Wheat quality depends on the genetic potential of genotypes, applied technologies and agro-ecological conditions. Its technological quality greatly affects mineral nutrition, especially nitrogen nutrition, which, in interaction with other elements such as phosphorus and potassium, significantly affects wheat yield and quality. The soil-climate conditions are another factor influencing wheat quality and yields (Zecevic et al. 2010). The total concentration of nitrogen and other macronutrients in the upper soil layer can be influenced by the application of organic manures and mineral fertilizers (Hlisnikovský and Kunzová 2014a). Organic manures also positively influence the organic carbon content of the soil (Sradnick et al. 2014) and affect the amount of the microbial biomass in the soil horizon (Geisseler and Scow 2014).
Organic manures have direct and indirect ef-fects. The direct effect consists of slow release of
nutrients into the environment due to the min-eralization process (Hlisnikovský and Kunzová 2014b), while indirect effect consists of a favourable influence on the soil structure (Biau et al. 2012). The combined application of organic manures and mineral fertilizers plays an important role in optimizing soil nutrient pool, increasing crop yields or increasing the efficiency of water use (Zhang et al. 2016).
Long-term experiments are valuable for moni-toring of changes in soil fertility and crop yields that cannot be identified in short-term studies (Duan et al. 2014). Our study is part of a long-term experiment, which is carried out at the Čáslav experimental station. The aim of this study is to provide answers to questions: (i) how mineral fertilizers and farmyard manure influence grain and straw yield of winter wheat, and (ii) how they influence grain quality.
The effect of mineral fertilizers and farmyard manure
on winter wheat grain yield and grain quality
Ladislav HOLÍK*, Lukáš HLISNIKOVSKÝ, Eva KUNZOVÁ
Department of Nutrition Management, Crop Research Institute, Prague, Czech Republic *Corresponding author: holik@vurv.cz
ABSTRACT
Holík L., Hlisnikovský L., Kunzová E. (2018): The effect of mineral fertilizers and farmyard manure on winter wheat grain yield and grain quality. Plant Soil Environ., 64: 491–497.
This study evaluated how organic manures and mineral fertilizers affect winter wheat grain and straw yields and grain quality properties. The analysed period of the long-term fertilizer experiment was established in Čáslav, Czech Republic, in 1955 and covers the seasons 2011–2014. The fertilizer treatments were: control; farmyard ma-nure (FYM); FYM + P; FYM + K; FYM + PK; FYM + N1; FYM + N2; FYM + N1PK; FYM + N2PK and FYM + N3PK. The highest grain yields were recorded in the FYM + P and FYM + N3PK treatments (8.9 t/ha). The highest straw yields were recorded in the FYM + N3PK treatment (6.52 t/ha). The lowest yields were provided in the unfertilized control and FYM treatments. Qualitative parameters were evaluated in the control, FYM and FYM + N3PK treat-ments between the years 2011 and 2013. The best quality of wheat grain was provided by the FYM + N3PK treat-ment. Combination of the farmyard manure with NPK is the best way to achieve high grain yields with good quality and leads to sustainable food production.
Keywords: Triticum aestivum L.; yielding parameters; crude protein content; Zeleny’s sedimentation test; gluten index
Supported by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic, Project No. MZe RO418.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Site description. In 1955, the Čáslav Crop
Rotation Experiment was established in the cen-tral part of the Czech Republic close to the town of Čáslav, 75 km east of Prague (49°53'29''N, 15°23'42''W). The soil is Greyic Phaeozem (WRB 2015), developed on loess, with a 40–50 cm thick humus horizon. The proportion of clay is 20.7% in the arable layer and the soil is loamy. The basic description of the experimental site is shown in Table 1 and Figure 1.
Experimental design. The long-term
experi-ment in Čáslav has been arranged in four neigh-bouring fields. The area of each field is 0.4 ha (1.6 ha altogether). Each field is divided into 8 × 8 m experimental plots (48 plots in each field, 192 monitoring plots altogether). To eliminate the edge effect, only the central 5 m × 5 m area of each 8 m × 8 m experimental plot is used for the determination of yields and soil sample collection. Each field contains four independent replicates of all fertilizer treatments. The crop rotation of the experiment consists of spring barley, red clover, winter wheat, maize, spring barley, rapeseed, triti-cale and potatoes. A pre-crop for winter wheat was potatoes. The height of the stubble after harvest was about 8–10 cm. For the purpose of this paper
10 fertilized treatments were evaluated to analyse the effect of fertilizer treatments on grain and straw yields: unfertilized control (C); farmyard manure (FYM); FYM + P; FYM + K; FYM + PK; FYM + N1; FYM + N2; FYM + N1PK; FYM + N2PK and FYM + N3PK. Three fertilizer treatments were evaluated to analyse the effect of fertilizer treatments on grain quality: C, FYM and FYM + N3PK. Farmyard ma-nure was within the frame of crop rotation applied to the potatoes at the dose 40 t/ha (approximately 200, 56 and 236 kg of N, P and K/ha, respectively). The FYM was applied, as well as mineral P and K fertilizers, in the autumn and was ploughed down immediately after application. Mineral nitrogen was applied as calcium ammonium nitrate and its dose was separated into three equivalent doses (before sowing, early spring – BBCH 30–32 (production) and late spring – BBCH 49–51 (qualitative)). The P and K fertilizers were applied as superphosphate and potassium chloride, respectively. The applica-tion rates of N, P and K (kg/ha) applied to winter wheat are given in Table 2.
[image:2.595.63.534.114.165.2]Winter wheat (cv. Mulan) was sown in October 2010–2013 with a seed depth of 3–4 cm and the dis-tance between rows 12.5 cm. The seeding rate was 190 kg/ha (400 seeds per square meter). Pesticides were used as needed and growth regulators were not used.
Table 1. Basic description of meteorological conditions in the Čáslav crop rotation experiment (2011–2014)
Mean annual temperature (°C) Mean annual precipitation (mm) Cropping
area (m a.s.l.)Altitude 1956–2006 2011 2012 2013 2014 1956–2006 2011 2012 2013 2014
[image:2.595.66.531.588.741.2]8.9 9.9 9.7 9.3 11.4 556 511 640 621 618 sugar beet 263
Figure 1. The mean precipitation and temperature during the years 2011–2014
–10 –5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 T emp er at ure (° C) Pre ci pi ta tio n (m m
) Precipitation
Temperature
Janua ry
April July Octob
er Janua
ry
April July Octob
er Janua
ry
April July Octob
er Janua
ry
April July Octob
er
2011 2012 2013 2014
Analysis of grain properties. Analysis of the grain properties was performed only for grain sam-ples from three fertilizer treatments: C; FYM and FYM + N3PK. The subject of the analysis was thou-sand grain weight (TGW); crude protein content (CP); volume weight (VW); Zeleny’s sedimentation test (ZST); wet gluten content (WG) and gluten index (GI). Crude protein content was analysed according to the Kjeldahl method (ČSN EN ISO 20483, 2007). To describe the baking quality of the wheat in our experiment, the Zeleny´s sedimenta-tion test according to the standard method (ČSN ISO 5529, 2011) was performed, describing the degree of sedimentation of flour suspended in lactic acid solution during a standard time interval. The swelling of the gluten fraction of flour in a lactic acid solution affects the rate of sedimentation of flour suspension. Both, higher gluten content and better gluten quality give rise to slower sedimenta-tion and higher Zeleny’s test values (Hrušková and Faměra 2003). To discover whether the gluten of our wheat was inadequate, sufficient, average, or excel-lent, gluten index was assessed using Glutomatic 2200 (Perten instruments, Hägersten, Sweden) according to the standard method AACC 38-12 (1999). Gluten separated by Glutomatic (Perten) was centrifuged 1 min at 6 000 rpm to force wet gluten through a specially constructed sieve under standardized conditions. The percentage of wet gluten remaining on the sieve after centrifugation was defined as the gluten index.
Data analysis. All statistical analyses were
per-formed using Statistica 13.3 software (www.tibco.
com). The effect of fertilizer treatment over the years was analysed by factorial ANOVA and the effect of the fertilizer treatments during the year by one-way ANOVA. After obtaining significant ANOVA results, a Tukey’s HSD (honestly sig-nificant difference) post hoc test was applied to determine significant differences among individual treatments and years.
RESULTS
Grain yield. In 2011, the highest grain yield was
[image:3.595.63.291.125.314.2]recorded in fertilizer treatments FYM + N3PK (10.77 t/ha) and FYM + P (10.18 t/ha) (Table 3). On the other hand, the lowest grain yields were provided in the control treatment (6.39 t/ha), FYM (7.01 t/ha) and FYM + PK (7.03 t/ha). Application of P and K with FYM provided higher yields than FYM with N1 and N2 (Table 3). The year 2012 showed an overall decrease in yields, for example the mean grain yield in the control treatment was 5.27 t/ha (Table 3). The application of fertilizers (manure, manure with mineral fertilizers) this year did not have a significant impact and mean yields varied from 6.19 t/ha (FYM + K) to 6.79 t/ha (FYM + P). The overall lower yields were recorded also in the following year, 2013. As in 2011, ap-plication of FYM and FYM + PK resulted in com-parable grain yields with the control treatment. All the other treatments provided significantly higher yields (Table 3) in 2013, but overall lower yields compared to 2011, and ranged from 8.46 t/ha (FYM + N1PK) to 8.89 t/ha (FYM + N2). Grain yields in the year 2014 were comparable with the year 2011. No significant differences were recorded between the control, FYM and FYM + PK. The highest grain yields were provided in FYM + N2 (10.32 t/ha) and FYM + P (10.00 t/ha). Comparison of the mean grain yields from individual years shows that the highest grain yields were obtained in 2014 (9.05 t/ha), while the lowest in 2012 (6.39 t/ha). According to MANOVA, the effect of the year (F = 839.0, P < 0.001) was higher than the effect of the fertilizer treatment (F = 166.5, P < 0.001). Comparing the analysed fertilizer treat-ments during 2011–2014, the lowest yields were found at the control treatment. The application of FYM provided the same yields as application of FYM + PK (7.25 t/ha). The best results were found after the application of FYM + P (8.96 t/ha) Table 2. Application rates of N, P and K (kg/ha) applied
to winter wheat
Treatment N P K
Control – – –
FYM (farmyard manure) – – –
FYM + P – 60 –
FYM + K – – 60
FYM + PK – 60 60
FYM + N1 40 – –
FYM + N2 80 – –
FYM + N1PK 40 60 60
FYM + N2PK 80 60 60
FYM + N3PK 120 60 60
and FYM + N3PK (8.92 t/ha). Mean grain yields of other treatments varied from 8.27 t/ha (FYM + N1PK) to 8.79 t/ha (FYM + N2).
Straw yield. In 2011, the mean straw yield varied
from 4.15 t/ha (control) and FYM (4.63 t/ha) to 6.68 t/ha (FYM + N3PK). The mean straw yield of the other treatments varied from 5.06 t/ha (FYM + PK) to 6.06 t/ha (FYM + N2PK). The mean straw yield was 5.41 t/ha in 2011 (Table 4). In 2012, the mean straw yield varied from 3.50 t/ha (control) to 5.18 t/ha (FYM + N3PK) (Table 4). The mean straw
[image:4.595.64.533.113.312.2]yield was 4.37 t/ha in 2012 (Table 4). In 2013, the mean straw yield varied from 2.81 t/ha (control) to 5.61 t/ha (FYM + N2). The mean straw yield was 4.40 t/ha in 2013. The highest straw yields were found in 2014 and varied from 5.39 t/ha (control) to 8.78 t/ha (FYM + N3PK). The mean straw yield was 7.03 t/ha in 2014 (the highest yields over all years). Comparing the fertilizer treatments, the lowest straw yields were obtained in control (3.96 t/ha), while the highest in the FYM + N3PK treatment (6.52 t/ha).
Table 3. Grain yield (t/ha) as affected by years (2011–2014) and fertilizer treatments
Treatment 2011 2012 2013 2014 Mean treatment (2011–2014)
Control 6.39 ± 0.17Ac 5.27 ± 0.04Db 7.33 ± 0.13Ba 6.98 ± 0.10Da 6.49 ± 0.21F
FYM 7.01 ± 0.18Aab 6.43 ± 0.08ACa 7.66 ± 0.13Bbc 7.91 ± 0.22Ec 7.25 ± 0.17D
FYM + P 10.18 ± 0.13EFa 6.79 ± 0.06Bb 8.86 ± 0.08Ac 10.0 ± 0.06ABa 8.96 ± 0.35C
FYM + K 9.98 ± 0.14DEa 6.19 ± 0.04Cb 8.67 ± 0.06Ac 9.68 ± 0.15ABCa 8.63 ± 0.39AB
FYM + PK 7.03 ± 0.18Aab 6.55 ± 0.04ABa 7.89 ± 0.22BCd 7.53 ± 0.23DEcd 7.25 ± 0.15D
FYM + N1 9.07 ± 0.15BCa 6.58 ± 0.06ABb 8.81 ± 0.17Aa 9.62 ± 0.06ABCc 8.52 ± 0.30AE
FYM + N2 9.34 ± 0.06BCDa 6.61 ± 0.05ABb 8.89 ± 0.19Aa 10.32 ± 0.11Bc 8.79 ± 0.35ABC
FYM + N1PK 8.80 ± 0.15Bab 6.69 ± 0.05ABc 8.46 ± 0.14ACa 9.12 ± 0.11Cc 8.27 ± 0.25E
FYM + N2PK 9.73 ± 0.17CDEa 6.21 ± 0.06Cb 8.73 ± 0.24Ac 9.84 ± 0.03ABa 8.63 ± 0.38AB
FYM + N3PK 10.77 ± 0.03Fd 6.53 ± 0.06ABa 8.88 ± 0.15Ab 9.50 ± 0.22ACc 8.92 ± 0.40BC
Mean/year 8.83 ± 0.23a 6.39 ± 0.07b 8.42 ± 0.10c 9.05 ± 0.18d –
Means with standard errors of the mean followed by the same letter (Avertically, ahorizontally) were not significantly
different at 0.05 probability level. FYM – farmyard manure
Table 4. Straw yield (t/ha) as affected by years (2011–2014) and fertilizer treatments
Treatment 2011 2012 2013 2014 Mean treatment (2011–2014)
Control 4.15 ± 0.07Dc 3.50 ± 0.06Bb 2.81 ± 0.08Fa 5.39 ± 0.15Cd 3.96 ± 0.25D
FYM 4.64 ± 0.08Cb 3.82 ± 0.12BCa 3.90 ± 0.11Ba 5.50 ± 0.07Cc 4.46 ± 0.18C
FYM + P 5.90 ± 0.07Bc 4.81 ± 0.04AEb 4.04 ± 0.12ABa 7.71 ± 0.16ABd 5.62 ± 0.36AB
FYM + K 5.32 ± 0.08Ab 4.50 ± 0.07ADa 4.48 ± 0.12Aa 8.10 ± 0.22BDc 5.60 ± 0.39AB
FYM + PK 5.06 ± 0.13ACc 3.89 ± 0.06BCa 4.11 ± 0.08ABa 5.67 ± 0.14Cd 4.68 ± 0.19C
FYM + N1 5.16 ± 0.07Aa 4.67 ± 0.12Aa 4.48 ± 0.13ACa 7.21 ± 0.27ABb 5.38 ± 0.29A
FYM + N2 5.31 ± 0.09Aa 4.19 ± 0.05CDb 5.61 ± 0.10Ea 7.28 ± 0.16ABc 5.59 ± 0.29AB
FYM + N1PK 5.83 ± 0.12Bb 4.68 ± 0.12Aa 4.16 ± 0.09ABa 7.04 ± 0.35Ac 5.43 ± 0.30A
FYM + N2PK 6.06 ± 0.11Bc 4.43 ± 0.12ADa 4.98 ± 0.11CDb 7.60 ± 0.17ABd 5.77 ± 0.32B
FYM + N3PK 6.68 ± 0.12Eb 5.18 ± 0.08Ea 5.43 ± 0.10DEa 8.78 ± 0.11Dc 6.52 ± 0.37E
Mean/year 5.41 ± 0.11b 4.37 ± 0.08a 4.40 ± 0.13a 7.03 ± 0.18c –
Means with standard errors of the mean followed by the same letter (Avertically, ahorizontally) were not significantly
[image:4.595.64.534.530.729.2]Grain properties
Thousand grain weight. The TGW significantly
[image:5.595.64.532.301.729.2]fluctuated between years and fertilizer treatments. The lowest mean TGW was recorded in 2012 (43.63 g),while the highest in 2013 (48.85 g). Comparing the fertilizer treatments, the highest TGW was found in FYM + N3PK treatment (48.37 g), while the lowest in the control treatment (45.60 g) (Table 5).
Crude protein content. The lowest CP was
recorded in 2011 (9.49%) and the highest in 2012
(12.80%). Evaluating the fertilizer treatments, the highest mean CP content was recorded in FYM + N3PK treatment (13.21%), while the lowest in the control treatment (10.59%) (Table 5).
Volume weight. The lowest VW was recorded
in 2012 (738.57 g/dm3), while the highest in 2013
(764.27 g/dm3). Comparing the fertilizer
treat-ments, the highest VW was provided by FYM + N3PK treatment (761.57 g/dm3), while the lowest
by control (741.23 g/dm3) (Table 5).
Zeleny’s sedimentation test. The ZST
signifi-cantly varied between years and fertilizer
treat-Table 5. Thousand grain weight, crude protein content, volume weight, Zeleny’s sedimentation test, wet gluten content and gluten index as affected by fertilizer treatments (control, FYM and FYM + N3PK)
Treatment 2011 2012 2013 Mean treatment
Thousand grain weight (g)
control 46.98 ± 0.34Aa 42.18 ± 0.20Ab 47.65 ± 0.64Aa 45.60 ± 0.77A
FYM 47.60 ± 0.27Aa 43.35 ± 0.41Bb 48.23 ± 0.43Aa 46.39 ± 0.68B
FYM + N3PK 49.05 ± 0.37Bb 45.38 ± 0.23Ca 50.68 ± 0.40Bc 48.37 ± 0.69C
mean/year 47.88 ± 0.31b 43.63 ± 0.43a 48.85 ± 0.47c –
Crude protein content (%)
control 8.46 ± 0.14Ab 11.92 ± 0.16Aa 11.41 ± 0.28Aa 10.59 ± 0.47A
FYM 8.75 ± 0.24Ab 12.24 ± 0.35Aa 11.60 ± 0.30Aa 10.86 ± 0.48A
FYM + N3PK 11.27 ± 0.30Bb 14.25 ± 0.20Ba 14.11 ± 0.20Ba 13.21 ± 0.43B
mean/year 9.49 ± 0.40b 12.80 ± 0.34a 12.37 ± 0.40a –
Volume weight (g/dm3)
control 743.00 ± 1.54Ab 723.10 ± 1.47Aa 757.60 ± 4.20c 741.23 ± 4.49A
FYM 741.80 ± 4.33Aa 741.40 ± 3.24Ba 763.60 ± 5.38b 748.93 ± 3.88B
FYM + N3PK 761.90 ± 0.44Bb 751.20 ± 2.36Ca 771.60 ± 1.39c 761.57 ± 2.65C
mean/year 748.90 ± 3.11b 738.57 ± 3.74a 764.27 ± 2.72c –
Zeleny’s sedimentation test (mL)
control 13.50 ± 0.29Aa 28.88 ± 0.55Ac 21.75 ± 1.31Ab 21.38 ± 1.94A
FYM 16.00 ± 0.71Aa 31.75 ± 2.57Ac 23.50 ± 1.44Ab 23.75 ± 2.14A
FYM + N3PK 26.75 ± 1.25Ba 53.63 ± 1.25Bc 34.25 ± 0.85Bb 38.21 ± 3.46B
mean/year 18.75 ± 1.79a 38.08 ± 3.45c 26.50 ± 1.79b –
Wet gluten content (%)
control 12.55 ± –Aa 23.59 ± 0.36Ab 18.59 ± 1.97Aab 20.14 ± 1.50A
FYM 14.45 ± –Aa 25.88 ± 1.02Ab 21.01 ± 1.70Aab 22.44 ± 1.52A
FYM + N3PK 22.78 ± 0.64Ba 36.35 ± 0.41Bc 29.53 ± 0.95Bb 30.17 ± 1.74B
mean/year 19.07 ± 2.32a 28.60 ± 1.71c 23.04 ± 1.64b –
Gluten index
control 99.59 ± –a 85.48 ± 1.30Cb 96.76 ± 2.26Ba 92.06 ± 2.36B
FYM 99.65 ± – 69.47 ± 5.54B 88.65 ± 9.90AB 81.35 ± 6.08B
FYM + N3PK 93.73 ± 1.51b 50.51 ± 2.44Aa 65.01 ± 6.17Aa 67.57 ± 5.87A
mean/year 96.09 ± 1.66a 68.48 ± 4.70b 83.47 ± 5.42a –
Means with standard errors of the mean followed by the same letter (Avertically, ahorizontally) were not significantly
different at 0.05 probability level. FYM – farmyard manure
ments. The lowest mean ZST was recorded in 2011 (18.75 mL), while the highest in 2012 (38.08 mL). Evaluating the fertilizer treatments, the lowest value was recorded in the control treatment (21.38 mL), while the highest in FYM + N3PK treatment (38.21 mL) (Table 5).
Wet gluten content. The lowest mean WG was
recorded in 2011 (19.07%), the highest then in 2012 (28.60%). Comparing the fertilizer treatments, the mean WG content varied from 20.14% (control) to 30.17% (FYM + N3PK) (Table 5).
Gluten index. The lowest mean GI was
record-ed in 2012 (68.48), the highest in 2011 (96.09). Comparing the fertilizer treatments, the highest mean GI was obtained in the control treatment (92.06) and the lowest in FYM + N3PK treatment (87.57) (Table 5).
DISCUSSION
The aim of our work was to determine how the application of manure and manure in combination with mineral fertilizer in soils of the test areas affects yields of grain, including its qualitative parameters, and straw of winter wheat. The small-est effect on the yield of winter wheat grain was obtained at the application of manure. A similar effect of the application of manure on the yield of grain was determined for example by Zhang et al. (2016). A very low effect of manure in years 2011–2012, is described for example by Zhang et al. (2017) and they state that the lower yield could be caused by the permanent loss of mineralised nitrogen by leaching and processes connected with evaporation which reduced the effect of the nitrogen use. The application of manure in com-bination with potassium and phosphorus had a similar effect on yields. In the present study, there was also a 12% increase of yields compared to the control. Hejcman et al. (2012) determined a low effect, no effect as the case may be, of the application of manure in combination with P and K in their work. Production was not restricted by the amount of potassium in the soil, which shows that the concentration of its available forms for the plant was convenient or even high for the production of winter wheat (Hermann and Tóth 2011). The combined use of organic manures and mineral fertilizers leads to an increase of the ni-trogen concentration, better use of phosphorus
and potassium as a consequence of the improved soil properties, better absorption of water and nutrients from the soil and applied fertilizers (Brar et al. 2015). The simultaneous use of manure and mineral fertilizers increasing the intake of nutrients by plants is also stated by Sheoran et al. (2017). Liang et al. (2013) found that the combined ap-plication of fertilizers significantly improved the immobilisation of nitrogen by fertilizer in the initial stages of wheat cultivation, when the crop demand for nutrition with nitrogen is small. In the period of the plant growth, nitrogen is released from the reservoir consisting of microorganisms. This mechanism shows that the combined applica-tion of fertilizers can increase the synchronisaapplica-tion between the supply of nitrogen and its demand by a specific crop, which helps reduce the loss of nitrogen in agriculture (Zhang et al. 2016). The speed of fertilizer mineralisation also depends on weather conditions as manure mineralises more slowly during a dry period than in a period with sufficient precipitation (Hlisnikovský et al. 2016).
Our results show that the combined application of organic and mineral fertilizers brings higher yields in winter wheat. The work of other authors (e.g. Duan et al. 2014, Sheoran et al. 2017) also shows that there is an improvement in the quality of seed and therefore this increases the nutrients added through combined fertilization than when fertilizers are used on their own. All these facts reach the conclusion that there is a need to focus more on using a combination of organic manures and mineral fertilizers. This may result in sus-tainable production and agriculture being more environment-friendly.
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Received on May 21, 2018 Accepted on August 31, 2018 Published online on September 17, 2018
