.andinavian
Music
A
Short History JOHNHOUTON
^
. ! i Jxe cmturies Scandinavia has 1 vi notable contributions to die ut* ,3]worldinthefieldsof
composi-tion,performance,andcnucism. Inthis book, whichisprobablythefirstofits
kindtoappearinEnglish,Mr. Horton
summarises the musical histoiy of
Denmark,Norway, Sweden,
w
'land from the earliest *>
present day,andput* of each ^imtrv
ticular .3,
between Sc*w.
Isies;those
m
theMiddle Agesandinthe seventeenth century when John
Dowla&d and other English musicians
served at the Da&u?h court, and when Oliver
Grom
' ,< n toSweden mar1 i '* > * i music there. rt ,tfi ! i i 11 cases n* ; ' > ' alizalbn ike tl, T th**
in
^on Ddius ofNorwegian ro u i a *jjj
CJatlNielsenlu^efound a placeinmost jfetoriei of
mwk,
and contemporary^mposers suoh as Vajpi Hoiml>oe.
IdkgRoserntog. K:tln / *Vnt ahJ, HaralH c, i , i f* i I i !
iwauuii"
'LU
^uilat^djea^yLmd
to (a4
tAbd
Schtete f^dv tape. Bat Sr1Mb
isfor loeog
bem
<mritoab& Ourp i etaisdrawot tmlyiptheait ( i i -rf Scandinavia faut ^? .. * ,t d rlk ixmsiewhbse vani , tmsurpassed. Mr, ii ^on,wtoisS of (
54- IOC 12
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Scandinavian nu'sic; a short
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Scandinavian
Music
:A
Short
bythesameauthor * GRIEG (Duckworth] SOME NINETEENTH CENTURY COMPOSERS
Scandinavian
Music:
A
Short
History
JOHN
HORTON
W.
W.
NORTON
&
COMPANY
ING.
NEW YORK
FirstAmericanEdition 1963 PrintedinGreat Britain
!
Preface
In
ordertokeepthelaterchapters ofthisbook
withinreason-able
bounds
I have thought it expedient toend
the surveyhalfway through the present century. For this reason few
references, or
none
at all,have been
made
to certainyounger
Scandinavian composers
whose
names
havebeen
much
to the fore duringthenineteen-sixties,and
importantrecentworksby
some
well-established composershave
alsohad
to be passedover without mention.
A
fewexceptionstothisgeneral principlewill
be
found,and where
possible the reader's attention hasbeen drawn,
in text or footnotes, to biographicaland
criticalstudies publishedafter aswell as before 1950.
My
warmest
thanks aredue
to themany
friendsand
corre-spondents
who
havereplied to inquiries,made
helpfulsugges-tions,
and
inmany
cases lentor givendocumentary
material. I shouldliketoname
inparticular:Dr. Nils Afzelius, Dr.
Walter Bergmann, Mr.
Dan
Fog,Mr.
R.
D.Gibson and
the staffof Messrs.J.and
W.
Chester Ltd.,Mr. Robert
Layton,Mr. Richard
Newnham,
Mr.
Donald
Mitchell,
Mr.
M.
Kay-Larsen
of theDanish
InstituteinEdin-burgh and
the staffof theRoyal Danish Embassy
inLondon,
Mr. H.
E. Saether of theRoyal Norwegian
Embassy, Dr.P. A.Hildeman
and
his colleagues in the Swedish Institute forCultural Relations, Mrs.
Tahtinen
of the Finnish Legation,Mr.
Patrick Saul
and
the staffof the British Institute ofRecorded
Sound,
Mr.
F. Backer-Gr0ndahl, Dr. P.Kromer,
Dr. KristianLange
and
Dr.H. Huldt Nystr0m
with othermembers
of thestaff of the
Norwegian
Broadcasting Corporation, Mrs.H.
^
\8Wfr
^aST***
1*
6PREFACE
Oslo Folk
Museum,
and
Dr.0. Gaukstad
oftheOsloUniversity Library.I
am
also indebted to the following public bodies forin-formation
and documents
readilysupplied:In
Copenhagen,
theRoyal
Library, theArnamagnaean
Collection, the National
Museum,
theRosenberg
Palace,and
the Officers'
Academy
inFrederiksberg Castle;inHiller0d, theNational Historical
Museum;
in Stockholm, theRoyal
Library, the National
Museum, and
the MunicipalMuseum;
in
London,
the BritishMuseum
and
CecilSharp
House.To
members
of thestaffof theNorwegian
Officefor CulturalRelations
and
to ourfriends inNorway
my
wifeand
I wish toexpress our appreciation of the hospitality they
have
sogenerously bestowed
upon
us:among
themany
towhom
we
are deeply grateful are
Mr.
and
Mrs. Egil Nordsj0,Mr. and
Mrs.Gunnar
Saevig,Mr.
and
Mrs.Harald
Saeverud,Mr. and
Mrs. Geirr Tveitt,
Mr.
IvarBenum,
and
Mr.
AlfHurum.
We
remember
with gratitude our meetingsand
conversationswithDr.
O.
M.
Sandvik,Mr.
D.Monrad
Johansen,and
ProfessorO.
Gurvin.
I
owe
a particular debt to Dr. GeraldAbraham
for hisconstantencouragement, kindly
and
constructive criticism,and
wise
and
experiencedcounsel.Finally, I
would
thankMr.
Giles de laMare
and
theeditorial
and
production staffs ofMessrs.Faber and
Faber
fortheir interestin this
book
ateverystage ofits publication.JOHN
HORTON
January 1963Contents
1.
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
page 15
2.
THE
REFORMATION
:Music
INCHURCH,
SCHOOL
AND
COURT
333.
SWEDISH
Music
DURING THE
AGE
OF
GREAT-NESS 51
4.
Two
SCANDINAVIAN
MASTERS
OF
THE
BAROQUE:
DIDRIK
BUXTEHUDE AND
JOHAN
HELMICH
ROMAN
625.
THE
FOUNDATIONS
OF
SCANDINAVIAN
OPERA
736.
NATIONAL
ROMANTICISM
AND
THE STUDY
OF
FOLK
Music
877.
LYRIC
SONG AND
PIANOFORTE
MINIATURE
98 8.ORCHESTRAL AND
CHAMBER
Music
INTHE
NINETEENTH CENTURY
in
9.
BALLET,
OPERA
AND OTHER
Music FOR
THE
STAGE
12410.
JEAN
SIBELIUSAND
CARL
NIELSEN
12911.
NORWEGIAN
Music
AFTER
GRIEG
13612.
DANISH
Music AFTER
CARL
NIELSEN
14313.
FINNISH
Music AFTER
SIBELIUS 14814.
WILHELM STENHAMMAR
AND
MODERN
SWEDISH
Music
154POSTSCRIPT
165APPX.
I.SUGGESTIONS
FOR
FURTHER READING
169APPX.
II.JOHANN
MATTHESON'S
PAMPHLET
ON
'SUBTERRANEAN
Music
INNORWAY'
170INDEX
175Illustrations
la Bronze
Age
lur; NationalMuseum,
Copen-hagen
facingpage 16b Carved
doorpostfrom
church at Hylestad,Norway
(c.i20o), depicting the story ofGunnar
16II Nobilis,humilis:
two-part
hymn
toSt.Magnus
;from
the fifteenth-century Codex upsaliensis(C 233) 17
Ilia Concordemus in hac die: opening of sequence
attributed to Archbishop Birger Gregerson,
fourteenth century;
from
Codex upsaliensis(C
5i3) 32b
Gratulemurdulciprosa: opening ofsequence forFestival ofSt. Erik, possibly
by Jakob
Israel-son, Archbishop of
Uppsala
(d. 1281);from
Codexupsaliensis ( 0513) 32
IV
Page from
facsimile of Codex runicus(0.1296-1319) showing notation of part of
Danish
ballad; original in
Arnamagnaean
Collection(AM
8vo 80). 33V
Lux
illuxit letabunda: opening ofsequence forFestivalofSt. Olav;
from
Riksarkivet (NationalArchives of
Norway)
(Rg86b) 36Via
&
b
Brassmusicfrom
theCourtof Christian III ofDenmark;
Royal
Library,Copenhagen
(41:01872
and
1873) 37ILLUSTRATIONS
VII
Compenius
Organ
in the chapel ofFrederiks-borg Castle, Hiller0d facingpage
44
VIII
Groups
ofmusiciansfrom
ceiling paintingby
Franz Cleyn (0.1620) inRosenberg
Palace,Copenhagen
45IX
Group
of musiciansfrom
ceiling paintingby
Le
Coffre (1671-1722) in FrederiksbergCastle,
Copenhagen
52X
PartoforiginalscoreofDrottningholm Music,by
J.
H.
Roman
53XI
Pagesfrom
original score of Gustav Vasa,by
J. G.
Naumann
60XII
C.M.
Bellman,from
the portrait painted forGustafIll's collection in 1779
by
Pehr Krafftthe elder 61
XIII
'Extraordinarymode
ofsingingby
Finlanders';from
Acerbi's Travels through Sweden, Finland,and Lapland . . . intheyears
1798 and 1799
96
XIV
Heart-shaped manuscriptbook
containingDanish
ballad-verses (0.1553-55);Royal
Library,
Copenhagen
97XV
Das
Unterirrdische Klippen-Concert in Norwegen:title-pageof
pamphlet by
Mattheson, 1740 112XVI
Title-page of song-bookby
Samuel
Simon
Weise, publishedin
Copenhagen,
1753;Royal
Library,
Copenhagen
113XVII
Opera-productionin the Gustavianera; scene
from
Piccini's Atys9from
a paintingby
Pehr
Hillestrom of
about
1785 116XVIII
Musical evening in the house of ChristianWaagepetersen,
showing
NielsGade
at thepiano;
from
the paintingby
W.
N.
Marstrand, 1834, Frederiksborg Castle 117ILLUSTRATIONS
XIX
Evald
Tang
Kristensen (1843-1929),Danish
folksong collector;
from
the paintingby
Hans
Agersnap
in the National HistoricalMuseum,
Frederiksborg Castle facingpage 124
XX
Group
ofmodern
Hardanger
fiddle-players 125XXI
Group
of Scandinavian composers at theFestival ofNordic Music,
Copenhagen,
1919 132XXII
HildingRosenberg
133XXIII
Harald
Saeverud 140XXIV
The
Royal
Danish
StateRadio
Symphony
Orchestra in the Concert Hall,
Radio
House,Pre-Christian
and
Mediaeval
Periods
The
earliest traces of music
among
the Scandinavianpeoples
show
that, as in other primitive communities,the sounds of
human
voicesand
instrumentswere
regarded not merely as serving the everyday purposes of
com-munication
and
signalling in peaceand
war, but also aspossessing supernatural powers associated withthe observance
of rites
and
ceremoniesand
with the preservationand
trans-mission oftriballore.
Our
knowledge
ofthesemattersisderivedfrom
three sources:literary references, pictorialrepresentations
of instruments chiefly in
wood
and
stoneand
theremainsofactual instruments brought to light
by
fortunate chance or inthe course of archaeologicalinvestigations.
The
English housewifewho
buysDanish
buttermay
findthatthe
wrapper
bears aminute
but accurate drawing of a pair ofBronze
Age
lursor natural trumpets.1To
seethe originalsone
must
visit themuseums
ofCopenhagen,
Stockholm, Oslo,and
Stavanger,
which
among
them
house the thirty-odd specimensunearthedsince the
end
of the eighteenth century in the Scan-dinavianpeninsulaand Northern Germany.
They
datefrom
atleast four
hundred
years before the Christianera,and
bothinappearance
and
soundareamong
themostsplendidrelicsof thepast.
The
bronzeconicaltubeof the lurvariesbetween
fiveand
eightfeetin length,
and
is gracefully curved,sometimes intwo
directions
;itterminatesinaflattened belladorned withbosses,
and
isfittedwithacup-shaped mouthpiecesimilar tothat ofthemodern
trombone.On
the best-preserved examples abrass-1Thelur
appears to be depictedamong the rock-carvings atTessen in
Beitstad (Norway) andin Bohuslanand Skane (Sweden). 15
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
playercan producethefirsttwelve notes of the
harmonic
series.The
fact thatsome
of these instrumentshave been found
inpairs, symmetrically curved in opposite directions, has
en-couraged the theory that they
were
played together, in themanner
shown
inthegroup
of statuary outside theCopenhagen
Town
Hall, ordemonstratedon
replicasby
theband-boysintheTivoliGardens.IftheBronze
Age
musicians performedinduetfashion they can hardly
have
avoided discoveringharmonic
intervals such as the
major
thirdand
perfect fourthand
fifth,and
thus taking at least a step ortwo
towards elementarypolyphony and what
Curt Sachs called "the road to major'.1Reliable evidence about the
development
of stringedinstru-mentsfirstoccursinthesixthcenturyof the Christianera,
when
the Scandinavian landswere
still almost entirely pagan.Two
distinct formsof the
harp
had
evolved: the triangularand
theround
or oblong, thelatteroftenresemblingtheGraeco-Roman
citkara
and
perhaps being the ancestor oftwo
regionalinstru-ments
that survived until comparativelymodern
times theWelsh
crwthand
the Esthonian tallharpa.The
sixth-centuryBishop Venantius Fortunatus associates different varieties of
stringedinstrument with particular races:
Romanusquelyraplaudattibi, Barbarasharpa,
Graecusachilliaca, chrotta Britanna canat.
'Letthe
Roman
praise theewiththe lyre,thebarbarian withthe harp, the
Greek
with the cithara,and
let the Britishchrotta resound.'
The
obvious inference is that the chrottawas
the oblong harp,and
the triangular shapewas
usedby
the non-Christianbar-barians of Northern Europe, but the nomenclature of these
instruments is very
much
confused;2 thus
Martin
Gerbert, the
eighteenth-century authorof thetreatise
De
cantuetmusicasacra,distinguishes the
round
lyre as cytharateutonica, whereashe
callsthe triangular
form
cythara anglica.Judging by
survivingrepre-sentations
and
remains,itwas
theround
oroblongharp
that the1
Sachs, G., TheRiseofMusicintheAncientWorld, pp. 295seq., London,
1944*
2
See Hayes, Gerald,'MusicalInstruments', NewOxford HistoryofMusic,
Vol. Ill,London, 1960,ch. XIII; alsoPanum,H., TheStringed Instruments
oftheMiddleAges,revisedandeditedJ.Pulver,London, 1941.
Reproducedby permission
la Bronze Age lur; National
Museum,Copenhagen
Ib Carved doorpost from church at
Hylestad, Norway (ca. 1200),
depict-ingthestory ofGunnar. Theepisode
of Gunnar's harp-playing in the
serpents'denisatthe top
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
Scandinavian races
knew
best: itfigures in wood-carvings in
the churches of
Austad and
Hylestad (both inNorway),
1and
fragmentsofasimilarinstrument, dating
from
aboutA.D. 1300,found
atKravik
inNumedal.
The
Kravik
harp appearstohave
had
six strings, like the sixth-centurySaxon
instrument ofdifferentpattern recovered
from
the SuttonHoo
ship burial in1939
and
now
shown
in reconstructedform
in the BritishMuseum. The
persistence of six strings suggests a pentatonictuning,
and
it hasbeen
suggested that the tuning of theunderstrings of the
much
laterHardanger
fiddlemay
preservea traditional harp-scale.2
Apart from
illustrating theround
harp, theNorwegian
church
carvingsshow
how
strongly theartofharp-playingwas
linkedwith
magic and
myth.The
theme
inboth theseexamplesofintricate
and
beautiful wood-carving,which
datefrom
thetwelfth century,isthestoryof
Gunnar
GjukesonintheVolsung-saga.
Gunnar
was thrown
into aden
ofserpents, togetherwithhis harp; his hands
were bound,
butby
plucking theharp-strings with his toes he
charmed
the creatures into docility.Legend
surrounds the very origin of anothermember
of theharp
family, the kantele, a psaltery-like instrument with fivestrings that found its
way
into the Scandinavian peninsuladuring the
Middle
Agesand
became
naturalized in Finland,where
itis stillinuseas apopularand
educationalinstrument.The
Finnishepic, Kalevala,describeshow
theheroVainamoinen
first
made
itfrom
the bonesofalargepike,and
later rebuiltitwith birch
wood
strung with a maiden's hair. Like Orpheus,he
enchants alllivingthingswithhisplaying.3These
legendarytales,however
fanciful, reveal the existenceof atraditionof purely instrumentalmusic;
and
it isremarkablehow
oftenthistraditionisreferredtoinScandinavianliterature,and
how
seldom the sagas treat harp-playing as merelyan
accompaniment
to song. Familiar aswe
are with theeighth-century
Northumbrian
St. Bede's vivid account of singing tothe
harp
in the story ofCaedmon
and
Aelfred's translation1
SeePlateIb. 2See
p. 94. 3
Kalevala, trans.
W.
F.Kirby,London, 1907,runosXL,XLI
andXLIV.
The kanteleis tobedistinguishedfrom thekanteleharpa, whichis similar tothe Swedish tallharpaalreadymentioned. SeePlate XIII.
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
puts thematter
beyond doubt
withthephrasebehearpan singanwe
might
expect similar descriptions in the NorseEddas
and
sagas. In Norse literature, however, harp-playing (harpasldttr)
is nearly always a separate art
from
singing or chanting, forwhich
the usualword
is kveda.From
the fourteenth-centurysagas
we
learn that the expert harpisthad
a repertory of piecesknown
by
theirtitles; thus Nornagespdttr tellshow
an
itinerantmusicianentertained
King
Olaf Trygvason
atTrondheim
withseveral tunes
named
afterthe legendary Gunnar's exploits as aharpist,
and
in the Bosesaga a virtuoso plays a succession oftunes, all
named,
at awedding
party, to such effect that notonlythe guests dance, but also the knives
and
platters. Besidesthe outstanding performances of professional musicians, the
skill of distinguishedamateurs is
commemorated
; a passagein
the Orkneyinga saga contains verses
by
EarlRagnvald
Kali(1135-58) in
which he
claims. . . nineaccomplishments:a
good
memory
forrunes, beingfrequentlyoccupied with booksorwithbuilding,beingskilful
at skating, beingableto shoot
and
row
asoccasiondemands,
and
understanding thetwo
arts ofharp-playingand
verse-making.
Thislist
may
not beuntypical of the culturedNorsearistocracyofIceland
and
the Scottish islands in the twelfth century; but
referencestoacomparatively
advanced
musicaldevelopment
inthe Elder (orPoetic]
Edda and
Heimskringla, both writtendown
by
the Icelander,SnorreSturleson (i170-1241),and
containingthestoriesof theNorsekings,
must
betreatedwithsome
reserve,as they
may
representan
idealized picture of the Viking ageand
theearliestperiod ofnorthern Christianity.The
oldest extant Norse poetryembodied
in the ElderEdda
belongs to the tradition of accentual
and
alliterative versethrough
which
thecommon
lore of the northernGermanic
nations
was
preservedand
handed
on.Much
ofit goesback
tothe pre-Christianage (before A.D. 1000)
and
bothinmetricalform and
poetic imagery has a great deal incommon
with theeighth-century English epic of Beowulf.
At
thetimewhen
Snorrelived
and
made
his great compilations, however, the olderliterary traditions
were
beginning to be supplantedby
amore
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND MEDIAEVAL
PERIODSSkaldic poetry
made
rapidheadway
in the early years of thetenth century,
when many
men
of high birthand
intellectualability left
Norway
in protest against the autocratic rule of HaraldFairhair (860-933)and
settled in Iceland, which soon gained a cultural ascendancy over the mother country,and
eventually
became
the chief guardian of mediaeval Norseliterature.
While
we
canknow
little that is certain about the musicaldeclamation used
by
the skaldic poets or by the Icelandiccommunitiesinreciting the Eddie
poems and
thenewer courtverses, a tenuous survival of their practice
may
exist in theIcelandic tuneswritten
down
inthelate eighteenthcenturyby
Johan
Hartmann
the elder, probably from the singing ofIcelandersvisitingor residing inCopenhagen, andpublishedin
J. B. delaBorde'sEssaisurlamusiqueancienneetmoderns (1780).
The
five melodies or rather four, for oneis given twice areset toscrapsofskaldicverse,
and
oneisdescribedasthetunetowhich
the Eddie Voluspaawasstillbeing chantedineighteenth-century Iceland. Voluspaa (or Vdmspa] means 'the Sibyl's
Prophecy', and forms part of the Poetic Edda that probably
originatedinthe tenthcentury.
The
following,withsome
cor-rectionsof theNorse text,is thechant as delaBordeprints it:
Var-a san - dr ne saer ne sval-ar unn - - ir
;
fannsk aev - * a nc upp - him - -Inn; gap
JT,J
JI
^P
iriuar: var Ginn - - un -90, gras hvcr- - gi-( eln thebeginning,
when Ymir
lived, therewas neithersandnor sea nor cold waves, nor could any earth or heaven be
found; therewas Ginnunga, the void,butgrassnowhere.') 19
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND MEDIAEVAL
PERIODSAnothertrace of epicor,
more
probably, skaldicchantmay
be preservedin the two-part
hymn
Nobilis, humilis, dedicatedto the
memory
ofSt.Magnus,
Earl ofOrkney
(d. 1115). Thisprimitivebutremarkably euphoniousexampleof
what was
latertobecalledgymelinEnglishmanuscripts ofthefifteenthcentury
occurs in a manuscript believed to have been written in the
Orkneys during the thirteenth century; it is
now
in theuni-versity library atUppsala.1
No-bi -Us, hu-mi -Us, - Ifs
.' ,' ,i / ,' i
1
1
r
1n
Ha -bi -lis, u-ti
-lis, co-ms ve - ne -ra -bi - lis,
tt
ttu- tor lau-da - bt -lis Tu *os sub - di -tos
ser-va car-nis fra-gi
-Us
mo-le po- - si - tos.(
c
Noble, lowly,
Magnus
the steadfast martyr, able,service-able, reverend earl
and
honoured guardian: save thy peopleburdenedwithfrail flesh.')
The
accentual Latin ofthe verses is not unlikesome
oftheskaldic metres,andthewholecomposition has apopularflavour
that suggests a secular, perhaps a non-Christian origin. It is
possible that this virile
hymn,
celebrating the virtues of an1
Codexupsaliensis (C233):seePlate II.Themusicalimportanceofthis
manuscript wasfirstrealizedbyOlaf KolsrudandGeorgReissin19122.The
mostrecent study of theMagnus-hymnisthat ofNils L. Wallinin Svensk TidskriftfdrMusikforskning(Studier tilldgnadeCarl-AllanMoberg),Stockholm,
1961. Wallinarguesthat the
hymn may
have been composedas early as 1140, andsuggests thatitmay
have been sungat the consecration ofSt.MagnusCathedral, Kirkwall,by membersof theEarl's family,Latinwords
beingfittedforthissolemnoccasiontoamelodyinpopularcirculation,and sungin partsaccordingtothepractice describedbyGiraldus Gambrensis.
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
Orkneyan
Christianearl,may
have been
adaptedfrom
a heroiclay of
pagan
times,and
that the lower voice-partmay
be
atraditionalmelody.
The
polyphonic setting raises other questions.Almost
con-temporary
with theMagnus-hymn
is the famous account ofpopularpart-singing intheItinerary of Geraldde Barri (Giraldus
Cambrensis, c. 1
147-1220).x Gerald distinguishes
between
thefree
polyphony
of theWelsh
singers ofhisday and
themore
restricted part-singing to be heard 'in the northern district of
Britain
beyond
theHumber
and on
the borders ofYorkshire5.This northern
manner
ofharmonic
extemporizationwas
in-herited,
he
believes,'from theDanes and
Norwegians,by
whom
these partsoftheisland
were
more
frequently invaded,and
heldlonger
under
theirdominion';thus,Geraldsurmises,the English,picked
up
notonly theNorsemen's speech butalsotheirway
ofsinging.
The
descriptionis notpreciseenough
toshow whether
the
Northern
practice took theform
ofharmonizationmainly
in thirds, asin the
Magnus-hymn
;itis clearonly that the
sing-ing
was
always in two parts,and some
kind ofparallelmove-ment
issuggested. Inthemore
remote Norse colony ofIcelandthe
custom
of singing in parallel fifths(tviyngja), as in the mediaeval organum,
was
firmly establishedby
the beginning ofthe fourteenth century,
when
itwas
condemned
by
Laurentius,Bishop of
Holar
but survived almostintomodern
times.Taken
together, these facts indicate that the Scandinavian
world
played
some
part in thedevelopment
ofpolyphony
along thelines of popular, spontaneous improvisation.
How
far thatde-velopment
had
goneby
theearlyyears of thethirteenthcenturyisapparent
from
thesupreme
masterpieceofsecularpolyphony,Sumer is icwnen in,
which
iscontemporary
with theUppsala
manuscript of the
Magnus-hymn and
with Gerald's Itinerary.2At
its zenith in the tenth century, the Scandinavian empirestretched
from
Greenlandtothe heart ofEuropean
Russia,and
included a largepart of theBritish Isles;
and
thisvastexpan-sion of the
pagan North was
in itselfthemeans
ofbringing1The
relevant passages of theLatin text, withEnglish translation, are
givenin the
New
OxfordHistoryof Music, Vol.II,pp.315-16.2
Forthe Reading Rotaanditsrelationship to popularandlearned
poly-phony, seethe
New
OxfordHistoryof Music, Vol. II, p.402, andVol. Ill,PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
Scandinavia within the
bounds
of Christendom. Missionariescame
from
southernand
westernEurope
; the pioneerwork
ofSt. Willebrod of
Northumbria
in the eighth century,and
ofSt.
Ansgar
in the ninth, bore fruitwhen,
in 960,King
Harald
Bluetooth ofDenmark
was
baptizedby
theArchbishop
ofBremen
and
ordered bishoprics to befounded
in theDanish
towns of Slesvig,
Ribe and
Aarhus. In 1008Olof
theLap-King became
thefirstChristiankingof theSwedes,and
in 1030Olav
II,who
had
spread the faith inNorway
with fireand
sword, fell in battle at Stiklestad; hisbody was
buriedon
thesite of the future cathedral ofNidaros
(now Trondheim)
and
he
was
canonized as a martyr kingin the following year.Half
a century later the
Danes
alsohad
their royal saintwhen
Canute
the Holy,grand-nephew
ofCanute
the Great,was
buriedin the crypt of
Odense
cathedraland
canonized. In thetwelfth century archbishoprics
were
established at Nidaros(1153)
and Uppsala
(1164),and
thesame
centurysaw
the riseof the Cistercian monasteries in
Sweden.
'The datenoo
isan
epoch.
...
Itwas
then that thewandering
of theGerman
nations
was
completed. . . .The
Northern world
beforenoo
was
stillin great part theworld
of the Germania . . . afternoo
Germaniais
harmonized
inthenew
conceptionofChristendom.'1Far from
checkingthecreativevigourofitsnew
converts, theChristianreligion gavefreshimpetus to Norsearchitecture
and
the decorativearts,poetry,
and
song.The
genius of thenorthernraces for absorbing cultural ideas
from
other regions, whileretaining
and
evenintensifying theirnative originality,showed
itself in the reconciliation of
much
thatwas
vital in the oldpaganism
with the Christian attitude to life as itwas
taughtby
priestsand
monks
from
Britain, France,and
Italy.On
thesites of the greatheathen shrines at Nidaros
and Uppsala
rosechurches, at first of
wood
but soon of stone, thatgave
new
expression to the ancient fantasies of plant
and
beast.The
northernchurch
was
literallya churchmilitant,and
asitsearlysaints, like
Olav and
Canute,were
oftenmen
ofbattle, so thehymns
that celebrated their prowessand
their piety followedthe pattern of the
pagan
hero-songs;and
the war-chant ofOlav's
army
at Stiklestad:1
Ker,
W.
P., TheLarkAges, London, 1904, reptd. 1955, p.5.PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
Fram,
fram,Kristsmenn,Krossmenn,
Konungsmenn
('Forward,
men
ofChrist,men
of theCross,men
ofthe King')must have
resembled the din of theGermanic
warriorsde-scribed
by
Tacitus in the first century of the Christian era.Some
of the songs quoted in Heimskringla as havingbeen
extemporized
by
Olav's skaldsand
'immediately gotby
heartby
thearmy
5are frankly
pagan
in languageand
sentiment.1One
of theproblems of the earlymissionariesmust have been
that of teaching Gregorian
plainsong to northern clerics.
Visitors to Scandinavia in the period immediately before the
introduction of the
new
faith vie with one another in theiruncomplimentary
remarkson
nativesinging.The
tenth-centuryArabian
traveller,Ibrahim
ibnAhmed
at-Tartushi, describesthe ritual singing of the heathen inhabitants of Slesvig as 'a
growlingthatissues
from
their throatslikethebayingofhounds,but even
more
bestial'; 2and
the eleventh-century chronicler
Adam
ofBremen,
givingan
account of the hideous sacrificialofferings displayed at Uppsala, says that the songs
accom-panying
them
were too obscene to dwell upon.3Yet
in thisalso the
Church
eventually triumphed.While pagan
songswere
adapted as far as possible to Christian use, like thewar-song of Olav's army, the converts' ears
and
throatbecame
gradually accustomed to the chants prescribed
by
Rome,
The
contrast
between
thenew
ritesand
the old ceremonialisbroughtoutinapassage inHeimskringla,describing
how
Olav Trygvason
turned ameetingfor
pagan
sacrificeintoan
enforcedbaptism:The
following morning,when
the kingwas
dressed,he
had
theearlymass sungbefore
him
;and
when
themasswas
over,ordered the trumpets to
sound
for a conference.4Heimskringla also relates
how
Sigurd Slembedegn, while beingtortured to death, 'spoke until
he
gaveup
the ghost,and
sangbetween
whiles a third part of the psalter,which
[was]1
Heimskringla, trans. Samuel Lane (London, 1844), Everyman edtn. pp. 372seq.
2
Quotedin Brondsted,J., The Vikings, London, 1960, p. 40.
3
Ibid., p. 265.
4
Heimskringla, trans. Lane, p. 62. TheNorse text reads: *. . .le*thann syngjas&rti6ir, okermessu varlokit, pdle"tkonungrblasa tilhuspings.'
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
considered
beyond
the powersand
strength ofordinary men'.1Another
episodefrom
thesaga ofOlafTrygvason
describestheserviceinNidaroscathedralatMichaelmas,999,
when
anumber
of
pagan
Icelanders ofconsequencewere
visiting thetown
:When
Michaelmas
came
. . . the kinghad
high
mass sung
withgreat splendour.
The
Icelanderswent
there,and
listenedtothefinesinging
and
thesound
of thebells;and
when
theycame
back to their ships everyman
told his opinion of theChristian man's worship. Kiartan expressed his pleasure at
it, but mostof the othersscoffed atit. ... 2
BeforelongtheparentstockofLatinchant
and
hymnody
putout fresh shootsin the northern climate,
and
native poetsand
musicians
produced
compositionson
themodel
of thehymns
and
sequences current in the great musical centres of theChurch, suchasSt. Gall, Paris,
and
Cambrai.
Young
men
were
sent
from
theScandinavianlands tostudyin theseplaces,whileexperts
were
imported to train native singers for thenew
cathedrals
and
collegiatechurches.Even
far-offIcelandhad
aFrench
teacher ofChurch
song, amonk
whose
name
was
recorded as Richini orRikinni;
he
was
installedby
BishopJ6n
of
Holar
atthebeginning of the twelfthcentury to teachin thecathedral school.3
The
oldest complete musicaldocuments from
Denmark
4 arethree Latin sequencescontainedina
parchment codex
5writtenin the reign of
Valdemar
I (1157-1182), conqueror of theheathen
Wends, whose
religious counsellorand
companion
on
the battlefield
was
Absalon, Archbishop ofLund
thenunder
Danish
rule thefounderofCopenhagen.
The
sequencesare ofFrench
origin,and
point to the influence of Parison
Danish
religious lifeatthistime.
Of
greater nationalinterest, however,is the ritual for the office of St.
Canute (Knut
Lavard), thefather of
Valdemar
I. Itwas Canute
who
endowed
thechurch
(afterwards the cathedral) at
Lund
in 1104, providing for the1The
NorseKingSagas, trans. Lane,Everymanedtn., p. 355.
2
Heimskringla, p. 73.
8Forfurtherinformationonmusicinmediaeval
Iceland, see thearticle
*
Island* inBlume, Die Mtisikin GeschichteundGegenwart, 1957.
4
Hammerich,Angul,MediaevalMusicalRelicsofDenmark,
Leipzig, 1912.
5LiberDaticusLundensis.
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
maintenance
of a choir;and from
these beginningsLund
grew
into
an
importantcentre ofchurchmusic.The
CouncilofLund,
summoned
by
Absalon
in 1188,was
attendedby
sixDanish
bishops; itdecided
upon
forms ofritualand
ordereda breviaryto
be
drawn
up.The
officeofSt.Canute
occursinamanuscriptprobably
writtenat Ringsted orRoskilde inthelate thirteenthcentury
and
now
in the universitylibrary at Kiel.1The
ritual
includes a
hymn,
Gaudet mater ecclesia, withtwo
melodies, thefirst of
which
is in themajor
mode
and
suggests a popularorigin orintention.
There
are alsotwo
sequences Preciosamorssanctorum
and
Diem
festum veneremurwhich
are found only inDanish
sources.Whether
or notAbsalon
himselfdrew
up
theCanute
ritual,hemust have
had
considerableknowledge
ofthemost advanced
practice in ecclesiasticalmusic.He
had
studiedin Paris as
one
of thefirstof a longsuccessionofScandinavianstudentsduringthetwelfth
and
thirteenthcenturies, theperiodwhen
theNotreDame
schoolofcompositionflourished,and
alsowhen
the sequencecame
into fullbloom
under
the care ofAdam
oftheAbbey
ofSt. Victor. Scandinavian scholarswere
so
numerous
in Paris thatby
theend
of the thirteenthcentury
they
had
theirown
collegium danicumand
domus Daciae;
Danes
may
have been
in amajority, but therewere
also Norwegians,Swedes,
and
Icelanders.The
most
interestingNorwegian
compositions that survivefrom
the thirteenthcenturyare theMagnus-hymn
and
anotherhymn
contained in thesame
manuscript;2this begins
Ex
teoritus, dulcis Scotus,
and
alludes to themarriage ofKing
ErikMagnusson
to Margaret, daughter ofAlexander III ofScot-land at
Bergen
in is8i.3There
are alsotwo
sequencescon-nected with the cult of St.
Olav
at Nidaros; they beginLux
illuxit letabunda
and
Predicasti Dei careand
were discovered at the beginning of the present centuryin theparchment
wrap-pings of sixteenth-centuryaccountbooks.4
1Codex Kiloniensis
(S.H./84/8vo).
2
Codex Upsaliensis (G233).
3
Beveridge,John,'TwoScottishThirteenth CenturySongs' inMusic and
Letters, Oct. 1939 (Vol. XX). Facsimiles ofboth hymns are given. 4
Reiss, Georg,NorshemiddelalderligeMusikhaandskrifter,Christiania, 1908;
Musiken ved denmiddelalderlige Olavsdyrkelse iNorden, Christiania, 1912. See
PlateV.
A
full account of music in Trondheim Cathedral in the thirteenthPRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
The
wealth of the mediaeval Swedishhymns
and
sequenceshas
been
revealedby
the studies of Professor Carl-AllanMoberg.
1The
influence ofBritish missionarieson
the earlierphases of the church in
Sweden
was
extensive; for example,aleaf
from
ahymnary
orkalendarof theearlytwelfth century,perhaps used in the diocese of Linkoping, mentions not only
the
Danish
St.Canute and
theNorwegian
St. Olav, but alsothe EnglishSt.Botolph.
The
earliestdocuments
fortheSwedish
hymns
date from the first part of the thirteenth century,and
show
that a parody-techniquewas
widely used,new
versesbeing
composed
to older metrical schemesand
fitted toplain-song melodies.
Among
the saintscommemorated
in thisway
were
St. Erik, martyred in 1138 during a crusade ledby
theEnglish-born Bishop
Henry
ofUppsala
against thepagan
Finns;
St. Eskil, another British
monk
martyredby
the Svearin thelatter part of the eleventh century
;
and
St. David, alsofrom
Britain.
The
verseson
St.Henry
containedinasequence inan
early printed graduate suecanum
from
about 1500 refer to hisEnglish birth
and
to themanner
ofhis death:Ortus inBritannia,
pollens Dei gratia,
superna providencia
pontifex efficitur
clamsin Upsalia.
Demum
pro iusticiadecertans in Finlandia
pugilChristi moritur.
(
e
Born
in Britain, strong in divine grace,by
almightyprovi-dence
became
therenowned
Bishop of Uppsala.At
length,fighting for righteousness in Finland, he died a warrior of
Christ.')
A
sequenceon
St.Erik occursinanotherSwedish manuscript2centuryisgivenby OlufKolsrud in 'KorsongeniNidarosdomen',
contri-butedtoFestskrifttil0.
M.
Sandmk, Oslo, 1945.1
Moberg, Carl-Allan, Uber die Schwedischen Sequenzen, Uppsala, 1927;
Die liturgischen Hymnen inSchweden, Copenhagen, 1947. Seealso Moberg's
article Sveriges, Norgesoch DanmarksKyrkomusik and Haapanen, T.:
Kyrko-musikeniFinlandunder Medeltiden,bothin NordiskKultur.
2Codex
Upsaliensis(0513). SeePlate Illb.
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
which
may
have
beenwritten inEngland
or inSweden
under
English influence.
The
Erik sequence, Gratulemur duldprosa, issetto a
melody
thathas notbeen
traced toany
foreign source.By
theend
of thefifteenthcenturyaspecialfeastcommemorated
the patron saints of the
Swedish
church Erik, Henry, Eskil,Botvid, David, Sigfrid,
Helen
and
Birgitta,and
a sequencebeginning Exsultantangelorum chori mentions
them
allby name.
St. Birgitta (1303-1373) holds a special place in
hymnology.
One
of the mostdynamic and
versatile figures of theMiddle
Ages, she founded a double convent at Vadstena
and
inspiredthe compilation of a series of
hymns
for the use of herOrder
intheir sevendailyservices.1
St. Birgitta's austere rule forbade the use of
polyphony
atVadstena, but the practice of organum singingin the Paris style
was
encouragedin the cathedralatUppsala
much
earlier thanhertime. Unfortunatelythe libraries of
Uppsala and Vadstena
were
both destroyed or dispersed during the Reformationperiod;theformer containedabouta
hundred
volumesin 1369,and
theVadstena
collection, probablythefinestinSweden,
had
1,400 books, afew of
which
foundtheirway
into theuniversitylibrary as a gift
from
Gustavus Adolphus.Many
manuscripts,including musical texts,
were
cutup
tomake
bindings foraccount books, tax schedules
and
other prosaic documents, orwere
usedby
soldiers aswadding
for theirmusketsinthewarsofthe sixteenth century.
About
50,000parchment
leaveshave
survived in bindings,
and
furtherevidence ofthewidespreaduseofliturgicalbooksinmediaeval
Sweden
isprovidedby
theLaws
of
Smiland
(about 1300),where
theminimum
parish libraryis
enumerated
as a massbook,an
antiphonal, a psalter,and
agradual.
During
the last fewyears of the fifteenth centuryand
atthebeginning of the sixteenth,
on
the eve of the Reformation,printed liturgical books
were
purchased in considerablenum-bersforuseinDanish, Swedish
and Norwegian
dioceses.By
thistime the cathedral churches
had
largeand
efficient choirs,judging
by
the material importedfrom
Flandersand
other 1Mostof these compositions are attributedto Petrus Olavi,St.Birgitta's confessor. They were translated into Swedish in 1510 by 'Kare fadhe
confessor generalis her nigils rauldi'. See Svanfeldt, N., Sangoch Visbok,
Stockholm, 1936.
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
musically
advanced
regions for their use.An
ordinance ofChristian II of
Denmark
provided for themaintenance
ofchoral services in all cathedrals,
and
for schoolmasters torehearse their choristers in den ny Mensure, in order that they
might
singHigh Mass
in mensural settings at all festivals.In
contrastto this evidence of elaboratechurch music in southern
Scandinavia is a curious survival of
more
primitivepart-singing, recordedin the remains of a choir-book writtenoutin
1473 in the Benedictine monastery of
Munke-Tvaraa,
innorthern Iceland.1
The
contents include fragments ofan
AgnusDei
and
a Credo withan
upper partadded
to the plainsong,making
note against note counterpoint chiefly in fifthsand
octaveswithoccasionalthirds,
and
withmuch
crossing ofparts.The
earliestknown
notation of a secularsongin Scandinaviais found at the
end
of the late thirteenth century portion of amanuscript
known
as Codex runicus,2and
containing theLaws
ofSkane
and
othermemoranda,
allwritteninrunic characters.The
melody
is written in square notationon two
four-linedstaves witha
G
clef;and
at theend
of thesecond stave standswhat
looks atfirstsightlikeacomplicatedligature.The
accom-panying
text, in runes, givesthefirsttwo
linesofaballad:Dr0mdae mik aen dr0minat urnsilki okaerlik pael.
('I
dreamed
adream
last night ofsilkand
fine attire.5)
The
remainingtwo
linesthatwould
completetheballad-stanzaare missing,
and
there isno
refrain.The
scribeno doubt
aban-doned
the attempttowrite thecompletestanza in therestrictedspaceleft
on
the page,and
onlyjustcrowded
inthesecondhalfof the
melody by
using a ligature-like scrawl as a shorthanddevice.
Angul
Hammerich
3 reconstructed thewhole
melody,with a conjectural refrain or omkvaed (see
page
29).The
firststrain has been adopted as
an
interval signalby
theDanish
State Radio.
Although
there areno
otherknown
examples ofboth words
and
tune of a ballad havingbeen
writtendown
in mediaevalScandinavia, thereis
abundant
testimonyfrom
literarysources
1
Now
in theArnamagnaean Collection, Copenhagen
(AM
8vo80).2
AM
8vo 28. SeePlate IV. 3Hammerich,Angul,DanskMusikhistorie,Copenhagen, 1921,pp.79seq.
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND MEDIAEVAL
PERIODSJ
i ij
il 1 ' ' 'Drjrtndaerriikaen dr*m i nat urn siUki ok czr -lik pael.
that theballad enjoyed a longspellofpopularity, beginning
probably under French influence in the Middle Ages
and
continuinginto
modern
times. Itstill enduresas alivingtradi-tion in the Faeroe Islands,
where
the chanting of ballads(kvaedir) is combined, as it was in the Middle Ages, with a
species ofchain dance, apparently derived from thecarole
and
consistingoftwostepsto theleft
and
onetotheright, withthe song
and
danceleader at theheadofthe chain.1A
danceofthis
kind is depictedin a fresco dating from about 1380 in 0rslev
churchin Zealand.Whilethe stanzas were, andstillare inthe
Faeroes, often improvised,
and
the stanza melodies freelyadapted
and
interchangedfromsongtosong, thechoralrefrainor omkvaed is invariable, being built out of melodic formulae
thatare doubtlessofgreat antiquity.
The
usualrhythmicpatternof the stanzais
made
up
offourlineswithfourandthreestressesalternately; thesecond and fourth lines generally rhyme,
and
thesecondhalfofthestanza
may
be sung to thesame
melodicphraseasthefirst.
The
omkvaedismetrically of variablelength;melodicallyitforms a coda,sometimes derivedfromtheinitial
phrase of the stanza melody.
The
subject mattermay
bemythological,orit
may
dealwithhistoricaleventsand
persons,like the song about Canute the Great's daughter Gunhild,
which
William ofMalmesbury
mentions as being sungin thestreets of his
own
time (about H4o).2The
following is
an
exampleoftheDanishhistoricalballad, relating the storyof the
murder
ofKing
Erik Klippingin 1286,andprobablycomposed
soon.afterwards.
The
verses are found in sixteenth-centurymanuscriptcollections; the tunewas taken
down
frompeasantsinging
by
the collector, E.Tang
Kristensen in 1869 (seePlate
XIX), and
revisedby
Thomas
Laub:
1
Thuren, Hjalmar,FolkesangenpaaFaer0eme} Copenhagen, 1908.
2
Quotedin Entwistle, W.J., EuropeanBalladry, Oxford, 1939, p.67.
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND MEDIAEVAL
PERIODSvaz-rt, De ri - dc dcn-nemtil Ri -b og lod dennem Klaz-dr
;
J
v
skoz - re. Nu stan - - der Lan-dt i Vaa -
d-('There are so
many
inDenmark,
who
would
all bemaster; they rode to Ribe and
had
clothesmade
forthem
(refrain).
Now
stands the country in danger.3
[Disguised as
monks, the conspirators
ambush
theKing
as he sets out for Finderup; theykill him,and
apage carriesthe news to Erik'squeen.]
Interesting examplesof thelegendaryballad are the storyof
Siegfried, still sung as Sjurdar kvaedi in the Faeroes;1
and
Valravnen, recorded with its tune in Corvinus' Heptachordum
Danicum in 1646 one of the earliest attempts to reproduce a
popular tune in an academic treatise. According to Corvinus,
it was the custom to sing the omkvaedat the beginning of the
Valravnenballadaswellasatthe endofeachstanza.2
faa,
Mn
Rav --ncn fly - -ver om Af - - -ten, 1Themelodyofthisballadwas thefirstFareoesetunetobeprinted.It
was takendownby A,F. Windingfrom aFareoesesinger,Povl Johnsen, in 1818andpublishedasan appendixtoLyngbye'sFaereiske Qyaeder.
*
Rhythmandbarringfrom Abrahamson,Nyerupand Rahbek, Udvalgte danske Viserfra Middelalderen. Valravnen is a monster with some of the
PRE-CHRISTIAN
AND
MEDIAEVAL
PERIODS
('The monsterfliesin the evening, he cannot
fly
by
day;he
shall
have
ill-fortune,good
luckhe
cannot gain, (refrain)But
the monsterfliesinthe evening.')
The
compilationofmanuscript books ofballad-verses
was
afashionable courtly pursuitin the sixteenth century
; a curious
example
is the 'heart-book5written about 1553-5
by
AlbertMuus^head
cook of the royal household.1The
first printedcollectionof thewordsof a
number
ofballads, editedby Anders
S0rensen Vedel in 1591
and
republishedby
PederSyvin
1695,was
tohave
awide
circulationamong
allclasses, not only inDenmark
butalso inNorway
and
the Faeroes. But onlyexcep-tionally
were
melodiesrecordedatthisperiod,oneof theexcep-tions being the tune of Oluf Stranges0n
which Vedel
himselfjotted
down
about 1580 above the words of the ballad in theso-called Rentzel's
MS.
2His version tallies
closely with the
melody
to thesame
ballad notedby
Lindeman
in Sauland,Norway,
in 1860,and
with aphonograph
recordingmade
in the Faeroes in 1929.*Though
the balladbecame
closely interwoven with thetraditional lore of the Scandinavian peasantry,
and embodied
so
much
national legendand
history, it was notan
entirely
indigenous literary or musical form.
On
the contrary, itwas
ofcourtlyorigin
and
seems tohave
reached theNorth
duringthethirteenth century,atatime
when
anumber
of celebratedpoetsand
singerswere
visitors to the Scandinavian courts. Severalof the
German
Minnesinger areknown
to have beenguests ofthe
Danish
kings,and
tohave
repaid hospitality withsongsinpraise oftheirroyal hosts.
Reimar
von
Zwetermade
laudatorycharacteristicsof the werewolf.For acomparison,betweenCorvinus* version
and a variant recorded in recent times in the Faeroes, see the article
'Folksong (Denmark)'in Grove's Dictionary (5thedtn.).
Apart fromthetuneactuallyquoted, Corvinus' chapterontaking
down
a tunefrom oral tradition ('Melodiam quamcunque ab illiteratis aliisve
inventam, systemati musico inscribere') is an interesting summary of
collectors' methods throughout the centuries: 'Exempli gratia, si quis
audiret cani aliquam e cantilenis nostratibus tarn Ecclesiasticis
quam
profanis, quas vulgdGigantumnominamus,quam
nunquam antea audivis-set, quomodo tamen e sono percepto Melodiamcertis iisq; debitisNotis exciperet atq; effingeret', etc. (p. 92, original edtn.).1SeePlateXIV.
2Gl.
Kgl. S. 2397,410. 8
Griiner Nielsen, H., FolkemusikiDanmark,in Nordisk Kultur