Helgol~inder M e e r e s u n t e r s . 33, 674-686 (1980)
P o l l u t i o n e f f e c t s o n f i s h e r i e s - p o t e n t i a l m a n a g e m e n t
a c t i v i t i e s
C. J. S i n d e r m a n n
U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, S a n d y H o o k Laboratory;
Highlands, N e w Jersey 07732, USA
ABSTRACT: M a n a g e m e n t of o c e a n p o l l u t i o n must b e b a s e d on the b e s t a v a i l a b l e scientific information, w i t h a d e q u a t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of economic, social, a n d political realities. Unfortunately, the best a v a i l a b l e scientific information a b o u t pollution effects o n fisheries is often fragmentary, a n d often conjectural; therefore a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n of m a n a g e m e n t s h o u l d b e a critical r e v i e w a n d a s s e s s m e n t of a v a i l a b l e factual information a b o u t effects of p o l l u t a n t s on fish a n d shellfish stocks. A m a j o r p r o b l e m i n a n y such r e v i e w a n d a s s e s s m e n t is the s e p a r a t i o n of p o l l u t a n t effects from the effects of all t h e o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors t h a t i n f l u e n c e survival a n d w e l l - b e i n g of m a r i n e animals. Data from l o n g - t e r m m o n i t o r i n g of resource a b u n d a n c e , a n d from m o n i t o r i n g of all d e t e r m i n a n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l variables, will b e r e q u i r e d for analyses t h a t l e a d to resolution of the problem. Information m u s t also b e a c q u i r e d a b o u t fluxes of c o n t a m i n a n t s t h r o u g h r e s o u r c e - r e l a t e d ecosystems, a n d a b o u t c o n t a m i n a n t effects o n resource species as d e m o n s t r a t e d in field a n d laboratory experiments. O t h e r possible m a n a g e m e n t activities include: (1) e n c o u r a g e m e n t of c o n t i n u e d efforts to d o c u m e n t clearly the localized a n d g e n e r a l effects of pollution o n living resources; (2) c o n t i n u e d pressure to identify a n d use r e l i a b l e biological indicators of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n (indicators of choice at p r e s e n t are: u n u s u a l l y h i g h levels of g e n e t i c a n d other a n o m a l i e s i n t h e earliest life history stages; p r e s e n c e of pollution-associated disease signs, particu- larly fin erosion a n d ulcers, in fish; a n d b i o c h e m i c a l / p h y s i o l o g i c a l changes); a n d (3) major efforts to r e d u c e i n p u t s of pollutants clearly d e m o n s t r a t e d to b e h a r m f u l to l i v i n g resources, from point sources as well as o c e a n d u m p i n g . Such pollution m a n a g e m e n t activities, b a s e d o n c o n t i n u o u s efforts in stock assessment, e n v i r o n m e n t a l assessment, a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l studies, c a n h e l p to i n s u r e t h a t rational decisions will b e m a d e a b o u t uses a n d a b u s e s of c o a s t a l / e s t u a r i n e waters.
I N T R O D U C T I O N
P o l l u t i o n e f f e c t s o n f i s h e r i e s , a n d t h e p o s s i b l e m a n a g e m e n t a c t i v i t i e s t h a t s h o u l d b e u n d e r t a k e n t o r e d u c e a n y d e m o n s t r a t e d e f f e c t s , h a v e o c c u p i e d t h e a t t e n t i o n of e n v i r o n - m e n t a l s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e M i d d l e A t l a n t i c B i g h t of t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n e a s t c o a s t for m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e , p r i n c i p a l l y b e c a u s e of t h e e x t e n t of e s t u a r i n e - c o a s t a l p o l l u t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e g r e a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of h u m a n s o n a d j a c e n t s h o r e s {Gross, 1976}. I n t h a t a r e a , if a n y w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d , it s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to c o n f r o n t t h e p e r s i s t e n t q u e s t i o n s of p o l l u t i o n i m p a c t s o n r e s o u r c e s p e c i e s , a n d to f i n d g e n e r i c a n s w e r s , w h i c h m a y h a v e a p p l i c a t i o n i n o t h e r l e s s d e g r a d e d w a t e r s of t h e p l a n e t . I n t h a t a r e a , too, s c i e n t i s t s a r e o n n o t i c e b y e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d r e s o u r c e m a n a g e r s to g i v e t h e m d e f i n i t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n , or t o w i t h d r a w t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y a n d b e v e r y q u i e t .
It s e e m s t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o r a t h e r c l e a r - c u t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g
P o l l u t i o n effects o n f i s h e r i e s 675
p o l l u t i o n effects on f i s h e r i e s : one is to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t e s t u a r i n e / c o a s t a l p o l l u t i o n is r e a l l y a f f e c t i n g fish a n d s h e l l f i s h stocks, a n d t h e s e c o n d is to p r o p o s e m a n a g e m e n t m e a s u r e s to m i t i g a t e d a m a g e if it exists.
T h e s e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s c a n b e s a t i s f i e d in five stages, w h i c h a r e e a s y to state b u t difficult to a c c o m p l i s h : [1) i s o l a t e a n d q u a n t i f y p o l l u t i o n effects o n r e s o u r c e s p e c i e s - as d i s t i n c t from effects of n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a t i o n s ; (2) c o n d u c t critical e x a m i n a - tions of p o l l u t i o n effects at l e v e l s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n , a n d t h e s p e c i e s ; (3) e n c o u r a g e t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of s e n s i t i v e e a r l y - w a r n i n g i n d i c a t o r s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n ; (4) a t t e m p t to r e d u c e p o l l u t a n t i n p u t s , w h e r e d a m a g e to l i v i n g r e s o u r c e s h a s b e e n o r c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d ; a n d (5) c a r r y o u t p r a g m a t i c r e g u l a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s to p r o t e c t p u b l i c h e a l t h .
E a c h of t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d b r i e f l y ir~ t h e f o l l o w i n g sections. B e c a u s e of t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of s p a c e in this r e p o r t m u c h s u b s t a n t i v e m a t e r i a l m u s t b e i g n o r e d or t r e a t e d i n a d e q u a t e l y , b u t t h e o t h e r p a p e r s in this s y m p o s i u m on " P r o t e c t i o n of Life i n t h e S e a " s h o u l d s e r v e to correct at l e a s t s o m e d e f i c i e n c i e s .
I S O L A T I O N A N D Q U A N T I F I C A T I O N O F P O L L U T I O N E F F E C T S O N RESOURCE SPECIES A S D I S T I N C T F R O M E F F E C T S O F N A T U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T A L VARIA-
T I O N S
L o o k i n g at t h e h i s t o r y of f i s h e d p o p u l a t i o n s a n d t h e i r c h a n g e s in a b u n d a n c e , it is d i s c o n c e r t i n g t h a t after m a n y d e c a d e s of s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h , w e a r e still u n a b l e to a s s i g n s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s for o b s e r v e d f l u c t u a t i o n s i n a b u n d a n c e . A s i m p l i s t i c v i e w of c a u s e a n d effect is not r e a l i s t i c , s i n c e v e r y c o m p l e x e c o s y s t e m i n t e r r e l a t i o n s a r e i n v o l v e d . M a n y factors u n d o u b t e d l y a c c o u n t for t h e g r e a t v a r i a t i o n in fish a b u n d a n c e , a n d t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e p r o b l e m is f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d b y v a r i a b i l i t y in s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e s d e s i g n e d to d e t e r m i n e a b u n d a n c e . J u s t as a n e x a m p l e , w e m i g h t c o n s i d e r t h e A t l a n t i c h e r r i n g ,
C1upea harengus,
a s p e c i e s t h a t h a s b e e n s t u d i e d for o v e r half a c e n t u r y i n N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d a l m o s t a c e n t u r y in E u r o p e . A p e r v a s i v e q u e s t i o n , e v e n t o d a y , is t h a t of c a u s e s of f l u c t u a t i o n s in y e a r class strength. W e h a v e l e a r n e d m u c h a b o u t h e r r i n g b i o l o g y , a n d a b o u t s o m e effects of t e m p e r a t u r e , food a v a i l a b i l i t y , storms, c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d p r e d a t i o n on s u r v i v a l of e a r l y life h i s t o r y stages, b u t full u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h y y e a r c l a s s e s a r e s t r o n g or w e a k in a n y g i v e n y e a r is still e l u s i v e , as it is for m a n y o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l fishes.To be able to recommend m a n a g e m e n t strategies, effects of all environmental variables, including specific contaminants, must be examined for all life history stages (Pig. 1). A few case history studies of species from the western North Atlantic might be instructive.
PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF STRESS FOR MARINE ORGANISMS
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STARVATI IPERATURE VARIATIONS & EXTREMES
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Pig. 1. Principal sources of e n v i r o n m e n t a l stress for m a r i n e a n i m a l s
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P o l l u t i o n e f f e c t s o n f i s h e r i e s 6 7 7
Fig. 3. Fin erosion i n s u m m e r flounder Paralichthys dentatus from the N e w York Bight
ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT AND/OR DEATH OF EMBRYO _ _
~CONTAMINATED UPPER "~=~" \\LAYER OF WATER COLUMN
/ MORTALITY AND CHROMOSOMAL DAMAGE TO EGGS AND SPERM FROM ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS
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EFFECTS OF C O N T A M I N A N T S ON OYSTER LIFE HISTORY STAGES
T h e first e x a m p l e is t h e w i n t e r f l o u n d e r Pseudopleuronectes arnericanus (Fig. 2). T h e f e m a l e p r o d u c e s a n a v e r a g e 600,000 e g g s , of w h i c h a n e s t i m a t e d 10-16 p e r c e n t hatch. O n l y a n e s t i m a t e d 18 i n d i v i d u a l s p e r 100,000 h a t c h e d l a r v a e s u r v i v e to a g e one (Saila, 1962). T h e s p e c i e s is e s t u a r i n e d e p e n d e n t , b o t h for n u r s e r y a r e a s a n d for o v e r w i n t e r i n g sites for adults. M a n y e s t u a r i e s a r e p o l l u t e d , a n d a d u l t s a r e in i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t w i t h p o l l u t e d s e d i m e n t s . F i n e r o s i o n is a c o m m o n d i s e a s e in s u c h fish; F i g u r e 3 s h o w s s u c h fin d a m a g e in s u m m e r f l o u n d e r . C a t c h e s o v e r t h e p a s t 25 y e a r s in t h e M i d d l e A t l a n t i c Bight h a v e b e e n constant, w i t h o u t a n y m a j o r t r e n d .
A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is t h e A m e r i c a n o y s t e r Crassostrea virginica (Fig. 4). S p a w n e d e g g s of this s p e c i e s m a y n u m b e r m o r e t h a n 100 m i l l i o n ; l a r v a l p l a n k t o n i c life is 2 - 3 w e e k s ; a n d n e w l y set s p a t are s u b j e c t to i n t e n s e p r e d a t i o n , a n d m u s t c o m p e t e w i t h m a n y f o u l i n g o r g a n i s m s . O y s t e r p o p u l a t i o n s on t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e a s t coast h a v e d e c l i n e d b e c a u s e of p o o r m a n a g e m e n t a n d d i s e a s e - c a u s e d m a s s m o r t a l i t i e s (Fig. 5). T h e r e h a v e b e e n l o c a l i z e d d i s a p p e a r a n c e s of o y s t e r p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t a r e u n r e l a t e d to p o l l u t i o n , b u t
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Fig. 5. Decline in oyster p r o d u c t i o n in D e l a w a r e a n d C h e s a p e a k e Bays (USA) following a disease o u t b r e a k w h i c h b e g a n in the late 1950's
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6 . . . iP o l l u t i o n effects on f i s h e r i e s 679
s o m e d i s a p p e a r a n c e s i n h e a v i l y c o n t a m i n a t e d b a y s m a y b e r e l a t e d to p o l l u t i o n (Nelson, 1916).
A final e x a m p l e is t h e s t r i p e d b a s s M o r o n e s a x a t i l i s (Fig. 6). This s p e c i e s h a s h a d a h i s t o r y of v i o l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s in c a t c h (and p r e s u m a b l y a b u n d a n c e ) ; its c e n t e r of a b u n d a n c e is C h e s a p e a k e Bay, w i t h l e s s e r c e n t e r s in t h e H u d s o n a n d D e l a w a r e e s t u a r i e s ; a n d t u r b i d i t y m a y favor e g g a n d l a r v a l s u r v i v a l (Mansueti, 1962). T h e t r e n d in t h e last two d e c a d e s h a s b e e n i r r e g u l a r l y u p w a r d .
LARVAE VULNERABLE TO LETHAL
OR SUBLETHAL CONTAMINANT ~ d r " J I LEVELS IN WATER C O L U M N / /
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OCEAN Fig. 6. Life cycle of the striped bass M o r o n e saxatilis with potential pollutant impact points
T h e d i m e n s i o n s of t h e p r o b l e m of i s o l a t i n g n a t u r a l from m a n - m a d e e n v i r o n m e n t a l forces s h o u l d b e a p p a r e n t from t h e s e f e w e x a m p l e s of s p e c i e s w h i c h m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to s h o w affects of p o l l u t i o n . T h e t a s k is difficult b u t not i m p o s s i b l e for q u a n t i t a t i v e b i o l o g i s t s , if a d e q u a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d f i s h e r i e s d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e (a v e r y i m p o r t a n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n ) .
CRITICAL E X A M I N A T I O N O F P O L L U T I O N E F F E C T S A T LEVELS O F THE INDI- VIDUAL, THE L O C A L P O P U L A T I O N , A N D THE SPECIES
H u m a n a c t i v i t y h a s i n c r e a s e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l stresses on fish in e s t u a r i n e a n d c o a s t a l w a t e r s . W e h a v e , for i n s t a n c e , a d d e d p e s t i c i d e s a n d o t h e r s y n t h e t i c c h e m i c a l s w h i c h can, e v e n i n l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , d r a s t i c a l l y affect t h e p h y s i o l o g y of fish a n d s h e l l f i s h a n d w i t h w h i c h t h e s p e c i e s m a y h a v e h a d no p r e v i o u s e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p e r i e n c e . W e h a v e a d d e d h e a v y o r g a n i c l o a d s , in t h e form of s e w a g e s l u d g e a n d effluents, w h i c h c a n p r o d u c e a n a e r o b i c or l o w - o x y g e n e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d w h i c h a r e often a c c o m p a n i e d b y o t h e r c o n t a m i n a n t s s u c h as h e a v y m e t a l s , t h a t c a n i n t e r f e r e w i t h e n z y m e s of t h e fish a n d t h e food o r g a n i s m s t h e y c o n s u m e ,
this p h e n o m e n o n exist in N o r t h A m e r i c a , w i t h c o u n t e r p a r t s in E u r o p e a n d e l s e w h e r e in t h e w o r l d .
T h a t c h e m i c a l p o l l u t a n t s c a u s e stress a n d d e a t h in i n d i v i d u a l m a r i n e a n i m a l s c a n b e e a s i l y d e m o n s t r a t e d , a n d h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l y . D e s c r i p t i o n s of l e t h a l a n d s u b l e t h a l effects of h e a v y m e t a l s , p e t r o l e u m c o m p o u n d s a n d h a l o g e n a t e d h y d r o c a r b o n s a b o u n d in the e x p e r i m e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e .
T h a t stress from c h e m i c a l p o l l u t a n t s c a n h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i f i a b l e effects on r e s o u r c e s p e c i e s a b u n d a n c e (apart from l o c a l i z e d effects in s e v e r e l y c o n t a m i n a t e d c o a s t a l a n d e s t u a r i n e zones) is m u c h m o r e difficult to d e m o n s t r a t e , a n d h a s not b e e n d o c u m e n t e d satisfactorily.
T h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n of this p a p e r i n c l u d e d a n e x a m i n a t i o n of s o m e c a s e h i s t o r i e s of p o i n t s in t h e life c y c l e s of fish a n d s h e l l f i s h w h e r e p o l l u t a n t stressors c a n e x e r t l e t h a l a n d s u b l e t h a l i n f l u e n c e s . F r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s it s e e m s o b v i o u s t h a t w i t h a l l t h e s e p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t p o i n t s t h r o u g h o u t life cycles, p o p u l a t i o n s in c o n t a m i n a t e d w a t e r s s h o u l d d w i n d l e a n d d i s a p p e a r , y e t from e x p e r i e n c e on the N o r t h A m e r i c a n e a s t coast this h a s not h a p p e n e d . O n l y in s e v e r e l y d e g r a d e d l o c a l w a t e r s , w h i c h a r e a t i n y p a r t of t h e t o t a l r a n g e of m o s t fish a n d shellfish, h a v e t h e r e b e e n l o c a l i z e d d i s a p p e a r a n c e s of s o m e s p e c i e s ; e v e n in those areas, o t h e r s p e c i e s w h i c h m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to b e affected, a r e still p r e s e n t a n d are in s o m e i n s t a n c e s a b u n d a n t . This is t r u e p a r t i c u l a r l y of a n u m b e r of c o a s t a l e s t u a r i n e - d e p e n d e n t fish species, m a n y of w h o m s p e n d m u c h of t h e i r life c y c l e s in w a t e r s t h a t are to s o m e e x t e n t c o n t a m i n a t e d .
A r e c e n t r e v i e w of t h e f i s h e r y r e s o u r c e s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (Wise, 1974) d i s c u s s e d c a t c h e s of a l l i m p o r t a n t m a r i n e fish a n d shellfish, on a s p e c i e s b y s p e c i e s basis, for the p a s t 20 y e a r s . I n c l u d e d w e r e the m a j o r A t l a n t i c s p e c i e s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d e s t u a r i n e d e p e n d e n t or e s t u a r i n e a n d n e a r s h o r e i n h a b i t a n t s , s p e c i e s w h i c h m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to d e m o n s t r a t e s o m e effects pf e s t u a r i n e a n d c o a s t a l p o l l u t i o n . W i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , a c c o r d i n g to t h a t p u b l i c a t i o n , c a t c h e s of t h o s e s p e c i e s h a v e b e e n r e l a t i v e l y s t e a d y or h a v e s h o w n s o m e i n c r e a s e s in the p a s t 20 years. O n e of t h e s u m m a r i z i n g s t a t e m e n t s in t h e r e p o r t is of p a r t i c u l a r note: "In g e n e r a l t h e r e a r e no g o o d f i s h i n g effort d a t a a v a i l a b l e for t h o s e e s t u a r i n e s p e c i e s w h o s e c a t c h e s h a v e r e m a i n e d constant, so it is p o s s i b l e t h a t m a i n t e n a n c e of c a t c h l e v e l s is d u e to c o n s t a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g f i s h i n g effort. N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e from c a t c h r e c o r d s of a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of e x p l o i t e d e s t u a r i n e s p e c i e s in U n i t e d S t a t e s w a t e r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t p o l l u t i o n a n d d a m a g e to e s t u a r i e s h a v e not y e t s h o w n a n y m e a s u r a b l e o v e r a l l effect on t h e p a r t of the m a r i n e r e s o u r c e w h i c h m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to s h o w t h e first effects."
This, of course, d i s c o u n t s the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a n a d r o m o u s or e s t u a r i n e s p e c i e s m a y b e r e s i s t a n t to at l e a s t s o m e m a n - m a d e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e s , a n d t h a t s p e c i e s such as s t r i p e d b a s s m a y a c t u a l l y b e n e f i t from c e r t a i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l a l t e r a t i o n s ( i n c r e a s e d t u r b i d i t y , for e x a m p l e ) . I n t e n s i v e f o r e i g n fishing, in s o m e i n s t a n c e s p r o b a b l y b e y o n d the m a x i m u m s u s t a i n a b l e y i e l d of c e r t a i n species, h a s p r o b a b l y e x e r t e d a m u c h m o r e s e v e r e i m p a c t on a n u m b e r of m a j o r fish stocks in U. S. c o n t i n e n t a l shelf w a t e r s t h a n h a s p o l l u t i o n , insofar as s u c h effects c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . H o w e v e r , m o s t of t h e stocks a f f e c t e d b y f o r e i g n f i s h i n g a r e not t h e o n e s w h i c h w o u l d b e most d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d b y e s t u a r i n e - c o a s t a l p o l l u t i o n :
P o l l u t i o n effects o n fisheries 681 w i d e s p r e a d d a m a g e that c o u l d b e directly a t t r i b u t a b l e to p o l l u t a n t s . O n l y s h r i m p p o p u l a t i o n s s e e m e d to b e affected n e g a t i v e l y , w h i l e p r i n c i p a I d e m e r s a l fish s p e c i e s s u c h as cod, h a d d o c k a n d p l a i c e h a v e i n c r e a s e d i n a b u n d a n c e i n r e c e n t years.
But t h e r e is a b a s i c a n d u l t i m a t e faIlacy to this e n t i r e l i n e of r e a s o n i n g . To insist o n d e m o n s t r a t i o n of e a s i l y d i s c e r n i b l e effects o n overall species a b u n d a n c e is to e s t a b l i s h too h a r s h a criterion of p o l l u t i o n d a m a g e . A m u c h more a c c e p t a b l e c o n c e p t is that effects of poiIution, c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d o n e v e n a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l or a local p o p u l a t i o n , m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d a c a u s e for m a n a g e m e n t a c t i o n to protect the total p o p u l a t i o n - just as is the case w i t h h u m a n s . All the m e c h a n i s m s of p u b l i c h e a l t h p r o t e c t i o n come into force w h e n e v e n m e d i o c r e statistical correlations of p o l l u t i o n a n d h u m a n d i s e a s e are m a d e ; a n d t h e s a m e k i n d s of r e s p o n s e s s h o u l d b e m a d e b y resource a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e r s w h e n correlations of p o I l u t i o n a n d fish a b n o r m a i i t i e s are found. At p r e s e n t such r e s p o n s e s are n o t m a d e ; the e v i d e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d as m i l d l y i n t e r e s t i n g , b u t n o t as a cause for p a n i c , or e v e n for m o d e r a t e action.
A n u m b e r of early w a r n i n g s i g n s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n a n d p o t e n t i a i i m p a c t s o n l i v i n g resources are b e c o m i n g a p p a r e n t a n d a v a i i a b l e to m a n a g e r s , a n d this is the s u b j e c t of the n e x t s e c t i o n of this paper.
I D E N T I F I C A T I O N OF SENSITIVE EARLY W A R N I N G INDICATORS O F ENVIRON- M E N T A L D E G R A D A T I O N
It w o u l d s e e m a l m o s t a x i o m a t i c that d e a t h a n d d i s a p p e a r a n c e are too e x t r e m e as criteria for d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r p o l l u t a n t s are h a r m f u l to m a r i n e b i o t a or not. T h e more s u b t l e s u b l e t h a l effects of p o l l u t a n t stress s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d as i n d i c a t o r s of p o s s i b l e i o n g e r - t e r m i m p a c t s o n p o p u l a t i o n s that as y e t are difficult to quantify. T h e s e s u b l e t h a l effects c a n t a k e m a n y forms of course - p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d b i o c h e m i c a l alterations, b e h a v i o r a l c h a n g e s , ecological c h a n g e s , a n d p a t h o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s .
A r e c e n t a n d e x c e l l e n t w o r k s h o p o n b i o l o g i c a l effects m o n i t o r i n g (McIntyre, 1978) d e s c r i b e d a n u m b e r of s e n s i t i v e b i o l o g i c a l indicators of p o l l u t i o n stress - b u t f o u n d few that w e r e r e a d y for p r e s e n t q u a n t i t a t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h o u t further r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t .
T h e b e s t c a n d i d a t e s , w h i c h are " o n l i n e " a n d b e g i n n i n g to b e a p p l i e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y i n the n o r t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d States a n d a few other places, consist of s e v e r a l p o l l u t i o n - a s s o c i a t e d p a t h o l o g i e s ( S i n d e r m a n n , 1979). Diseases a n d a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n s e v e r a l categories c a n p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t clues a b o u t the e x t e n t of d e g r a d a t i o n a n d the d e g r e e of risk for m a r i n e p o p u l a t i o n s i n a n y specified p o l l u t e d habitat. Pathology m u s t b e t a k e n i n its b r o a d e s t sense, to i n c l u d e e v e r y t h i n g from c h r o m o s o m a l d a m a g e i n the d e v e l o p i n g egg, to u l t r a s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s i n gill e p i t h e l i u m , a n d to tumors, infectious diseases, a n d s k e l e t a l a n o m a l i e s .
Of the p a t h o l o g i e s that s e e m r e a s o n a b l y r e l a t e d to p o l l u t i o n , there are three categories that c a n b e t a k e n "off the shelf" i m m e d i a t e l y a n d a p p l i e d to a b i o l o g i c a l m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r a m :
a b u n d a n c e . C h r o m o s o m a l a n d c y t o l o g i c a l a n o m a l i e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d w i t h h i g h p r e v a - l e n c e in p o l l u t e d c o a s t a l w a t e r s (Longwell, 1976).
(b) F i n e r o s i o n a n d u l c e r a t i o n s of t h e b o d y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x p o s u r e to d e g r a d e d e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d from p o l l u t e d w a t e r s in m a n y p a r t s of t h e w o r l d , a n d i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s h a v e b e e n s h o w n to h a v e s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h d e g r e e of d e g r a d a t i o n in w a t e r q u a l i t y ( M u r c h e l a n o & Z i s k o w s k i , 1976).
(c} L a t e n t infections, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of v i r a l e t i o l o g y , w h i c h m a y b e p r o v o k e d into a c t i v e d i s e a s e b y p o l l u t i o n stress. T h e r e h a s b e e n a n e x p l o s i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t v i r u s e s in m a r i n e a n i m a l s i n t h e p a s t f e w y e a r s , a n d p o l l u t a n t stress m a y b e one w a y of e l u c i d a t i n g t h e i r effects on m a r i n e a n i m a l s . S e v e r a l v i r a l d i s e a s e s of fish a n d i n v e r t e - b r a t e s h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d after e x p o s u r e to p o l l u t a n t stress ( F a r l e y et al., 1972; Couch, 1974; B u c h a n a n et al., 1978).
T h e c o n c e p t to b e a d v a n c e d h e r e is t h a t " e p i z o o t i c " l e v e l s of t h e s e a b n o r m a l i t i e s c a n b e p o w e r f u l d i a g n o s t i c tools in r e c o g n i z i n g a r e a s of p o l l u t i o n stress - a r e a s w h e r e effects on f i s h e r y r e s o u r c e s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d .
T h e l e v e l o f s e n s i t i v i t y of the a p p r o a c h e s o u t l i n e d a b o v e is good, b u t still c r u d e w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h a r e in t h e r e s e a r c h p h a s e b u t not y e t o p e r a t i o n a l . V e r y s u b t l e c h a n g e s , s u c h as p r e - n e o p l a s t i c t i s s u e c h a n g e s , u l t r a s t r u c t u r a l a l t e r a t i o n s i n e p i t h e l i u m , a n d r e d u c e d i m m u n o c o m p e t e n c e , c a n a u g m e n t t h e " on l i n e " a p p r o a c h e s soon, as e a r l y w a r n i n g s i g n s of i n c r e a s i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l stress. R e s o u r c e m a n a g e r s s h o u l d m a k e full u s e of t h e m o s t s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r s of h a b i t a t d e g r a d a t i o n t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e .
W h i l e c e r t a i n p a t h o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s s e e m to b e of g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l u t i l i t y in e f f e c t s - m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r a m s at p r e s e n t , t h e r e a r e also p h y s i o l o g i c a l , b i o c h e m i c a l , b e h a v i o r a l a n d e c o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s t h a t m a y b e useful. A s i n g l e u n i v e r s a l i n d i c a t o r is u n l i k e l y ; a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h to b i o l o g i c a l effects m o n i t o r i n g s h o u l d b e u s e d .
R E D U C T I O N O F P O L L U T A N T INPUTS, WHERE D A M A G E TO LIVING RESOURCES H A S BEEN OR C A N BE D E M O N S T R A T E D
O n c e t h e s t e p s o u t l i n e d so far h a v e b e e n t a k e n - (1) p o l l u t i o n effects h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d from t h o s e d u e to n a t u r a l factors; (2} p o l l u t i o n effects on i n d i v i d u a l s , p o p u l a - tions, a n d s p e c i e s h a v e b e e n e x a m i n e d ; a n d {3) s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a n d t e s t e d - t h e n it s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to confront the r e a l m a n a g e m e n t function: to a t t e m p t to r e d u c e p o l l u t a n t inputs, w h e r e d a m a g e to l i v i n g r e s o u r c e s h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d .
To b e a b l e to h a v e a n effective c a s e a g a i n s t i n c r e a s i n g c o a s t a l / e s t u a r i n e p o l l u t i o n , a n d to b e g i n to r e v e r s e t h e trend, w e m u s t b e a b l e to d e m o n s t r a t e effects, a n d not m e r e l y to h y p o t h e s i z e them. T h e r e a r e o n l y a few p l a c e s in t h e w o r l d w h e r e effects h a v e b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d a d e q u a t e l y ; t h e N e w York Bight is one such p l a c e . In this, one of the most s e v e r e l y d e g r a d e d c o a s t a l w a t e r a r e a s in t h e e n t i r e w o r l d , a n u m b e r of e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e s h a v e b e e n s e e n : (a) r e d u c e d s p e c i e s diversity; (b) r e d u c e d b i o m a s s in h e a v i l y i m p a c t e d zones; (c) a b n o r m a l fish a n d shellfish; a n d (d) h i g h s e d i m e n t a n d t i s s u e l e v e l s of c o n t a m i n a n t s .
P o l l u t i o n effects o n fisheries 683- that o c e a n d u m p i n g i n this a r e a (and elsewhere) will cease b y the e n d of 1981. A r g u m e n t s for c o n t i n u e d d u m p i n g b e i n g r a i s e d b y those d o i n g the d u m p i n g i n c l u d e the following:
" A l t e r n a t i v e s to o c e a n d u m p i n g are too e x p e n s i v e , a n d the t e c h n o l o g y is n o t a v a i l a b l e ; .... Scientists h a v e n o t p r o v e d a d e q u a t e l y that t h e r e is more t h a n very l o c a l i z e d d a m a g e to coastal e c o s y s t e m s ; " a n d " O c e a n d u m p i n g m a y r e p r e s e n t the b e s t u s e of c e r t a i n o c e a n areas a d j a c e n t to l a r g e h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s . "
T h e e x p e c t a t i o n of e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e r s is, of course, that once p o l l u t a n t i n p u t s to this or a n y other affected a r e a h a v e b e e n r e d u c e d or e l i m i n a t e d , t h e n positive c h a n g e s m a y occur. S e v e r a l s t u d i e s e l s e w h e r e h a v e p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e that this h o p e c a n b e realized, h o w e v e r slowly. E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e the r e d u c e d levels of DDT i n s e d i m e n t s o n the C a l i f o r n i a coast f o l l o w i n g e l i m i n a t i o n of c o n t a m i n a t e d effluent (MacGregor, 1971, 1976), a n d r e d u c e d PCB c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n E s c a m b i a Bay, Florida, as a result of e x p r e s s e d p u b l i c c o n c e r n a b o u t c h e m i c a l p l a n t effluents c o n t a i n i n g the p o l l u t a n t (Duke et al., 1970). N u m e r o u s other l o c a l i z e d positive r e s p o n s e s to p o l l u t i o n a b a t e m e n t n e e d s could b e cited, b u t most of t h e m are i n fresh waters, a n d m a n y of the steps t a k e n r e s u l t i n d e c r e a s e s i n river p o l l u t i o n b u t i n c r e a s e s i n e s t u a r i n e / c o a s t a l p o l l u t i o n .
O n e c o n c e p t w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s a i a r g e a m o u n t of fallacy, b u t w h i c h has b e e n a p p l i e d often, is that of " a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s " or " m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e l e v e l s " of p o t e n t i a l l y toxic c o n t a m i n a n t s i n the oceans. A logical q u e s t i o n is " A c c e p t a b l e to w h o m ? " - C e r t a i n l y n o t to the m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s w h o s e e n v i r o n m e n t is b e i n g modified, a n d c e r t a i n l y n o t to the resource m a n a g e r , w h o m u s t b e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t l o n g - t e r m s u b l e t h a l effects a n d b i o a c c u m u l a t i o n of c e r t a i n toxic c h e m i c a l p o l l u t a n t s i n c o m m e r c i a l fish a n d shellfish. T h e r e is a n d will b e i n t e n s e c o m p e t i t i o n for p r i m a r y uses of e s t u a r i n e / coastal waters. It is r e p u g n a n t to m a n y fisheries biologists to e v e n c o n s i d e r that the p r i m a r y u s e of these w a t e r s c a n b e as a d u m p for toxic w a s t e s of h u m a n society. L i v i n g resources, n o w a n d for the future, r e q u i r e b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n from scientists t h a n that w h i c h w o u l d allow c o n t i n u e d h a b i t a t d e g r a d a t i o n - e v e n u n d e r the g u i s e of " m u l t i p l e u s e s " of e s t u a r i n e / c o a s t a l waters.
P R A G M A T I C REGULATORY ACTIVITIES TO PROTECT PUBLIC HEALTH
R e d u c t i o n of p o l l u t a n t i n p u t s to e s t u a r i n e / c o a s t a l w a t e r s is a n e c e s s a r y a n d worth- w h i l e objective, b u t o n e w h i c h r e q u i r e s time a n d g r e a t effort b y e n v i r o n m e n t a l protec- t i o n a g e n c i e s - local, n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l . I n the i n t e r i m there are other more p r a g m a t i c m a n a g e m e n t activities that c a n a n d m u s t b e carried out, as a m e a n s of p r o t e c t i n g p u b l i c h e a l t h , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y the h e a l t h of l i v i n g m a r i n e resources. T h e s e m e a s u r e s i n c l u d e e n f o r c e m e n t of r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g closure of shellfish areas s u b j e c t to excessive i n p u t s of c o n t a m i n a n t s ; a n d b a n s o n sale of fishery products f o u n d to c o n t a i n excessive l e v e l s of c o n t a m i n a n t s .
c o n t a m i n a n t levels i n fish a n d shellfish, to d e t e r m i n e g e o g r a p h i c v a r i a t i o n s a n d t r e n d s with time.
Protection of public health always seems to receive a warmer reception from those responsible for enactment and enforcement of laws and regulations than does protection of living resources. Both have a common objective in reducing contaminant levels in fisheries products and hence in the habitats of fish and shellfish, but resource managers probably must accept, however reluctantly, the reality that resource problems will continue to lag behind public health problems in terms of public concern and action. Emphasis on the intimate relationships of the two - public health and resource health - can be a fruitful approach to pollution abatement.
C O N C L U S I O N S
P o l l u t i o n effects on fisheries h a v e r e c e i v e d some scrutiny i n r e c e n t decades, a n d i n f o r m a t i o n is a c c u m u l a t i n g , b u t is still i n s u f f i c i e n t to b e very u s e f u l i n resource m a n a g e m e n t decisions - except as t h e y i n v o l v e local areas. E v i d e n c e exists for localized effects of p o l l u t a n t stress o n fisheries, b u t as yet there is little specific e v i d e n c e for w i d e s p r e a d d a m a g e to m a j o r fisheries resource p o p u l a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from coastal pollution. This m a y w e l l b e b e c a u s e w e are u n a b l e to s e p a r a t e clearly the effects of p o l l u t a n t stress from effects of the m a n y other forms of e n v i r o n m e n t a l stresses to w h i c h m a r i n e p o p u l a t i o n s are subject. Other factors, such as shifts i n g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of fish p o p u l a t i o n s , c h a n g e s i n p r o d u c t i v e ecosystems, or overfishing, m a y cause pro- n o u n c e d c h a n g e s i n fisheries - c h a n g e s w h i c h could o b s c u r e a n y effects of localized h a b i t a t d e g r a d a t i o n . It seems, w i t h the e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e , that factors other t h a n p o l l u t i o n s e e m to b e o v e r r i d i n g i n d e t e r m i n i n g fish a b u n d a n c e , b u t w e l a c k
MULTIVARIATE ~ _ ~ ANALYSES
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTIONS ABOUT USES OF ESTUARINE- COASTAL WATERS
P o l l u t i o n effects on f i s h e r i e s 685
q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a to m a k e p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t c a u s e a n d effect r e l a t i o n s h i p s of a b u n d a n c e a n d p o l l u t i o n .
It m a y be, of course, t h a t e s t u a r i n e / c o a s t a l p o l l u t i o n is e x e r t i n g s o m e o v e r a l l i n f l u e n c e on c e r t a i n r e s o u r c e s p e c i e s , b u t t h a t this i n f l u e n c e m a y b e m a s k e d b y i n c r e a s e d f i s h i n g effort, or b y f a v o r a b l e c h a n g e s in o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors w h i c h c r e a t e a p o s i t i v e effect on a b u n d a n c e , o u t w e i g h i n g a n y n e g a t i v e effects of p o l l u t a n t s . M a n y e x p e r i m e n t a l studies, p a r t i c u l a r l y m o r e r e c e n t o n e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h l o n g - t e r m e x p o s u r e of fish a n d s h e l l f i s h to l o w l e v e l s of c o n t a m i n a n t s , s u g g e s t t h a t s o m e l o n g - t e r m effects on a b u n d a n c e s h o u l d b e felt, b u t our statistics, our m o n i t o r i n g , a n d our p o p u l a - tion a s s e s s m e n t s a r e not y e t a d e q u a t e to d e t e c t them.
Effective l o n g - t e r m m o n i t o r i n g of stocks a n d e n v i r o n m e n t m u s t b e t h e b a s i s of a n y a t t e m p t to i s o l a t e a n d i d e n t i f y p o l l u t i o n effects. A c o n t i n u o u s i n t e g r a t e d effort in s t o c k a s s e s s m e n t , e n v i r o n m e n t a l a s s e s s m e n t , a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s (Fig. 7) w i l l b e r e q u i r e d to u n d e r s t a n d t h e role of all e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t r e s s e s - n a t u r a l a n d m a n - i n d u c e d - i n d e t e r m i n i n g a b u n d a n c e of r e s o u r c e p o p u l a t i o n s .
RESEARCH REQUIREMENTS TO EVALUATE THE CONSEQUENCES OF POLLUTION
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H o w e v e r , w e d o n o t y e t h a v e t h e p r i n c i p a l p i e c e s of t h e p u z z l e i n p l a c e (Fig. 8), s o i n t h e a b s e n c e of f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p h e n o m e n a i n v o l v e d , m a n a g e m e n t d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t i n g e s t u a r i n e / c o a s t a l p o l l u t i o n m u s t b e m a d e o n t h e b a s i s of " b e s t a v a i l a b l e s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n , " j u s t a s d e c i s i o n s a b o u t a l l o w a b l e r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n a r e m a d e . I n b o t h t y p e s of d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s e s , a c o n s e r v a t i v e a c t i o n p r o v i d e s a l o w e r r i s k of d a m a g e a n d l o s s t h a n d o e s a m o r e e x t r e m e a c t i o n . C o n s e r v a t i s m c a n b e e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t w h e n d e c i s i o n s a r e m a d e t h a t m i g h t p e r m i t p o l l u t i o n t o c o n t i n u e o r i n c r e a s e , s i n c e l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s of e x i s t i n g l e v e l s o n a b u n d a n c e of r e s o u r c e p o p u l a t i o n s a r e l a r g e l y u n d e t e r m i n e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o a d v o c a t i n g c o n s e r v a t i s m , w e m u s t p e r s i s t i n a t t e m p t s to q u a n t i f y t h e e f f e c t s of p o l l u t i o n , a n d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r e c i s e p a t h w a y s t h r o u g h w h i c h f i s h e r y r e s o u r c e s a r e a f f e c t e d .
L I T E R A T U R E C I T E D
B u c h a n a n , J. S., Richards, R. H., Sommerville, C. & Madeley, C. R., 1978. A h e r p e s - l i k e virus from turbot (Scophthalamus m a , ~ m u s L.). - Vet. Rec. 1978, 527-528.
Cole, H. A., 1975. M a r i n e p o l l u t i o n a n d t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m fisheries, In: Sea fisheries research. Ed. b y F. R. H a r d e n - J o n e s . Wiley, London, 277-303.
Couch, J. A., 1974. A n enzootic n u c l e a r polyhedrosis virus of p i n k shrimp; Ultrastrueture, p r e v a - lence, a n d e n h a n c e m e n t . - J . Invertebr. Pathol. 24, 311-331.
Duke, T. W., Lowe, J. I. & Wilson, A. J. Jr., 1970. A p o l y c h l o r i n a t e d b i p h e n y l (Aroclor 1254} i n the water, sediment, a n d b i o t a of E s c a m b i a Bay, Florida. - Bull. environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5, 171-180.
Farley, C. A.; Banfield, W. G., Kasnic, G. Jr. & Foster, W. S., 1972. Oyster h e r p e s - t y p e virus. - Science, N. Y. 178, 759-760.
Gross, M. G. (Ed.}, 1976. M i d d l e Atlantic c o n t i n e n t a l shelf a n d the N e w York Bight. - Spec. Symp. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2, 1-441.
Longwell, A. C., 1976. C h r o m o s o m e m u t a g e n e s i s in d e v e l o p i n g m a c k e r e l eggs s a m p l e d from the N e w York Bight. N O A A tech. Mem. U.S. Dep. Comm. ERL-MLZSA-?, 1-61.
MacGregor, J. S., 1971. C h a n g e s in t h e a m o u n t a n d proportions of DDT a n d its metabolites, DDE a n d DDP, i n the m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t off s o u t h e r n California, 1949-72. - Fish. Bull., U.S. 72, 275-293.
MacGregor, J. S., 1976. DDT a n d its m e t a b o l i t e s i n the s e d i m e n t s off s o u t h e r n California. - Fish. Bull., U.S. ?4, 27-35.
McIntyre, A. D., 1978. O n the feasibility of effects monitoring. - Coop. Res. Rep., I.C.E.S. ?5, 1-42. Mansueti, R. J., 1962. Effects of civilization o n striped bass a n d other e s t u a r i n e b i o t a in C h e s a p e a k e
Bay a n d tributaries. - Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. Inst. 1961, 110-136.
Murchelano, R. A. & Ziskowski, J., 1976. Fin rot disease studies in the N e w York Bight. - Spec. Syrup. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2, 329-336.
Nelson, J., 1916. A n n u a l report of the D e p a r t m e n t of Biology, Rutgers University. N e w Brunswick, N.J.
Saila, S. B., 1962. The c o n t r i b u t i o n of estuaries to the offshore w i n t e r flounder fishery in Rhode Island. - Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. Inst. 1961, 95-105.
S i n d e r m a n n , C. J., 1979. Pollution-associated diseases a n d a b n o r m a l i t i e s of fish a n d shellfish: a review. - Fish. Bull., U.S. 76, 717-749.
