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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 30 (2011) 247 – 251

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

Social and

Behavioral

Sciences

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 00 (2011) 000–000

www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

WCPCG-2011

The relationship between dimensions of anger and aggression in

contact and noncontact sports

Sanaz Saeed Ahmadi

a

*, Mohammad Ali Besharat

a

, Korosh Azizi

a,

Roja Larijani

b aDepartment of psychology, University of Tehran, P. O. Box 14155-6456, Tehran, Iran

bDepartment of Psychology,University of Tarbiat Moallem, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

This study investigated the relationship between anger and aggression in contact and noncontact sports. A total of 210 volunteer athletes (94 contact, 116 noncontact) were included in this study. All participants were asked to complete the Tehran Multidimensional Anger Scale (TMAS) and the Competitive Aggression Questionnaire (CAQ). The results revealed that all anger subscales were positively associated with indices of competitive aggression in both contact and noncontact sports. However, only anger-in and anger-out could significantly predict changes related to competitive aggressive behaviors. The results also revealed that 'anger control-in' and 'anger control-out' were negatively associated with indices of competitive aggression in both contact and noncontact sports.

© 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Emotion, Performance; Sport; Sport psychology

1. Introduction

Previous studies concerning the antecedents of aggression have led to the formulation of several theories concerning this field. The most famous models for studying aggression in sport are frustration-aggression (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939), the experienced frustration-aggression (Berkowitz, 1989), and social learning theory (Bandura, 1973). Dollard et al (1939) believed that frustration is the result of impediment in fulfilling certain goals and desires and inevitably ends in aggressive behavior. Berkowitz showed that all of the frustrated people do not react aggressively. But the situational symptoms and the learned responses affect the possibility of aggressive behavior. Based upon these evidences, Berkowitz (Berkowitz, 1989; Kimble, Russo, Bergman, & Gallindo, 2010) added cognitive factors to the frustration-aggression model, so that the role of emotional responses and personal motivation in tendency toward aggressive behaviors can be considered.

Bandura’s social learning theory (Archer, 2009; Bandura, 1973) discusses the role of learning in aggressive behavior. Bandura not only corroborated the role of physiologic, genetic and motivational factors but also stressed upon the importance of learned behavior in social interaction for expressing aggression. Bandura believed that aggression is learned by the observation or direct experience of aggressive actions along with perceived or actual approval of aggressive behaviors.

* Sanaz Saeed Ahmadi. Tel.: +98912 446 9830.

E-mail address: sara_lovee2003@yahoo.com.

© 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance.

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Researche related to the antecedents of aggression in sport are most often focused upon such parameters as game location(Keltikangas-Jarvinen & Kelnonen, 1988), home team (Jansen, Heiming, Kloke, Kaiser, Palme, Lesch, & Sachser, 2011), competition level (Coulomb & Pfister, 1988), the frequency of competition (Anderson & Carnagey, 2009), and the opposition aggression (Grange & Kerr, 2010). Meanwhile, what is often ignored in this regard is the study of psychological procedures of aggressive behavior antecedents particularly anger in sport.

Although anger is associated with aggression (e.g., Anestis, Anestis, Selby, & Joiner, 2009), it is distinguished from it (Maxwell, Visek, & Moores, 2009) and there is a comprehensive literature about the necessity of their distinction (Maxwell & Moores, 2007; Sukhodolsky, Gloub, & Cromwell, 2001). Berkowitz believes that anger and aggressiveness are some important antecedents of aggression. Aggressiveness is defined as the readiness for aggression or acceptance of and tendency toward aggressive actions. The acceptance of aggression is associated with the increasing of the athlete’s aggression (Conroy, Silva, Newcomer, Walker, & Jhonson, 2001). Anger and aggression are considered as relatively stable personal characteristics (trait like) and is not exclusively in sport. The higher levels of anger and aggression are associated with the higher tendency toward aggression (Cohn, Seibert, & Zeichner, 2009). Based upon the existing experimental evidences, it is predicted that anger and aggression are positively associated with aggression in both contact and noncontact sports.

2.Method

2.1. Participants and procedure

The statistical population of this study were the professional athletes of divers contact and noncontact sports all over Iran. Based upon the suggested and applied criteria in previous researche (e.g., Keeler, 2007; Smith & Stewart, 2003) wrestling, Taekwondo, basketball, football were considered as contact sports and volleyball, track and field, swimming, gymnastic and weightlifting were assumed to be noncontact ones. Research sample included 210 athletes (94 contact and 116, Mage = 22.50 years, age range: 18-29 years, and noncontact sports, Mage = 22.30 years, age range: 18-29 years). All participants were asked to complete the Tehran Multidimensional Anger Scale (TMAS; Besharat, 2008) and the Competitive Aggression Questionnaire (CAQ; Besharat, 2009).

2.2. Measures

Tehran Multidimensional Anger Scale (TMAS; Besharat, 2008)- This is a 30-item scale developed in Tehran

University for assessing dimensions of anger in Iranian populations. Questions of this scale assess 6 dimensions of anger including trait anger, state anger, anger-in, anger-out, anger control-in, and anger control-out in a five-point Likert-type scale from 1(very little) to 5 (very much). Psychometric properties of the TMAS have been examined and confirmed in several studies (Besharat, 2008).

Competitive Aggression Questionnaire (CAQ; Besharat, 2009)- This is a 25-item questionnaire developed for

assessing different aspects of aggression and aggressive behaviors in Iranian athletes and students. Questions of the scale assess five aspects of aggression including physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, hostility, and indirect aggression in a five-point Likert-type scale, from 1 (very little) to 5 (very much). Psychometric properties of the CAQ have been examined and confirmed in several studies (Besharat, 2009).

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3.Result

Mean scores and standard deviations for all scales are presented for athletes in contact and noncontact sports in Table 1.

Table1. Mean scores and standard deviations on each scale of anger and aggression for athletes in contact and noncontact sports

Variable/indicator Contact sports Noncontact sports

Mean(S.D) Mean(S.D) Trait anger 14.07(3.73) 12.62(2.32) State anger 13.41(4.27) 11.70(2.83) Anger-in 12.70(3.92) 10.71(2.60) Anger-out 13.77(3.83) 10.75(2.43) Anger-control in 16.57(3.34) 18.44(3.3) Anger-control out 17.36(3.59) 19.39(3.03) Physical aggression 20.98(3.54) 16.96(3.63) Verbal aggression 19.11(3.08) 15.55(2.99) Anger 21.56(3.59) 17.51(3.31) Hostility 20.65(3.27) 16.78(3.20) Indirect aggression 19.54(1.31) 1.75(2.68) Aggression(all) 101.87(16.26) 82.57(15.25) 4. Discussion

The results of the present study indicated that the dimensions of trait anger, state-anger, anger-in and anger-out have a positive correlation with various aspects of sport aggression in both contact and noncontact sports and the dimensions of anger control-in and anger control-out have a negative correlation with different aspects of sport

Results of Pearson correlation test revealed that there is a significant positive correlation between anger dimensions and various aspects of athlete’s aggression in both contact and noncontact sports. The results also revealed a significant negative correlation between the dimensions of anger control and different aspects of athlete’s aggression (Table 2).

Table 2. Pearson correlation coefficients between scales of anger and aggression for athletes in contact and noncontact sports

Contact sports Physical

aggression Verbal aggression anger hostility aggression Indirect Aggression(all)

trait anger 0.21 0.38 0.30 0.32 0.52 0.35 State anger 0.27 0.49 0.43 0.44 0.67 0.48 Anger-in 0.45 0.63 0.55 0.56 0.69 0.61 Anger-out 0.37 0.57 0.51 0.52 0.71 0.56 Anger-control in -0.41 -0.53 -0.49 -0.49 -0.57 -0.51 Anger-control out -0.33 -0.44 -0.40 -0.41 -0.50 -0.43 Noncontact sports Trait anger 0.21 0.24 0.23 0.21 0.29 0.24 State anger 0.23 0.25 0.34 0.32 0.36 0.31 Anger-in 0.51 0.49 0.58 0.52 0.48 0.56 Anger-out 0.40 0.42 0.50 0.47 0.50 0.45 Anger-control in -0.19 -0.20 -0.31 -0.29 -0.32 -0.27

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different aspects of anger do not have an equal association with aggression. Moreover, the results showed that although the type of sport is a predictorfactor in aggressive sport behavior, it has no influence on the relationship between anger dimensions and aggressive behavior. These findings which are in line with the results of previous research (Anestis et al., 2009; Conroy et al., 2001; Conroy et al., 2001; Maxwell et al., 2007) are interpreted according to the following possibilities.

The kind of relationship between different aspects of anger and aggression introduce this possibility that the individual’s anger either in the form of a characteristic (trait anger) or a state (state anger) do not spontaneously and necessarily cause aggression. The conversion of anger to aggression requires other factors including activation, intensification and anger orientation. In evaluating the situation and action, if the individual know himself as the responsible person for frustration and failure, his anger turns inside, against himself and is intensified (Berkowitz, 1989; Kimble et al., 2010). However, when the individual recognize other people as responsible for the frustration and failure, the anger turns outside, against others and is intensified. However, the result of this evaluation is not totally turned inside or outside and may be in different degrees of internal-external orientation or anger activation. Generally speaking, the result of the individual’s evaluation of the situation and performance activate anger and cause aggression.

Another mechanism that brings anger to the point of expressing aggressive behavior is the dominance of negative emotions. Berkowitz (1983) proposed this possibility that the experiences of frustration, opposition aggression and stimulation by means of developing negative emotions lead to aggression. Generally speaking the dominance of negative emotions occurs in different anger situations which caused either by outside factors Berkowitz proposed or inside factors introduced in previous explanations. The presence and string of negative emotions, especially in emergency situations of sport competitions, prepare the individual for aggression. Based upon this explanation, anger activation originated either from inside or outside by means of the dominance of negative emotions relate this psychological structure to aggression. Different forms anger expression including physical aggression, verbal aggression and indirect aggression (Buss & Warren, 2000; Maxwell, 2008; Maxwell et al 2007) which correspond with various aspects of anger-in and out confirm this explanation.

Finally, aggression is associated with anger activation by means of weakening anger control and management power. When anger becomes active under an effective (internal or external) factor, when the negative emotions overcome the individual’s behavior and when concentration and precision is disrupted, the intensity of anger increases which is either basically uncontrollable or led to loss of individual’s anger control and management power. The possibility of aggressive behavior in these situations is very high.

In practical level, the findings of the research could present the importance and necessity of attention to anger as an effective factor on athlete’s aggression. The identification of this psychological structure in athletes can be considered as the first step toward preventing the negative outcomes of sport competitions. The preparation and codification of training and interfering programs for decreasing anger and increasing its management especially in the contact sports is another practical measure that can be undertaken in order to moderate the anger level of vulnerable athletes. On theoretical level, findings of the present study can be used in relation to theories about emotions and emotion-regulation especially in the area of sport psychology.

References

Anderson, C. A., & Carnagey, N. L. (2009). Causal effect of violent sports video games on aggression: Is it competitiveness or violent content?

Journal of Experimental Social P sychology, 45, 731-739.

Anestis, M. D., Anestis, J. C., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2009). Anger rumination across forms of aggression. Personality and Individual

Difference, 46, 192-196.

Archer, J. (2009). The nature of human aggression. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 32, 202-208. Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: a social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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Besharat, M. A. (2008). Development and validation of Tehran Multidimensional Anger Scale. Unpublished research report, University of Tehran. [Farsi]

Besharat. M. A. (2009). Psychometric properties of Competitive Aggression Questionnaire. Unpublished research report, University of Tehran. [Farsi]

Buss, A. H., & Warren, W. L. (2000). The aggression questionnaire manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

Cohn, A. M., Seibert, L. A., & Zeichner, A. (2009). The role of restrictive emotionality, trait anger, and masculinity threat in men's perpetration of physical aggression. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 10, 218-224.

Coulomb, G., & Pfister, R. (1998). Aggressive behaviors in soccer as a function of competetion level and time: a field study. Journal of Sport

Behavior, 21, 222-231.

Conroy, D. E., Silva, J. M., Newcomer, R. R., Walker, B. W., & Jhonson, M. S. (2001). Personal and participatory socializers of the perceived legitimacy of aggressive behavior in sport. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 405-418.

Dollard, J., Doob, L., Miller, N., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Grange, P., & Kerr, J. H. (2010). Physical aggression in Australian football: Aqualitative study of elite athletes. Psychology of Sport and

Exercise, 11, 36-43.

Jansen, F., Heiming, R. S., Kloke, V., Kaiser, S., Palme, R., Lesch, K. P., & Sachser, N. (2011). Away game or home match: the influence of venue and serotonin transporter genotype on the display of offensive aggression. Behavioral Brain Research in Press, Un corrected proof. . Keeler, L. A. (2007). The differences in sport aggression, life aggression, and life assertion among adult male and female collision, contact, and

non-contact sport athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30, 57-76.

Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., & Kelnonen, M. (1988). Aggression, self-confidence and cardiovascular reactions in competitive performance in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 245-254.

Kimble, N. B., Russo, S. A., Bergman, B. G., & Gallindo, V. H. (2010). Revealimg empirical understanding of aggression and violent behavior in athletic. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 446-462.

Maxwell, J. P. (2008). Psychometric properties of a Chinese version of the Buss-Warren Aggression Questionnaire. Personality and Individual

Differences, 44, 943-953.

Maxwell, J. P., Visek, A. J., & Moores, E. (2009). Anger and perceived legitimacy of aggression in male Hong kong Chinese. Effect of type of sport and level of competition. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 289-296.

. Smith, D., Stewart, S. (2003). Sexual aggression and sports participation. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30, 384-395.

Sukhodolsky, D. G., Golub, A., & Cromwell, E. N. (2001). Development and validation of the anger rumination scale. Personality and Individual

References

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