy MfS updates the link between planning policy and residential street design. It challenges some and residential street design. It challenges some established working practices and standards that established working practices and standards that are failing to produce good-quality outcomes, are failing to produce good-quality outcomes, and asks professionals to think

and asks professionals to think differedifferently aboutntly about their role in creating successful neighbourhoods. their role in creating successful neighbourhoods. It places particular emphasis on the importance It places particular emphasis on the importance of collaborative working and coordinated of collaborative working and coordinated decision-making, as well as on the value of decision-making, as well as on the value of strong leadership and a clear vision of design strong leadership and a clear vision of design quality at the local level.

quality at the local level. Research carried out in the

Research carried out in the preparapreparation oftion of Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets indicated that many of theindicated that many of the criteria routinely applied in street design are criteria routinely applied in street design are based on questionable or outdated practice. based on questionable or outdated practice. For example, it showed that, when long

For example, it showed that, when long forwardforward

visibility is provided and

visibility is provided and generous carriagewaygenerous carriageway width is specied, driving

width is specied, driving speeds tend tospeeds tend to increase. This demonstrate

increase. This demonstrates that s that driver behaviourdriver behaviour is not xed; rather, it can be inuenced by

is not xed; rather, it can be inuenced by

the environment. MfS addresses these points, the environment. MfS addresses these points, recommending revised key geometric design recommending revised key geometric design criteria to allow streets to

criteria to allow streets to be designed as placesbe designed as places in their own right while still ensuring that road in their own right while still ensuring that road safety is maintained.

safety is maintained.

MfS is clear that uncoordinated decision-making MfS is clear that uncoordinated decision-making can result in disconnected, bland places that can result in disconnected, bland places that fail to make a contribution to the creation fail to make a contribution to the creation of thriving communities. It recommends that of thriving communities. It recommends that development teams are established to

development teams are established to negotiatenegotiate issues in the round and retain a focus on the issues in the round and retain a focus on the creation of locally distinct, high-quality

creation of locally distinct, high-quality places.places. Where high levels of change are anticipated, Where high levels of change are anticipated, designers and other

designers and other stakeholders are encouragedstakeholders are encouraged to work together strategically from an

to work together strategically from an earlyearly stage. MfS also recommends the use of tools stage. MfS also recommends the use of tools such as masterplans and design codes.

such as masterplans and design codes.

Neighbourhoods where buildings, streets and Neighbourhoods where buildings, streets and spaces combine to create locally distinct spaces combine to create locally distinct placesplaces and which make a positive contribution to the and which make a positive contribution to the life of local communities need to become more life of local communities need to become more widespread

widespread. MfS . MfS provides a clear frameworkprovides a clear framework for the use of

for the use of local systems and procedures;local systems and procedures; it also identies the tools available to ensure it also identies the tools available to ensure that growth and change are planned for and that growth and change are planned for and managed in an

managed in an integrated wayintegrated way. The aspirations. The aspirations of MfS – interdisciplinary working, strategic of MfS – interdisciplinary working, strategic coordination and balanced decision making – coordination and balanced decision making – will only become a reality

will only become a reality if they are developedif they are developed and applied at a local level. This is already and applied at a local level. This is already happening in some places, and the results are happening in some places, and the results are promising – this document aims to make the promising – this document aims to make the adoption of such practice the norm.

adoption of such practice the norm.

MfS does not set out new policy or introduce MfS does not set out new policy or introduce new additional burdens on local authorities, new additional burdens on local authorities, highway authorities or developers. Rather highway authorities or developers. Rather it presents guidance on how to do things it presents guidance on how to do things differ

differently within ently within the existing policy, technicalthe existing policy, technical and legal framework.

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Context and process

A

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Introduction

11

C C o o u u n n t t r r y y s s i i d d e e P P r r o o p p e e r r t t i i e e s s

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Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 1111

1.1

1.1 Aims

Aims of

of the

the document

document

1.1.1

1.1.1 There There is is a a need need to to bring bring about about aa transf

transformation in the ormation in the quality of streets. Thisquality of streets. This requires a fundamental culture change in the requires a fundamental culture change in the way streets are designed and adopted, including way streets are designed and adopted, including a more collaborative approach between the design a more collaborative approach between the design prof

professions and other essions and other stakeholders. People needstakeholders. People need to think creatively about their various roles in to think creatively about their various roles in the process of delivering streets, breaking away the process of delivering streets, breaking away from standardised, prescriptive, risk-averse from standardised, prescriptive, risk-averse methods to create high-quality places. methods to create high-quality places.

1.1.2 S

1.1.2 Streets make up the greater part of thetreets make up the greater part of the public realm.

public realm. Better-desBetter-designed streets igned streets therefothereforere contribute signicantly to the quality of the built contribute signicantly to the quality of the built environment and play a key role in the creation environment and play a key role in the creation of sustainable, inclusive, mixed communities of sustainable, inclusive, mixed communities consistent with the policy objectives of

consistent with the policy objectives of PlanningPlanning Policy Statement 1: Delivering Sustainable Policy Statement 1: Delivering Sustainable Development

Development (PPS1)(PPS1)11_{,, Planning Policy Statement}_{Planning Policy Statement}

3: Housing

3: Housing (PPS3)(PPS3)22_and_{and Planning Policy Wales}_{Planning Policy Wales}

(PPW). (PPW).33

1.1.3

1.1.3 Manual for StreetsManual for Streets (MfS) is expected(MfS) is expected to be used predominantly for the design, to be used predominantly for the design,

construction, adoption and maintenance of new construction, adoption and maintenance of new residential streets, but it is also applicable to residential streets, but it is also applicable to existing residential streets subject to re-design. existing residential streets subject to re-design. For new streets, MfS advocates a

For new streets, MfS advocates a return to morereturn to more traditional patterns which are easier to

traditional patterns which are easier to assimilateassimilate into existing built-up areas and which have

into existing built-up areas and which have beenbeen

proven to stand the test of time in many

proven to stand the test of time in many ways.ways.

1.1.4

1.1.4 Streets Streets should should not not be be designed designed just just toto accommodat

accommodate the movement e the movement of motor vehicles.of motor vehicles. It is important that designers place a high priority It is important that designers place a high priority

Figure 1.1 Streets should be attractive places that Figure 1.1 Streets should be attractive places that meet the needs of all users.

meet the needs of all users.

on meeting the needs of pedestrians, cyclists and on meeting the needs of pedestrians, cyclists and public transport users, so that growth in

public transport users, so that growth in thesethese modes of travel is encouraged (Fig. 1.1).

modes of travel is encouraged (Fig. 1.1).

1.1.5

1.1.5 MfS aims MfS aims to to assist assist in in the the creation creation ofof streets that:

streets that: •

• help help to to build build and and strengthen strengthen thethe communities they serve;

communities they serve; •

• meet meet the the needs needs of of all all users, users, by by embodyingembodying the principles of inclusive design (see box); the principles of inclusive design (see box); •

• form form part part of of a a well-connected well-connected network;network; •

• are are attractive attractive and and have have their their ownown distinctive identity;

distinctive identity; •

• are are cost-effcost-effective ective to to construct construct andand maintain; and

maintain; and •

• are are safe.safe.

The principles of inclusive design The principles of inclusive design

Inclusive design: Inclusive design:44

•

• places places people apeople at the t the heart of heart of the design the design process;process; •

• acknowledges acknowledges diversity diversity and and differdifference;ence; •

• offers offers choice choice where where a sa single solution ingle solution cannotcannot accommodat

accommodate all e all users;users; •

• provides provides for for exibility exibility in in use; use; andand •

• provides provides buildings buildings and and environments environments that that areare convenient and enjoyable to use for everyone. convenient and enjoyable to use for everyone.

1.1.6

1.1.6 MfS MfS discourages discourages the the building building ofof streets that are:

streets that are: •

• primarily primarily designed designed to to meet meet the the needs needs ofof motor trafc;

motor trafc; •

• bland bland and and unattractive;unattractive; •

• unsafe unsafe and and unwelcomiunwelcoming ng to to pedestrianspedestrians and cyclists;

and cyclists; •

• difcult difcult to to serve serve by by public public transport; transport; andand •

• poorly poorly designed designed and and constructed constructed (Fig. (Fig. 1.2).1.2).

1

1 Ofce Ofce of of the the DeputyDeputy Prime Minister (ODPM) Prime Minister (ODPM) (2005)

(2005) Planning Policy Planning Policy Statement 1: Delivering Statement 1: Delivering Sustainable Development. Sustainable Development.

London: The Stationery London: The Stationery Ofce (TSO).

Ofce (TSO). 2

2 Communities Communities and and LocalLocal Government (2006) Government (2006) Planning Policy Statement Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing.

3: Housing. London: TSO.London: TSO. 3

3 Welsh Welsh AssemblyAssembly Government (2002). Government (2002). Planning Policy Wales. Planning Policy Wales. Cardiff: National Assembly Cardiff: National Assembly for Wales (NAfW). for Wales (NAfW). Chapter 2, Planning for Chapter 2, Planning for Sustainability.

Sustainability. 4

4 Commission Commission forfor

Architecture and the Built Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) Environment (CABE) (2006)

(2006) The Principles of The Principles of Inclusive Design (They Inclusive Design (They Include You)

Include You). London:. London: CABE. (

CABE. (WalesWales: See: See also Welsh Assembly also Welsh Assembly Government (2002). Government (2002). T

Technical Advice Note echnical Advice Note 12:12: Design.

Design. Cardiff: NAfW.Cardiff: NAfW. Chapter 5, Design Issues.) Chapter 5, Design Issues.)

Chapter aims Chapter aims

•

• Set out the aims ofSet out the aims of Manual for StreetsManual for Streets.. •

• Explain the status ofExplain the status of Manual for StreetsManual for Streets

and its relationship with local

and its relationship with local designdesign standards and the

standards and the Design Manual for Design Manual for Roads and Bridges

Roads and Bridges..

•

• Promote greater collaboration betweenPromote greater collaboration between

all those involved in

all those involved in the design, approvalthe design, approval and adoption

and adoption processesprocesses..

•

• Summarise key changes from Summarise key changes from previousprevious

guidance. guidance.

C C o o u u n n t t r r y y s s i i d d e e P P r r o o p p e e r r t t i i e e s s

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12

12 Manual for StreetsManual for Streets

1.1.7

1.1.7 For For the the purposes purposes of of this this document,document, aa street is dened as a highway that has important street is dened as a highway that has important public realm functions beyond the movement of public realm functions beyond the movement of

trafc

trafc. Most critically, streets should have a sense. Most critically, streets should have a sense of place, which is mainly realised through local of place, which is mainly realised through local distinctiveness and sensitivity in design. They also distinctiveness and sensitivity in design. They also provide direct access to the buildings and the provide direct access to the buildings and the spaces that line them. Most highways in built-up spaces that line them. Most highways in built-up areas can therefore be considered as streets. areas can therefore be considered as streets.

1.2

1.2 Who

Who the

the manual

manual is

is for

for

1.2.1

1.2.1 MfS MfS is is directed directed to to all all those those with with aa part to play in the

part to play in the planning, design, approvalplanning, design, approval or adoption of new residential streets, and or adoption of new residential streets, and modications to existing

modications to existing residential streets. Thisresidential streets. This includes the following (in

includes the following (in alphabetical order):alphabetical order):

• Organisations:

– developers; – developers; –

– disability and other user groups;disability and other user groups; –

– emergency services;emergency services; –

– highway and trafc authorities;highway and trafc authorities; – planning authorities;

– planning authorities; –

– public transport providerspublic transport providers;; –

– utility and drainage companies; andutility and drainage companies; and – waste collection authorities.

– waste collection authorities.

• Professions:

–

– access/acaccess/accessibility ofcers;cessibility ofcers; – arboriculturists; – arboriculturists; – architects; – architects; – drainage engineers; – drainage engineers; – highway/trafc engineers; – highway/trafc engineers; –

– landscape architelandscape architects;cts;

– local authority risk managers; – local authority risk managers; –

– police architecturapolice architectural liaison ofcers andl liaison ofcers and crime prevention ofcers;

crime prevention ofcers; – r

– road safety auditors;oad safety auditors; – street lighting engineers; – street lighting engineers; – town planners; – town planners; – transport planners; – transport planners; – urban designers. – urban designers. 1.2.2

1.2.2 These lists These lists are are not not exhaustive exhaustive and and therethere are other groups with a stake in the

are other groups with a stake in the design ofdesign of streets. Local communities, elected

streets. Local communities, elected membersmembers

and civic groups, in

and civic groups, in particular, are encouraged toparticular, are encouraged to make use of this document.

make use of this document. 1.2.3

1.2.3 MfS covers a broad range of issuesMfS covers a broad range of issues and it is recommended that

and it is recommended that practitioners readpractitioners read every section regardless of their specic area of every section regardless of their specic area of interest

interest . This will create a . This will create a better understandingbetter understanding of the many and, in

of the many and, in some cases, conictingsome cases, conicting

priorities that can arise. A good design will priorities that can arise. A good design will represent a balance of views with any conicts represent a balance of views with any conicts resolved through compromise and

resolved through compromise and creativitycreativity..

1.3

1.3 Promoting

Promoting joint

joint working

working

1.3.1

1.3.1 In In the the past past street street design design has has beenbeen dominated by some stakeholders at the

dominated by some stakeholders at the expenseexpense

of others, often resulting in uni

of others, often resulting in unimaginativelymaginatively designed streets which tend to favour

designed streets which tend to favour motoristsmotorists over other users.

over other users. 1.3.

1.3.2 2 MfS MfS aims aims to to address address this this by by encouragingencouraging a more holistic approach to street design, while a more holistic approach to street design, while assigning a higher priority to the needs of assigning a higher priority to the needs of pedestrians, cyclists and public transport. The pedestrians, cyclists and public transport. The intention is to

intention is to create streets that encouragecreate streets that encourage greater social interaction and enjoyment while still greater social interaction and enjoyment while still performing successfully as conduits for movement. performing successfully as conduits for movement. 1.3.3

1.3.3 It It is is important important for for the the various various parts parts ofof local government to work together when giving local government to work together when giving input to a development proposal. Developers may input to a development proposal. Developers may be faced with conicting requirements if different be faced with conicting requirements if different parts of local government fail to coordinate their parts of local government fail to coordinate their input. This can cause delay and a loss of design input. This can cause delay and a loss of design quality.

quality. This is particulThis is particularly problematic whenarly problematic when one section of a l

one section of a local authority – for exampleocal authority – for example the highway adoption or maintenance engineers the highway adoption or maintenance engineers – become involved late on in the

– become involved late on in the process andprocess and require signicant changes to the design. A require signicant changes to the design. A collaborative process is required from the outset. collaborative process is required from the outset.

1.

1.4

4 DMRB

DMRB and

and other

other design

design standards

standards

1.4.1

1.4.1 The The Department Department for for TTransport ransport does does notnot set design standards for highways – these

set design standards for highways – these are setare set by the relevant highway

by the relevant highway authority.authority.

A A n n d d r r e e w w C C a a m m e e r r o o n n , , W W S S P P

Figure 1.2 Streets should not be

Figure 1.2 Streets should not be bland andbland and unwelcoming.

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Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 1313

1.4.2

1.4.2 The The Secretary Secretary of of State State for for TTransport ransport isis the highway authority for trunk roads in England the highway authority for trunk roads in England and acts through the Highways Agency (HA). and acts through the Highways Agency (HA). In Wales the Welsh Assembly Government is

In Wales the Welsh Assembly Government is thethe

highway authority for trunk

highway authority for trunk roads. The standarroads. The standardd for trunk roads is the

for trunk roads is the Design Manual for RoadsDesign Manual for Roads and Bridges

and Bridges (DMRB).(DMRB).55

1.4.3

1.4.3 Some Some trunk trunk roads roads could could be be describeddescribed as ‘streets’ within the denition given in MfS, as ‘streets’ within the denition given in MfS, but their strategic nature means that

but their strategic nature means that trafctrafc movement is their primary function. MfS

movement is their primary function. MfS doesdoes

not apply to trunk roads. not apply to trunk roads. 1.4.4

1.4.4 The The DMRB DMRB is is not not an an appropriate appropriate designdesign standard for most streets, particularly those in standard for most streets, particularly those in lightly-trafcked residential and mixed-use lightly-trafcked residential and mixed-use areas.areas. 1.4.5

1.4.5 Although Although MfS MfS provides provides guidance guidance onon technical matters, local standards and design technical matters, local standards and design guidance are important tools for designing guidance are important tools for designing in accordance with the local

in accordance with the local context. Manycontext. Many local highway authorities have

local highway authorities have developed theirdeveloped their own standards and guidance. Some of these own standards and guidance. Some of these documents, particularly those published in recent documents, particularly those published in recent years, have addressed issues of placemaking years, have addressed issues of placemaking and urban design, but most have not.

and urban design, but most have not. It isIt is

therefore strongly recommended that local therefore strongly recommended that local authorities review their standards and guidance to authorities review their standards and guidance to embrace the principles of MfS

embrace the principles of MfS. Local standards. Local standards and guidance should focus on creating and and guidance should focus on creating and improving local distinctiveness through the improving local distinctiveness through the appropriate

appropriate choice choice of layouts and mateof layouts and materials whilerials while adhering to the overall guidance given in MfS. adhering to the overall guidance given in MfS.

1.5

1.5 Development

Development of

of Manual

Manual

for Streets

1.5.1

1.5.1 The The preparation preparation of of MfS MfS waswas recommended in

recommended in Better Streets, Better PlacesBetter Streets, Better Places,,66

which advised on how

which advised on how to overcome barriers toto overcome barriers to the creation of better quality streets.

the creation of better quality streets. 1.5.2

1.5.2 MfS MfS has has been been produced produced as as aa collaborative eff

collaborative effort involving a ort involving a wide range of keywide range of key stakeholders with an interest in

stakeholders with an interest in street design.street design. It has been developed by a multi-disciplinary It has been developed by a multi-disciplinary team of highway engineers, urban designers, team of highway engineers, urban designers, planners and

planners and researchersresearchers. The recommendations. The recommendations contained herein are based on a combination of: contained herein are based on a combination of: •

• primary research;primary research; •

• a a review review of of existing existing research;research; •

• case case studies;studies;

•

• existing existing good good practice practice guidance; guidance; andand •

• consultation consultation with with stakeholders stakeholders and and practitioners.practitioners. 1.5.1

1.5.1 During its During its preparation, preparation, efforts efforts havehave been made to ensure that

been made to ensure that MfS represents aMfS represents a broad consensus and that it

broad consensus and that it is widely acceptedis widely accepted as good practice.

as good practice.

1.6

1.6 Changes

Changes in

in approach

approach

1.6.1

1.6.1 The The main main changes changes in in the the approach approach toto street design that MfS

street design that MfS recommends arerecommends are as follows:

as follows: •

• applying applying a usa user er hierarchy hierarchy to to the dthe designesign process with pedestrians at the top; process with pedestrians at the top; •

• emphasising emphasising a a collaborativcollaborative e approach approach toto the delivery of

the delivery of streets;streets; •

• recognising recognising the the importance importance of of thethe community function of

community function of streets as spaces forstreets as spaces for social interaction;

social interaction; •

• promoting promoting an an inclusive inclusive environment environment thatthat recognises the needs of people of all ages recognises the needs of people of all ages and abilities;

and abilities; •

• reecting reecting and and supporting supporting pedestrian pedestrian desiredesire lines in networks and detailed designs; lines in networks and detailed designs; •

• developing developing masterplans masterplans and and preparingpreparing design codes that implement them for design codes that implement them for larger-scale developments, and using larger-scale developments, and using design and access statements for all design and access statements for all scales of development;

scales of development; •

• creating creating networks networks of of streets streets that that provideprovide permeability and connectivity to main permeability and connectivity to main destinations and a choice of routes; destinations and a choice of routes; •

• moving moving away away from from hierarchies hierarchies of sof standardtandard road types based on trafc ows

road types based on trafc ows and/orand/or

the number of buildings served; the number of buildings served; •

• developing street developing street character character types types on on aa location-specic basis with reference to location-specic basis with reference to both the place and movement functions both the place and movement functions for each street;

for each street; •

• encouraging encouraging innovation innovation with with a a exibleexible approach to street layouts and the use of approach to street layouts and the use of locally distinctive, durable and maintainable locally distinctive, durable and maintainable materials and street furniture;

materials and street furniture; •

• using using quality quality audit audit systems systems thatthat demonstrate how designs will meet

demonstrate how designs will meet keykey

objectives for the local environment; objectives for the local environment; •

• designing designing to to keep keep vehicle vehicle speeds speeds at at oror below 20 mph on residential streets unless below 20 mph on residential streets unless there are overriding reasons

there are overriding reasons for acceptingfor accepting higher speeds; and

higher speeds; and •

• using using the the minimum minimum of of highway highway designdesign features necessary to make the streets features necessary to make the streets work properly.

work properly.

5

5 Highways Highways Agency Agency (1992)(1992) Design Manual for Roads Design Manual for Roads and Bridges

and Bridges. London:. London: TSO.

TSO. 6

6 ODPM ODPM and and DepartmentDepartment for Transport (2003) for Transport (2003) Better Better Streets, Better Places: Streets, Better Places: Delivering Sustainable Delivering Sustainable Residential Environments Residential Environments;; PPG3 and Highway PPG3 and Highway Adoption Adoption London: TSO. London: TSO.

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 

Streets in

Streets in conte

context

xt

2

A A n n d d r r e e w w C C a a m m e e r r o o n n , , W W S S P P

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Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 11

2.1 Introduction

2.1

2.1.1 .1 This This chapter chapter sets sets out out the the overalloverall framework in which streets are designed, framework in which streets are designed, built and maintained.

built and maintained.

2.1.2

2.1.2 The key recommendation is that The key recommendation is that increased consideration should be given to increased consideration should be given to the ‘place’ function of streets

the ‘place’ function of streets. This approach. This approach to addressing the classication of streets to addressing the classication of streets needs to be considered across built-up areas, needs to be considered across built-up areas, including rural towns and villages, so that a including rural towns and villages, so that a better balance between different functions better balance between different functions and street users is achieved.

and street users is achieved.

2.2

2.2 Streets

Streets and

and roads

roads

2.2.1

2.2.1 A A clear clear distinction distinction can can be be drawndrawn between streets and roads. Roads are between streets and roads. Roads are essentially highways whose main function essentially highways whose main function is accommodating the movement of motor is accommodating the movement of motor trafc. Streets are typically lined with trafc. Streets are typically lined with buildings and public spaces, and while buildings and public spaces, and while movement is still a key function, there are movement is still a key function, there are several others, of which the place function several others, of which the place function is the most important (see ‘Streets – an is the most important (see ‘Streets – an historical perspective’ box).

historical perspective’ box).

Chapter aims Chapter aims

•

• Explain the distinction between ‘streets’Explain the distinction between ‘streets’

and ‘roads’. and ‘roads’.

•

• Summarise the key functions of streets.Summarise the key functions of streets. •

• Propose a new approach to deningPropose a new approach to dening

street hierarchies, based on their street hierarchies, based on their signicance in terms of both place signicance in terms of both place and movement.

and movement.

•

• Set out the framework of legislation,Set out the framework of legislation,

standards and guidance that apply to standards and guidance that apply to the design of streets.

the design of streets.

•

• Provide guidance to highway authoritiesProvide guidance to highway authorities

in managing their risk

in managing their risk and liability.and liability.

A A n n d d r r e e w w C C a a m m e e r r o o n n

Streets – an historical perspective Streets – an historical perspective

Most historic places owe their layout to their Most historic places owe their layout to their original function. T

original function. Towns have grown owns have grown up aroundup around a market place (Fig. 2.1), a bridgehead or a a market place (Fig. 2.1), a bridgehead or a harbour; villages were formed according to the harbour; villages were formed according to the pattern of farming and the ownership of the pattern of farming and the ownership of the land. The layouts catered mostly for movement land. The layouts catered mostly for movement on foot. The era of motorised transport and on foot. The era of motorised transport and especially privately-owned motor vehicles has, especially privately-owned motor vehicles has, supercially at least, removed the constraint that supercially at least, removed the constraint that kept urban settlements compact and walkable. kept urban settlements compact and walkable.

When the regulation of roads and streets When the regulation of roads and streets began, spread of re was the main concern. began, spread of re was the main concern. Subsequently health came to the forefront and the Subsequently health came to the forefront and the classic 36 ft wide

classic 36 ft wide bye-law street was devised as abye-law street was devised as a means of ensuring the passage of air

means of ensuring the passage of air in denselyin densely built-up areas. Later, the desire to guarantee that built-up areas. Later, the desire to guarantee that sunshine would get to every house led

sunshine would get to every house led to theto the requirem

requirement for a 70 ft separation between hent for a 70 ft separation between houseouse fronts, and this shaped many developments from fronts, and this shaped many developments from the 1920s onwards.

the 1920s onwards. It was not until

It was not until after the Second World Warafter the Second World War,, and particularly with the dramatic increase in car and particularly with the dramatic increase in car ownership from the 1960s onwards, that trafc ownership from the 1960s onwards, that trafc considerations came to dominate road design. considerations came to dominate road design.

Figure 2.1 Newark: (a) the

Figure 2.1 Newark: (a) the Market Place, 1774;Market Place, 1774; and (b) in 2006. and (b) in 2006. b b a a

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1

1 Manual for StreetsManual for Streets

2.2.5

2.2.5 Streets Streets that that are are good good quality quality placesplaces achieve a number of positive outcomes, creating achieve a number of positive outcomes, creating a virtuous circle:

a virtuous circle: •

• attractive attractive and and well-connected well-connected permeablepermeable street networks encourage more people street networks encourage more people to walk and cycle to local

to walk and cycle to local destinations,destinations, improving their health while reducing motor improving their health while reducing motor trafc, energy use and pollution;

trafc, energy use and pollution;11

•

• more more people people on on the the streets streets leads leads toto improved personal security and

improved personal security and road safetyroad safety – research shows that the

– research shows that the presence ofpresence of pedestrians on streets causes drivers to pedestrians on streets causes drivers to travel more slowly;

travel more slowly;22

•

• people people meeting meeting one one another another on on a a casualcasual basis strengthens communities and basis strengthens communities and encourages a sense of pride in local encourages a sense of pride in local environments; and

environments; and •

• people people who who live live in in good-qualitygood-quality environments are more likely to have environments are more likely to have a sense of ownership and a stake in a sense of ownership and a stake in

maintaining the quality of their local streets maintaining the quality of their local streets and public spaces.

and public spaces. 2.2.6

2.2.6 Well-designed Well-designed streets streets thus thus have have aa crucial part to play in the delivery of sustainable crucial part to play in the delivery of sustainable communities, dened as ‘places where people communities, dened as ‘places where people want to live and work, now

want to live and work, now and in the future’.and in the future’.33

2.2.7

2.2.7 Lanes Lanes in in rural rural areas areas can can provide provide otherother functions than just movement, including various functions than just movement, including various leisure activities such as walking, cycling and leisure activities such as walking, cycling and horse riding.

horse riding.

1

1 Snellen, Snellen, D. D. (1999) (1999) TheThe relationship between relationship between urban form and activity urban form and activity patterns. In

patterns. In ProceedingsProceedings of the European of the European Transport Conference, Transport Conference, Cambridge

Cambridge, 1999. London:, 1999. London: PTRC. pp. 429–439. PTRC. pp. 429–439. 2

2 ODPM ODPM and and Home Home OfceOfce (2004)

(2004) Safer Places: Safer Places: The Planning System The Planning System and Crime Prevention and Crime Prevention.. London: TSO. London: TSO. 3

3 ODPM ODPM (2005)(2005) PlanningPlanning Policy Statement 1: Policy Statement 1: Delivering Sustainable Delivering Sustainable Developments

Developments. London:. London: TSO. (

TSO. (WalesWales: Welsh: Welsh Assembly Government Assembly Government (2002)

(2002) Planning Policy Planning Policy Wales

Wales. Cardiff: NAfW.). Cardiff: NAfW.) _{Figure 2.2 A poor-quality space with a layout where pedestrians and vehicles}_{Figure 2.2 A poor-quality space with a layout where pedestrians and vehicles are segregated. It has not been}_{are segregated. It has not been}

a success and the area is

a success and the area is now undergoing regenernow undergoing regeneration.ation.

2.2.2

2.2.2 Streets Streets have have to to full full a a complex complex varietyvariety of functions in

of functions in order to meet people’s needs asorder to meet people’s needs as places for living, working and moving around places for living, working and moving around in. This requires a careful and multi-disciplinary in. This requires a careful and multi-disciplinary approach that balances potential conicts approach that balances potential conicts between different objectives.

between different objectives. 2.2.3

2.2.3 In In the the decades decades following following the the SecondSecond World War, there was a desire to achieve a clear World War, there was a desire to achieve a clear distinction between two types of highway: distinction between two types of highway: •

• distributor distributor roads, roads, designed designed for for movement,movement, where pedestrians were excluded or, at best, where pedestrians were excluded or, at best, marginalised; and

marginalised; and •

• access access roads, roads, designed designed to to serve serve buildings,buildings, where pedestrians

where pedestrians were accommodated.were accommodated. This led to layouts where buildings were set in This led to layouts where buildings were set in the space between streets rather than on them, the space between streets rather than on them, and where movement on foot and by vehicle was and where movement on foot and by vehicle was segregated

segregated, sometimes using , sometimes using decks, bridges ordecks, bridges or subways. Many developments constructed using subways. Many developments constructed using such layouts have had signicant social

such layouts have had signicant social problemsproblems and have either been demolished or undergone and have either been demolished or undergone major regeneration (Fig. 2.2).

major regeneration (Fig. 2.2).

2.2.4 T

2.2.4 This approach to network planninghis approach to network planning limited multi-functional streets to the most limited multi-functional streets to the most lightly-trafcked routes. This has led to lightly-trafcked routes. This has led to development patterns where busy distributor development patterns where busy distributor roads link relatively small cells of housing. roads link relatively small cells of housing. Such layouts are often not conducive to Such layouts are often not conducive to anything but the shortest of trips on foot or anything but the shortest of trips on foot or by bicycle. It is now widely recognised that by bicycle. It is now widely recognised that there are many advantages in extending the there are many advantages in extending the use of multi-functional streets in urban areas use of multi-functional streets in urban areas to busier routes.