Goddess Chinnamasta

Pl. 14 Color plate of Fig. 20.1. The crimson blood streaming from Chinnamunda's

neck is a dramatic symbol of spiritual sustenance and immortality.

PI. 14 Color plate of Fig. 20.1. The crimson blood streamingfrom Chinnamunda

s

neck isadramatic symbol of spiritual sustenance and immortality.

PI. 15 Sirnhamukha, Amdo region, Tibet, nineteenth century. Pigment and gold on cloth, 18.25 x 13in. (46.35 x 33 ern). The Newark Museum, Holton Collection, 1936; 36.518. Photo: Newark Museum/Art Resource N.Y. Roaring exultantly, Simhamukba personifiespure, untamable power.

BUDDHIST BUDDHISM

402 CHAPTER 19

female Buddha evokes the spaciousness that Buddhists envision as enveloping and permeating phenomenal reality. Nairarmya, as her name indicates, em-bodies the Buddhist verity of selflessness (niriitman), the absence of concrete, independently real persons and phenomena. The correlate of this truth is the Buddhist vision of reality as a vast web of interdependence and interconnec-tedness. Her cerulean body is a translucent shell inscribed on the face of reality, proclaiming that all bodies and all phenomenal appearances hover in empty space. Nairatmya, having realized this truth, responds to the illusory nature of phenomena by rejoicing and dancing to liberate others.

Femaleness is consistently attributed to generative phenomena in Buddhist symbology, including womblike space, the nurturing earth, the letters of the alphabet, and mantras. The earth, which gives rise to all the life upon it, is personified as a goddess. Space, as the generative matrix of heavenly bodies and of all matter, is associated with female deities. Sound, the alphabet, and lan-guage, conceived as subtle layers of reality that underlie and shape phenomena, are commonly envisioned as feminine in Indian metaphysics and in Buddhism as well. Through her identification with the letter "A," the primal sound, the primordial vibration of space and consciousness, Nairatrnya personifies the origin of all phenomena and mindstates. She also represents the force of their dissolution, as the heat of yogic fire and the principle of emptiness.

As the source of phenomenal reality, Nairatmya encompasses the universe within her being. All reality is contained within her, as are the processes of arising and dissolution. Therefore, to contemplate Nairatmya is to behold "the essence of ultimate reality.,,49 "Ultimate reality," dharmadhatu, all that exists, is the totality of existence. Nairatrnya is what is known in the broader Indic perspective as a world mother, source of all that is, designated in that context as Adi Sakti (primordial female energy) and as Mahadevi, goddess supreme. Buddhist writings express that ultimacy in terms of emptiness and bliss, space and consciousness. To those unfamiliar with the tradition, "emptiness" may have a negative resonance, implying an absence of purpose or meaning. In the Buddhist context, however, emptiness is an exhilarating and inspiring concept, a liberating principle of ontological openness and existential freedom. Thus, as the "Lady of Emptiness," Nairatmya is supremely blissful, embodying the transcendent happiness enjoyed by those who realize the truth of emptiness. There is no greater joy than discovering that suffering is an illusion and no greater pleasure than dancing in infinity.

r

CHAPTER 20 ~

~L-- ~

CHINNAMUNDA

The holy, adamantine Yogini, yellow with a red luster, Has cut off her own head with a chopper and Bears the head aloft in her left hand .... She lunges with her right foot forward,

Crowned by skulls, naked, with freely flowing hair. Envision the Buddhadakini in the center,

Her body draped with five bone ornaments; From the neck of her severed head,

A stream of blood gushes upward into her own mouth And into the mouths of two yoginis at her sides.

-Meditation manual by Laksmlrikara'

Chinnarnunda (pronounced chee nah MOON DAH), the "Severed-Headed God-dess," offers a startling, even shocking, portrait of ultimate liberation. Her youthful body, golden yellow with a roseate luster, is charmingly adorned by bone jewelry. She lunges forward in a spirited and vigorous manner, her arms poised dancelike in midair. Yet her head has been severed from her body, cut off by her own hand, and blood streams from her headless neck. The sight of Chinnarnunda confronts the viewer with a paradox. She should be lifeless, but she is overflowing with vitality as she feeds herself and two female companions with the liquid that flows from her body. The inherent contradiction posed by the image of Chinnamunda points to a realm of awareness that defies ordinary logic and conventional concepts, including the seemingly ineradicable duality of life and death. Her image conveys the truth that when the illusory self, the false ego, dies, new modes of awareness and action become possible. One who masters the yoga of Chinnarnunda literally transcends death and attains the Buddhist equivalent of immortality, namely, the deathless state wherein, no longer subject to the laws of karma and rebirth, one is free to re-create oneself eternally, in

404 CHAPTER20

innumerable times, places, and bodily forms, out of compassion, tolead others

to the same state ofliberation.

Chinnarnunda is afemale Buddha, which means that, as a fullyenlightened being, she occupies the vantage point of ultimate truth. She is a Buddhadakini,

or "Fully Enlightened pakinI.,,2 She is in fact regarded asa manifestation of

Vajrayoginl/Vajravarahl. The three figures are ultimately equated with one another but are understood to appear in different bodily forms to manifest different nuances of enlightenment. Because of their underlying unity, theymay be invoked by the same mantra, which conveys the energy essence of adeity in sonic form:

O

m

orrz o

rr

zs

ar

va

b

uddha

t

fakinfye

uajrau

ar

n

a

ni

y

e u

a

jr

a

uairoc

a

niy

e

hu

rrz

hur

r

z

bum

phat

phat

svaha.

3 Although the names VajravairocanI and

Vajravarnanl appear in the mantra, they figure only in the visualization of Chinnamunda, as described below.

In many respects, Chinnamunda resembles the other forms of VajrayoginI. She wearsbone ornaments and acrown of five skullsthat represent the fiveaspects of enlightened wisdom. Apart from these Tantric adornments she isnaked, her long hair unbound, and she brandishes a dakini chopper. However, her ico -nography also differs in significant ways. Whereas most forms ofVajrayoginI are red, Chinnamunda is often envisioned asyellow, perhaps in allusion to the golden radiance of transcendent wisdom

(prajiia)

.

In her left hand, in place of the usual skull bowl, she displays her own severed head, waving italoft with a triumphant flourish (Fig. 20.1, PI. 14).

Chinnarnunda is accompanied by two divine yoginis: green Vajravarnanl ("Adamantine Hue") on her left and yellow VajravairocanI ("Adamantine Brilliance") on her right. The companion yoginis, too, are naked, with bone ornaments and loosely flowing hair, but their heads are intact and they bear skull bowls and small choppers in their hands. The dramatic focal point of the image isthe three streams of blood that arch from the headless neck of the central female Buddha into her own mouth and the mouths of the yoginis at her sides. The three figures are envisioned in the midst of a fearsome cremation ground.' The epithet Trikaya-VajrayoginI, "Three-Bodied VajrayoginI," refers to the fact that three figures are integral to the iconography. 5

Chinnarnunda takes her place among a range of Indian divinities who drink blood, receive offerings of severed heads, or dismember themselves as a salvific act. Chinnamunda (along with her Hindu counterpart, Chinnamasra) is dis -tinctive in that the blood she drinks isher own, the severed head isher own, and she does not die in an act of sacrificing herself to nourish others. She also stands apart from a tradition of Buddhist figures who offer their mortal body as the supreme gesture of selfless generosity.6Thus, although her iconography mayhave been informed by those motifs, it differs significantly and demands its own

20.1 Chinnamunda, Amrit Karmacharya, Patan, Nepal, last decade of twentieth century. Paubha, detail. Pigment and gold on cotton, 2l.5 x 16.75 in.

(54.6 x 42.5 em). Author's collection. Severed-headed Chinnamundd nourishes herselfand her companions with the elixir of nondual awareness and immortality. (SeePI. 14)

404 CHAPTER 20

innumerable times, places, and bodily forms, out of compassion, to lead others to the same state ofliberation.

Chinnamunda is a female Buddha, which means that, as a fully enlightened being, she occupies the vantage point of ultimate truth. She is a Buddhadakini, or "Fully Enlightened QakinI.,,2 She is in fact regarded asa manifestation of Vajrayogini/Vajravarahi. The three figures are ultimately equated with one another but are understood to appear in different bodily forms to manifest different nuances ofenlightenment. Because of their underlying unity, they may beinvoked bythe same mantra, which conveys the energy essence of adeity in sonic form: Om om orrzsarvabuddhatjiikinrye uajrauarnaniye uajrauairocaniye

bicm biim hum phat phat sviihii.3 Although the names VajravairocanI and Vajravarnani appear in the mantra, they figure only in the visualization' of Chinnarnunda, as described below.

In many respects, Chinnarnunda resembles the other forms of VajrayoginI. She wears bone ornaments and a crown of five skulls that represent the five aspects of enlightened wisdom. Apart from these Tantric adornments she is naked, her long hair unbound, and she brandishes a dakinl chopper. However, her ico-nographyalso differs in significant ways. Whereas most forms ofVajrayoginI are red, Chinnamunda is often envisioned as yellow,perhaps in allusion to the golden radiance of transcendent wisdom (prajiiii). In her left hand, in place of the usual skull bowl, she displaysher own severed head, waving italoft with atriumphant flourish (Fig. 20.1, PI. 14).

Chinnamunda is accompanied by two divine yoginis: green Vajravarnani ("Adamantine Hue") on her left and yellow VajravairocanI ("Adamantine Brilliance") on her right. The companion yoginis, too, are naked, with bone ornaments and loosely flowing hair, but their heads are intact and they bear skull bowls and small choppers in their hands. The dramatic focalpoint of the image is the three streams of blood that arch from the headless neck of the central female Buddha into her own mouth and the mouths of the yoginis at her sides. The three figures are envisioned inthe midst of a fearsome cremation ground/' The epithet Trikaya-VajrayoginI, "Three-Bodied VajrayoginI," refers to the fact that three figures are integral to the iconography. 5

Chinnamunda takes her place among a range of Indian divinities who drink blood, receive offerings of severed heads, or dismember themselves as a salvific act. Chinnarnunda (along with her Hindu counterpart, Chinnamasta) is dis-tinctive in that the blood she drinks isher own, the severed head isher own, and she does not diein an actof sacrificing herself to nourish others. She also stands

apart from a tradition of Buddhist figures who offer their mortal body as the supreme gesture of selflessgenerosity.PThus, although her iconography mayhave been informed by those motifs, it differs significantly and demands its own

20.1 Chinnamunda, Amrit Karmacharya, Paran, Nepal, last decade of twentieth century. Paubha, detail. Pigment and gold on cotton, 2l.5 x 16.75 in.

(54.6 x 42.5 ern). Author's collection. Severed-headed Cbinnamunda nourishes herselfand her companions with the elixir of nondual awareness and immortality. (SeePI. 14)

406 CHAPTER 20

interpretation. Elisabeth Benard's comprehensive study of Chinnamunda locates the primary significance of the self-beheading motif in its reference to internal yogic practices, attributing its mysterious, awe-inspiring quality in part to the fact that it is a "magnified depiction of something invisible to ordinary vision."?

ALLEGORY FOR INNER YOGA PRACTICES

Chinnamunda and the two yoginis who accompany her offer a visual allegory for advanced yogic meditations known in Buddhist terminology as perfection stage yoga

(utpanna-krama)

and in the Hindu context as

kurzr!alini-yoga.

This inner yoga, which comes at the end of a long course of meditative training and esoteric initiations, involves the movement and concentration of psychic en-ergies within the subtle yogic anatomy of the body. The central energy pathway traverses the body along the spine and continues around the crown of the head to the forehead. Two ancillary channels run parallel to it. The channel on the right is known asrasand, the one on the left is termed laland, and the main, central pathway is the auadhiiti. The two side channels coil around the avadhiiti at four main junctures, or chakras, at the navel, heart, throat, and forehead. The psychic energies or winds

(priirza)

which carry a person's thoughts and emo-tions normally course throughout the body in a network of seventy-two· thousand psychic veins and in the two side channels. The dispersion of the energy corresponds to the myriad thought processes that mire the mind in worldly existence. Underlying the seemingly infinite variety of dualistic thoughts, however, is the fundamental division of the world into self and other, or subject and object. The right channel and subsidiary branching veins support the subjective portion of experience; the left channel and veins carry thought constructions pertaining to external objecrs.f

The winds do not ordinarily enter the central channel of their own accord. The goal of inner yoga is to gather all the energy into the central channel, use it to open and untie the knots at the chakras, and direct it in specific ways to generate subtle realizations and states of bliss. When the energies abide in the central channel, they no longer support dualistic thought. Conceptualiry, de-prived of its foundation, automatically disappears, baring the natural essence of the mind and restoring its capacity for direct, intuitive wisdorn.f Geshe Kelsang Gyatso explains that when the energies are gathered in the central channel, "the dualistic conceptualizing mind-the source of cyclic existence-will no longer have any foundation and will therefore disappear .... The myriad of negative thoughts powered by the dualistic view will all vanish automatically, without effort."lo Normally all the energies enter the central channel and dissolve into the heart chakra only at the moment of death, giving rise to a fleeting experience

CHINNAMU~I?A 407

of illumination and a vision of the clear light. Inner yoga practitioners seek to replicate this process during life and to integrate the resultant nondual wisdom into daily, waking consciousness. II

In the yogic interpretation of her iconography, Chinnamunda embodies the central energy pathway of the body, or avadhiiti. The companion yoginis represent the two side channels: Vajravarnanl on her left corresponds to lalana, while Vajravairocani on her right personifies rasana. Several stages of the inner yoga are represented by the image, for the nature of the exchange among the three yoginis changes as the meditation unfolds.

The practitioner first envisions the triad on a red or multihued lotus at the navel, where the side channels intersect the central channel. Initially envisioning the three goddesses at the navel chakra draws the energy from the two halves of the body to the place where the three channels meet, in preparation for bringing the energy into the central channel. 12

In the next stage of the meditation, the energy is concentrated into three luminous drops

(bindu)

at the lower ends of the three channels: a red drop on the right, a white drop on the left, and a blue drop in the center. The two outer yoginis are envisioned as exhaling into the central channel. Their breath pushes the red and white drops into the blue one, accomplishing the transfer of energy into the avadhutt. The unified drop is then drawn up the central channel and absorbed into the heart chakra, where nondual awareness dawns:

The two goddesses exhale, which makes

The left and right drops dissolve into the middle one .... Envision it merging into the HU¥ at the heart.

That (heart drop) is clear and stainless, A non dual drop of intrinsic awareness, Free from all happiness and

suffering-Pure awareness, emptied of worldly appearances. How wonderful!

Practice yoga-attain nondual wisdoml'"

This is not the end of the meditation, however. The next step is to kindle an inner fire of psychic heat at the navel that melts the drop at the heart, generating a stream of blissful nectar. The nectarine fluid is then directed in various ways to generate further nuances of insight and bliss.The highest states of transcendent bliss are produced by its upward movement along the central channel, cul-minating at the crown of the head.14

At this stage of the visualization, the central font of blood that streams upward from Chinnamunda's neck assumes a primary role. The liquid that flows into her own mouth represents the melting drops that rise in the central channel and flood

CHINNAMU~I?A

407

406

CHAPTER 20

ALLEGORY FOR INNER YOGA PRACTICES

of illumination and a vision of the clear light. Inner yoga practitioners seek to replicate this process during life and to integrate the resultant nondual wisdom into daily, waking consciousness. II

In the yogic interpretation of her iconography, Chinnarnunda embodies the central energy pathway of the body, or avadhurl, The companion yoginis represent the rwo side channels: Vajravarnani on her left corresponds to lalana, while VajravairocanI on her right personifies rasana, Several stages of the inner yoga are represented by the image, for the nature of the exchange among the three yoginis changes as the meditation unfolds.

The practitioner first envisions the triad on a red or multihued lotus at the navel, where the side channels intersect the central channel. Initially envisioning the three goddesses at the navel chakra draws the energy from the rwo halves of the body to the place where the three channels meet, in preparation for bringing the energy into the central channel. 12

In the next stage of the meditation, the energy is concentrated into three luminous drops

(bindu)

at the lower ends of the three channels: a red drop on the right, a white drop on the left, and a blue drop in the center. The rwo outer yoginis are envisioned as exhaling into the central channel. Their breath pushes the red and white drops into the blue one, accomplishing the transfer of energy into the avadhutt. The unified drop is then drawn up the central channel and absorbed into the heart chakra, where nondual awareness dawns:

interpretation. Elisabeth Benard's comprehensive study of Chinnamunda locates the primary significance of the self-beheading motif in its reference to internal yogic practices, attributing its mysterious, awe-inspiring quality in part to the fact that it is a "magnified depiction of something invisible to ordinary vision."?

Chinnamunda and the rwo yoginis who accompany her offer a visual allegory for advanced yogic meditations known in Buddhist terminology as perfection stage yoga

(utpanna-krama)

and in the Hindu context as

kur.z4alinl-yoga

.

This inner yoga, which comes at the end of a long course of meditative training and esoteric initiations, involves the movement and concentration of psychic en-ergies within the subtle yogic anatomy of the body. The central energy pathway traverses the body along the spine and continues around the crown of the head to the forehead. Two ancillary channels run parallel to it. The channel on the right is known asrasand, the one on the left is termed laland, and the main, central pathway is the

a

v

adhutl

.

The rwo sidechannels coil around the avadhiitI at four main junctures, or chakras, at the navel, heart, throat, and forehead. The psychic energies or winds

(prar.za)

which carry a person's thoughts and emo-tions normally course throughout the body in a nerwork of seventy-two .

thousand psychic veins and in the rwo side channels. The dispersion of the energy corresponds to the myriad thought processes that mire the mind in worldly existence. Underlying the seemingly infinite variety of dualistic thoughts, however, is the fundamental division of the world into self and other, or subject and object. The right channel and subsidiary branching veins support the subjective portion of experience; the left channel and veins carry thought constructions pertaining to external objects. 8

The winds do not ordinarily enter the central channel of their own accord. The goal of inner yoga is to gather all the energy into the central channel, use it to open and untie the knots at the chakras, and direct it in specific ways to generate subtle realizations and states of bliss. When the energies abide in the central channel, they no longer support dualistic thought. Conceptualiry, de-prived of its foundation, automatically disappears, baring the natural essence of the mind and restoring its capacity for direct, intuitive wisdorn.f Geshe Kelsang Gyatso explains that when the energies are gathered in the central channel, "the dualistic conceptualizing mind-the source of cyclic existence-will no longer have any foundation and will therefore disappear. ... The myriad of negative thoughts powered by the dualistic view will all vanish automatically, without effort."lo Normally all the energies enter the central channel and dissolve into the heart chakra only at the moment of death, giving rise to a fleeting experience

The two goddesses exhale, which makes

The left and right drops dissolve into the middle one .... Envision it merging into the HU¥ at the heart.

That (heart drop) is clear and stainless, A non dual drop of intrinsic awareness, Free from all happiness and

suffering-Pure awareness, emptied of worldly appearances. How wonderful!

Practice yoga-attain nondual wisdornl'"

This is not the end of the meditation, however. The next step is to kindle an inner fire of psychic heat at the navel that melts the drop at the heart, generating astream of blissful nectar. The nectarine fluid is then directed in various ways to generate further nuances of insight and bliss.The highest states of transcendent bliss are produced by its upward movement along the central channel, cul-minating at the crown of the head.14

At this stage of the visualization, the central font of blood that streams upward from Chinnamunda's neck assumes a primary role. The liquid that flows into her own mouth represents the melting drops that rise in the central channel and flood

408 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMUNDA 409 the crown chakra, giVIng rise to supreme bliss.15 Life-giving blood is an apt

metaphor for the yogic nectar inwhich thelife essence is concentrated. The term "nectar" (amrta) applies here in both ofits meanings, as the ambrosia of bliss and elixir of immortality. Flooding the crown chakra, inessence"feeding oneself' with the nectarine drops, is the psychophysiological basis oftranscendent bliss,as wellas a source of profound regeneration and renewal.

In

this respect, the severed head borne aloftin her left hand corresponds to the skullbowl displayed byother female Buddhas. Both attributes reflectmastery of the inner yogic practice in which the concentrated life energy is brought into the crown chakra, turning it into a veritable cranial chalice, overflowing with radiant nectar ofbliss andimmortality.

process of yogic purification, as the mind

IS

withdrawn from sense objects and worldly appearances andimmersed inits intrinsic luminosity and blissfulness.Even breath may be suspended during this state, as the entire psychophysical organism becomes self-sustaining. 17Thus, thedissevered body of Chinnarnunda is reallyan image of wholeness, proclaiming the possibility of tapping an infinite stream of energy within oneself. She holds her head at arm's length because she requires and receivesnothing from outside herself. Liberated from worldly experiences, sense impressions, and even respiration, shedrinks perpetually from an inner wellspring ofjoy and knowledge, the nectar ofbliss andwisdom, the elixir ofeternal life.

Chinnamunda portrays the paradox inherent in the process of spiritual awakening. It is at once apsychic death, insofar as experience of oneself as an individual, permanent self with fixed boundaries is eradicated, and a spiritual rebirth, the dawning of universal awareness and infinite expansiveness of being. The cremation ground in which Chinnamunda is envisioned dramatizes the death of selfhood at theheart of this transformation. The site of the combustion of the physical body is afitting symbol for the yogic dissolution of the psyche into its purest form asluminous, blissful consciousness. The cremation pyres symbolize the flames of wisdom, kindled within as a yogic fire that incinerates the states of mind that feed the ego. Thus, Chinnamunda's stand upon the charnel ground represents the victory ofone who has undergone psychic death and emerged, triumphant, on the other side.

PHYSICAL RENEWAL AND SPIRITUAL REBIRTH

Following this interpretation, the streams of liquid that feed the companion yoginis may refer to a subsequent stage of the meditation, when the energy accumulated in the central channel is spread outward again to purify the right and left channels and peripheral veins throughout the body. The practitioner consciously directs the energy to remove blockages in the network of subtle veins, repair them where they are broken, restore them where they have shriv-eledorbecome brittle, and render them smooth and supple. The diffusion of the energy regenerates the body, restoring youthfulness and bestowing perfect health.16 This yogic purification process accomplishes a profound healing on the metaphysical level, which underlies organic sickness and health. At this final stage of the inner yoga, the crimson liquid that pours from Chinnamunda's headless neck is a Tantric fountain of eternal youth.

Thus, the image of self-decapitation, perhaps seemingly gruesome, is actually a dramatic image of regeneration and spiritual rebirth. The associated yogic practice bestows youthful vigor and flexibility on the body and restores the original purity of theheart and mind. One who becomes adept at this yoga is also prepared for a conscious, enlightening death experience. Persons who experience theclearlightof mind for thefirsttime atdeath are not prepared to merge into its engulfing brilliance. The force of egoic attachment compels them to revert to individuated consciousness and continue on the afterdeath journey through realms of terrifying and enticing psychological apparition, until settling in a womb or egg for their next rebirth. A meditator who hasundergone this psychic dissolution during life, however, can merge fully into the clear light and expe-rience visionary encounters with enlightened beings in the afterlife, as well as choose the next form of embodiment that he or she willadopt.

Chinnamunda's headless condition may be interpreted as a symbol of the introspective and self-sufficient state of consciousness that prevails during this

REVELATION AND TRANSMISSION

The worship of Chinnarnunda was introduced by Laksminkara, afemale ma-hasiddha, or "great perfected one," who may have lived in the ninth century. Laksminkara's biography traces her journey to enlightenment, explaining how she attained the level of visionary insight necessary to receive and impart a revelation ofdeity. Laksminkara was aprincess by birth and anative ofUddiyana, an important Tantric center in northwestern India. She had received training in Sanskrit, philosophy, meditation, and esoteric yoga before leaving home to marry theprince of Lanka. Laksminkara felt revulsion for herfiance when she saw him return from ahunting expedition with piles of slaughtered animals, so she gave away her dowry, escaped to a cremation ground, and fended off search parties byfeigning insanity. Laksminkara spent seven years indeep meditation in her self-imposed exile. Her efforts as a solitary yogini were crowned with full enlightenment and a state of visionary attUnement in which she could see and receive instruction directly from Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

Laksminkara remained in the forest, residing in a cave, and began to attract and train disciples. One day the king, Jalendra, chanced upon her cave during a

408 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMUr:<I?A 409

the crown chakra, glvmg rise to supreme bliss.15 Life-giving blood is an apt metaphor for the yogic nectar in which the life essence is concentrated. The term "nectar" (amrta) applies here in both of its meanings, as the ambrosia of bliss and elixir of immortality. Flooding the crown chakra, in essence "feeding oneself' with the nectarine drops, is the psychophysiological basis of transcendent bliss, as well as a source of profound regeneration and renewal. In this respect, the severed head borne aloft in her left hand corresponds to the skull bowl displayed by other female Buddhas. Both attributes reflect mastery of the inner yogic practice in which the concentrated life energy is brought into the crown chakra, turning it into a veritable cranial chalice, overflowing with radiant nectar of bliss and immortality.

Following this interpretation, the streams of liquid that feed the companion yoginis may refer to a subsequent stage of the meditation, when the energy accumulated in the central channel is spread outward again to purify the right and left channels and peripheral veins throughout the body. The practitioner consciously directs the energy to remove blockages in the network of subtle veins, repair them where they are broken, restore them where they have shriv-eled or become brittle, and render them smooth and supple. The diffusion of the energy regenerates the body, restoring youthfulness and bestowing perfect health.16 This yogic purification process accomplishes a profound healing on the metaphysical level, which underlies organic sickness and health. At this final stage of the inner yoga, the crimson liquid that pours from Chinnamunda's headless neck is a Tantric fountain of eternal youth.

Thus, the image of self-decapitation, perhaps seemingly gruesome, is actually a dramatic image of regeneration and spiritual rebirth. The associated yogic practice bestows youthful vigor and flexibility on the body and restores the original purity of the heart and mind. One who becomes adept at this yoga is also prepared for a conscious, enlightening death experience. Persons who experience the clear light of mind for the first time at death are not prepared to merge into its engulfing brilliance. The force of egoic attachment compels them to revert to individuated consciousness and continue on the afterdeath journey through realms of terrifying and enticing psychological apparition, until settling in a womb or egg for their next rebirth. A meditator who has undergone this psychic dissolution during life, however, can merge fully into the clear light and expe-rience visionary encounters with enlightened beings in the afterlife, as well as choose the next form of embodiment that he or she will adopt.

Chinnamunda's headless condition may be interpreted as a symbol of the introspective and self-sufficient state of consciousness that prevails during this

process of yogic purification, as the mind is withdrawn from sense objects and worldly appearances and immersed in its intrinsic luminosity and blissfulness.Even breath may be suspended during this state, as the entire psychophysical organism becomes self-sustaining. 17Thus, the dissevered body of Chinnarnunda is reallyan

image of wholeness, proclaiming the possibility of tapping an infinite stream of energywithin oneself.She holds her head at arm's length because she requires and receives nothing from outside herself. Liberated from worldly experiences, sense impressions, and even respiration, she drinks perpetually from an inner wellspring of joy and knowledge, the nectar of bliss and wisdom, the elixir of eternal life.

Chinnamunda portrays the paradox inherent in the process of spiritual awakening. It is at once a psychic death, insofar as experience of oneself as an individual, permanent self with fixed boundaries is eradicated, and a spiritual rebirth, the dawning of universal awareness and infinite expansiveness of being. The cremation ground in which Chinnarnunda is envisioned dramatizes the death of selfhood at the heart of this transformation. The site of the combustion of the physical body is a fitting symbol for the yogic dissolution of the psyche into its purest form as luminous, blissful consciousness. The cremation pyres symbolize the flames of wisdom, kindled within as a yogic fire that incinerates the states of mind that feed the ego. Thus, Chinnamunda's stand upon the charnel ground represents the victory of one who has undergone psychic death and emerged, triumphant, on the other side.

PHYSICAL RENEWAL AND SPIRITUAL REBIRTH

REVELATION AND TRANSMISSION

The worship of Chinnarnunda was introduced by Laksminkara, a female ma-hasiddha, or "great perfected one," who may have lived in the ninth century. Laksminkara's biography traces her journey to enlightenment, explaining how she attained the level of visionary insight necessary to receive and impart a revelation of dei ty.Laksminkara was a princess by birth and a native ofD ddiyana, an important Tantric center in northwestern India. She had received training in Sanskrit, philosophy, meditation, and esoteric yoga before leaving home to marry the prince ofLarika. Laksminkara felt revulsion for her fiance when she saw him return from a hunting expedition with piles of slaughtered animals, so she gave away her dowry, escaped to a cremation ground, and fended off search parties byfeigning insanity. Laksminkara spent seven years in deep meditation in her self-imposed exile. Her efforts as a solitary yogini were crowned with full enlightenment and a state of visionary attUnement in which she could see and receive instruction directly from Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

Laksrninkara remained in the forest, residing in a cave, and began to attract and train disciples. One day the king, Jalendra, chanced upon her cave during a

410 CHAPTER 20

hunting expedition. Peering inside, he saw that her body was aglow, filling the cave with light, and that she was surrounded by celestial maidens who were worshipping and making offerings to her. The king returned the next day and requested her to be his guru. The forest-dwelling yogini knew she was not destined to be his teacher and imparted that he should instead receive initiation from one of her disciples, a low-caste sweeper who was a servant in the king's own palace. The ruler, following her guidance, became a disciple of his menial hireling. Eventually, Laksminkara and the sweeper traveled through the coun-tryside, teaching and displaying miracles. When Laksrnlnkara died, she as-cended bodily into Khecara, Dakinl Paradise. 18

Two meditation manuals authored by Laksminkara are preserved in the Tibetan canon.19 Her portrayal with a sword in one hand and a head in the other also refers to her association with Chinnamunda, 20

Laksrninkara' s biography records that she taught the visualization and inner yogas of Vajravarahi but does not specify the severed-headed form of the goddess. When the core texts on Laksmlnkara's meditational system were cir-culated in Tibet, they were designated as "the six treatises on Vajravarahi.,,21 Similarly, lines of transmission recorded in Tibet place Laksmmkara at the head of "Vajravarahi' lineages.22 This is unsurprising, for Chinnamunda is not regarded a distinct goddess but rather as a form ofVajrayogini and Vajravarahl, synonymous epithets for the supreme Tantric female Buddha. Therefore, the earliest writings, including those of Laksrninkara herself, refer to Chinnamunda as Vajrayogini, Trikaya- Vajrayogini, Chinnarnunda- Vajrayogini, Vajravarahi, and Chinnamunda-Vajravarahj.f ' Accordingly, the earliest known artistic rep-resentation of Chinnarnunda appears in a circa early thirteenth-century painting from Khara Khoto that centers on Vajravarahi, casting Chinnarnunda as one of her manifestations.f"

Laksminkara's compositions include a song that the princess-adept used to usher her disciples into the realm of nondual wisdom. T antric teachers gen-erally composed such songs spontaneously for their inner circle of disciples,

often in the course of a ritual feast, to transmit esoteric teachings. The poetic imagery, like Chinnamunda' s iconography, defies interpretation from the standpoint of ordinary logic. The opening verse uses the motif of self-beheading to introduce the theme, developed in the rest of the song, that it is necessary to sever dualistic thinking at the root if one is to reach a level of direct knowing beyond conceptual dualities:

Lay your head on a block of butter and chop-Break the blade of the axe!

The woodcutter laughs!

CHINNAMUJ:'II?A 411

A frog swallows an elephant! It's amazing, Mekhala, Do not doubt.

If it confounds you, adept, Drop concepts now! My teacher didn't tell me, I didn't

understand-Flowers blossomed in the sky! It's marvelous, Mekhala, Have no doubt!

If you're incredulous, adept, Drop your doubts!

A barren woman gives birth! A chair dances!

Because cotton is expensive, The naked weep!

Amazing! An elephant sits on a throne Held up by two bees!

Incredible! The sightless lead, The mute speak!

Amazing! A mouse chases a cat! An elephant flees from a crazed donkey! It's miraculous, Mekhala,

Do not doubt!

If you're stunned, adept, Drop your doubts!

Amazing! A hungry monkey eats rocks! Wonderful! The experience of the mind-Who can express it?25

The preceding verses confirm that for Laksminkara, severing the head sig-nifies freedom from conceptualiry and its limitations. The tool of this liberation is the blade of wisdom. The wielder of the blade laughs, perhaps with aston-ished joy, as the burden of ego is lifted. A small creature, a frog, swallows something ponderous, an elephant, just as the realization of nondualiry con-sumes the entire edifice of self and world constructed by dualistic thought.

410 CHAPTER 20

hunting expedition. Peering inside, he saw that her body was aglow, filling the cave with light, and that she was surrounded by celestial maidens who were worshipping and making offerings to her. The king returned the next day and requested her to be his guru. The forest-dwelling yogini knew she was not destined to be his teacher and imparted that he should instead receive initiation from one of her disciples, a low-caste sweeper who was a servant in the king's own palace. The ruler, following her guidance, became a disciple of his menial hireling. Eventually, Laksminkara and the sweeper traveled through the coun-tryside, teaching and displaying miracles. When Laksmlnkara died, she as-cended bodily into Khecara, Dakinl Paradise. 18

Two meditation manuals authored by Laksrninkara are preserved in the Tibetan canon.19 Her portrayal with a sword in one hand and a head in the other also refers to her association with

Chinnamunda.i''

Laksrnlnkara' s biography records that she taught the visualization and inner yogas of Vajravarahi but does not specify the severed-headed form of the goddess. When the core texts on Laksminkara' s meditarional system were cir-culated in Tibet, they were designated as"the six treatises on Vajravarahi.,,21 Similarly, lines of transmission recorded in Tibet place Laksminkara at the head of "Vajravarahl" lineages.22 This is unsurprising, for Chinnamunda is not regarded a distinct goddess but rather as a form ofVajrayogini and Vajravarahi, synonymous epithets for the supreme Tantric female Buddha. Therefore, the earliest writings, including those of Laksminkara herself, refer to Chinnamunda as Vajrayogini, Trikaya-Vajrayogini, Chinnarnunda-Vajrayoginl, Vajravarahi, and Chinnamunda-Vajravarahl.Y Accordingly, the earliest known artistic rep-resentation of Chinnamunda appears in a circa early thirteenth-century painting from Khara Khoto that centers on Vajravarahi, casting Chinnamunda as one of her manifestations.24

Laksminkara's compositions include a song that the princess-adept used to usher her disciples into the realm of nondual wisdom. Tantric teachers gen-erally composed such songs spontaneously for their inner circle of disciples, often in the course of a ritual feast, to transmit esoteric teachings. The poetic imagery, like Chinnamunda's iconography, defies interpretation from the standpoint of ordinary logic. The opening verse uses the motif of self-beheading to introduce the theme, developed in the rest of the song, that it is necessary to sever dualistic thinking at the root if one is to reach a level of direct knowing beyond conceptual dualities:

Lay your head on a block of butter and chop

-Break the blade of the axe! The woodcutter laughs!

CHINNAMUNDA 411

A frog swallows an elephant! It's amazing, Mekhala, Do not doubt.

If it confounds you, adept, Drop concepts now! My teacher didn't tell me, I didn't understand

-Flowers blossomed in the sky! It's marvelous, Mekhala, Have no doubt!

If you're incredulous, adept, Drop your doubts!

A barren woman gives birth! A chair dances!

Because cotton is expensive, The naked weep!

Amazing! An elephant sits on a throne Held up by two bees!

Incredible! The sightless lead, The mute speak!

Amazing! A mouse chases a cat! An elephant flees from a crazed donkey! It's miraculous, Mekhala,

Do not doubt!

If you're stunned, adept, Drop your doubts!

Amazing! A hungry monkey eats rocks! Wonderful! The experience of the mind-Who can express it?25

The preceding verses confirm that for Laksrnrnkara, severing the head sig-nifies freedom from conceptuality and its limitations. The tool of this liberation is the blade of wisdom. The wielder of the blade laughs, perhaps with aston-ished joy, as the burden of ego is lifted. A small creature, a frog, swallows something ponderous, an elephant, just as the realization of nonduality con-sumes the entire edifice of self and world constructed by dualistic thought.

412 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMUNDA 413

Laksrninkara challenges her listeners with seemingly impossible scenarios-a chair dancing, bees lifting an elephant, a monkey eating rocks-offering a series

of riddles that the logical mind cannot unravel. The onlywayto solve the riddles is to "drop concepts now!" Her song offers a tantalizing taste of the exhilarating freedom of nondual awareness that blossoms miraculously, like flowers in the

sky, when one passes through the veil of illusion and enters the realm of

mir-acles, magic, and infinite possibilities.

Other early teachers and formulators of the practice were direct disciples of Laksmtnkara or students of her disciples. Laksminkara's closest disciple was probably the low-caste sweeper who is the only protege mentioned (albeit not by name) in her biography and who spent many years with her as companion and consort. The sweeper was authorized to confer initiation and transmit her teachings, as he did to King Jalendra, but he does not figure in her disciplic lineage. Instead, Virupa is recognized as her immediate successor.26 Virupa wrote several texts on Chinnamu'!q.a27 and was a key figure in the transmission of the practice to Tibet.

The sisters Mekhala and Kanakhala, who undertook Tantric practice and

attained enlightenment together, are important for their formulation of the inner

yoga of Chinnamunda. The guru who taught them the practice was Kanha, who may have learned it from his guru, Jalandhari, who in turn had studied with Laksminkara. 28There is also evidence that the sisters received instruction directly from Laksminkara. Mekhala is addressed by name in the song translated above,

and the sisters are designated in the colophon as its rransrnitters.Y

According to their shared biography, Mekhala and Kanakhala fell into disgrace when the family of the brothers to whom they were betrothed abruptly terminated the engagement. The girls decided that, instead of succumbing to despair, they

would undertake spiritual practice together. The yogi Kanha passed through their

village and taught the sisters how to meditate on Chinnamunda. Mekhala and

Kanakhala remained unmarried and devoted themselvesto the practice for the next twelveyears.After attaining enlightenment, they visited Kanha in his hermitage to render homage and gratitude.

The guru pretended not to recognize them, prompting them to relate their story. He then demanded their heads as payment for his teachings. The sisters produced swords out of their mouths and beheaded themselves without hesi-tation, singing:

Dwelling in the blessed unity of vast space and pure awareness, We know no separation between self and others.30

We have blended creative and fulfillment meditation,

We have destroyed all distinction between samsara and nirvana, We have united vision and action in perfect harmony

We know no distinction between acceptance and rejection.

The "enlightenment song" of Mekhala and Kanakhala expresses their

nondual wisdom by evoking the dualities whose underlying unity they have perceived: worldly life and liberation, acceptance and rejection, self and other. In this respect, severing their heads demonstrated that they had indeed trans-cended the dualities of ordinary awareness, which would hold such an act to be impossible.

Fantastic asit mayseem, in the Tantric context the self-beheading ofMekhala and Kanakhala would not be regarded simply as a metaphor for nondual aware-ness. Rather, the sisters'stunning feat would be understood as a magical display, a natural result of their meditative mastery and yogic attainments. Supernormal powers are commonly attributed to inner yoga adepts, for the opening of the central channel, untying of the chakra knots, and purification of the network of subtle veins are regarded as the bodily basis forclairvoyant vision and extraordinary powers.i" The sisters displayed other supernatural talents as well,such as the ability to pass through solid objects,control people and objectswith a gaze,and transport physical objects through space.When some Hindu yogis were heckling the sisters, they solved the problem with ease, simply relocating the yogis' huts to a safe distance.32In view of the expectation that magical powers accompany success in Tantric practice, the guru's shocking and seemingly bizarre request that the sisters behead themselves was actually a challenge to prove their yogic mastery.

After their successful demonstration, Kanha restored their heads, acknowl-edged their level of realization, and authorized them to become teachers themselves. The sisters danced away and devoted the rest of their lives to lib-erating others. When they died, they ascended bodily to Khecara, the paradisal realm of the female Buddha, leaving behind no corporeal remains-.33

Mekhala and Kanakhala are usually portrayed with swords, either dancing

with the sabers heldaloft or in the act of cutting off their heads, illustrating their miraculous display of self-beheading.'" Indeed, after they performed this

mar-velous deed, people began to refer to them as "severed-headed yoginis.,,35This

iconography also alludes to their achievement of unity with Chinnarnunda and their role as teachers of the related inner yoga practice. Their teachings on the topic are preserved in the Tibetan canon.36

LATER INTERPRETATIONS

From India, Chinnamunda practice spread to Nepal and Tibet.37 The practice

412 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMUJ:',?A 413

Laksminkara challenges her listeners with seemingly impossible scenarios-a chair dancing, bees lifting an elephant, amonkey eating rocks-offering a series of riddles that the logical mind cannot unravel. The only way to solvethe riddles is to "drop concepts now!" Her song offers atantalizing taste of the exhilarating freedom of nondual awareness that blossoms miraculously, like flowers in the sky, when one passesthrough the veilof illusion and enters the realm of mir

-acles, magic, and infinite possibilities.

Other early teachers and formulators of the practice were direct disciples of Laksminkara or students of her disciples. Laksminkara's closest disciple was probably the low-caste sweeper who is the only protege mentioned (albeit not byname) in her biography and who spent many years with her as companion and consort. The sweeper was authorized to confer initiation and transmit her

teachings, as he did to King Jalendra, but he does not figure in her disciplic lineage. Instead, Virupa is recognized as her immediate successor.26 Virupa wrote severaltexts on Chinnamunda+' and was a keyfigure in the transmission

of the practice to Tibet.

The sisters Mekhala and Kanakhala, who undertook T antric practice and attained enlightenment together, are important for their formulation of the inner

yoga of Chinnamunda. The guru who taught them the practice was Kanha, who may have learned it from his guru, Jalandhari, who in turn had studied with ~mInkara.28 There is also evidence that the sistersreceived instruction directly

from Laksrninkara. Mekhala is addressed by name in the song translated above, and the sisters are designated in the colophon as its transmitrers.Y

According to their shared biography, Mekhala and Kanakhala fell intodisgrace

when the family of thebrothers to whom they were betrothed abruptly terminated

the engagement. The girls decided that, instead of succumbing to despair, they

would undertake spiritual practice together. The yogi Kanha passed through their

village and taught the sisters how to meditate on Chinnamunda. Mekhala and Kanakhala remained unmarried and devoted themselves to the practice for thenext twelveyears.After attaining enlightenment, they visited Kanha in his hermitage to

render homage and gratitude.

The guru pretended not to recognize them, prompting them to relate their story. He then demanded their heads as payment for his teachings. The sisters produced swords out of their mouths and beheaded themselves without hesi

-tation, singing:

Dwelling in the blessed unity of vast space and pure awareness,

We know no separation between self and others.30

The "enlightenment song" of Mekhala and Kanakhala expresses their

nondual wisdom by evoking the dualities whose underlying unity they have

perceived: worldly life and liberation, acceptance and rejection, selfand other.

In this respect, severing their heads demonstrated that they had indeed trans

-cended the dualities of ordinary awareness, which would hold such an act to be impossible.

Fantastic as it may seem, in the Tantric context the self-beheading ofMekhala and Kanakhala would not be regarded simply as a metaphor for nondual aware

-ness.Rather, the sisters'stunning featwould beunderstood as a magical display, a natural result of their meditative mastery and yogic attainments. Supernormal

powers are commonly attributed to inner yoga adepts, for the opening of the central channel, untying of the chakra knots, and purification of the network of

subtle veins are regardedas thebodily basis forclairvoyant vision and extraordinary powers.31 The sistersdisplayed other supernatural talents as well,suchas the ability to pass through solid objects, control people and objects with a gaze, and transport physical objects through space.When some Hindu yogis were heckling the sisters,

they solved the problem with ease, simply relocating the yogis' huts to a safe distance.32In view of the expectation that magical powers accompany success in Tantric practice, the guru's shocking and seemingly bizarre request that the sisters behead themselves was actually a challenge to prove their yogic mastery.

After their successful demonstration, Kanha restored their heads, acknowl

-edged their level of realization, and authorized them to become teachers themselves. The sisters danced away and devoted the rest of their lives to lib

-erating others. When they died, they ascended bodily to Khecara, the paradisal realm of the female Buddha, leaving behind no corporeal remains-.33

Mekhala and Kanakhala are usually portrayed with swords, either dancing with the sabers held aloft or in the act of cutting off their heads, illustrating their miraculous display of self-beheading.34 Indeed, after they performed this

mar-velous deed, people began to refer to them as "severed-headed yoginis.,,35 This iconography also alludes to their achievement of unity with Chinnarnunda and their role as teachers of the related inner yoga practice. Their teachings on the topic are preserved in the Tibetan canon.36

We have blended creative and fulfillment meditation,

We have destroyed all distinction between samsara and nirvana,

We have united vision and action in perfect harmony

We know no distinction between acceptance and rejection.

LATER INTERPRETATIONS

From India, Chinnarnunda practice spread to Nepal and Tibet.37 The practice may have transmitted to Nepal by Varendraruci, a Newar pundit, in the late

414 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMU~,?A 415

eleventh or twelfth century, for he cotranslated two Chinnarnunda texts (one by Laksmlnkara, the other by Virupa) in the Tibetan canon.38 One of the earliest known artistic representations of Chinnamunda appears in a fourteenth-century painting from Nepal, inwhich composition she is a subsidiary figure, appearing as an emanation of Vajravarahi. 39It is not clear to what degree her practice flourished in that country. I have not encountered a Newar text relating to the goddess, and one finds little evidence of the practice of Chinnamunda in Nepal today, although other forms of VajrayoginI playa prominent role in Newar Tantrism.

In Tibet, Chinnarnunda appeared in multiple sectarian contexts, including the Nyingma repertoire.Y Practice of the goddess in her yellow, severed-headed form ismaintained in the Sakyasect,which traces its origins to Virupa.41 Apart from this, she seems virtually to have vanished from the active Tibetan pan-theon. However, a range of texts and works of art featuring the goddess suggest her ongoing presence in varying sectarian settings through the centuries. In

these sources, the goddess isred and appears in diverse of epiphanies. There is an Indic precedent for envisioning Chinnamunda as red,42 but these Tibetan sources evince novel iconographic configurations.

A nineteenth-century Tibetan painting portrays Chinnamunda as red, dis-playing her severed head in a skull cup. A mystical staff

(khatyiinga)

is posi-tioned so that it crosses her headless neck, as if to seal the energy within the central channel. Absent are the streams of blood and two companion yoginis.43 This depiction introduces features common to other forms of VajrayoginI, namely, a leftward-facing lunge, mystical staff, and skull bowl. A fascinating vision of Chinnamunda appears in a mandala centering on the goddess ·in a dancing rather than lunging pose, accompanied by her green and yellow companions. All three are beheaded and hold their dissevered heads in their left hand while raising a chopper aloft in the right.44

An interesting meditation practice recorded by Taranatha (sixteenth cen-tury) evokes Chinnarnunda in a sequential visualization. In the initial stage, the practitioner envisions the Narodakini form of VajrayoginI (PI. 11). In the second phase, Chinnamunda appears with a severed head, two companion goddesses, and streams of blood issuing into their mouths. In the third and final step, her head is restored to her body.45

These works of art and Taranatha's progressive evocation indicate that Chinnamunda had retained a sufficiently vital presence in the Tibetan pantheon to inspire new visualizations and iconographic forms, but for some reason the severed-headed form of the goddess did not compel the same interest as other forms ofVajrayoginI. The practice of Chinnamunda was perhaps displaced by that of Chod, which also features a motif of self-beheading.

PARALLEL FIGURES AND PRACTICES

Chinnamunda has a Hindu counterpart in the goddess Chinnarnasta, whose name similarly means "Severed-Headed Goddess.,,46Chinnamasra, like Chinnarnunda, occupies an important but arcane niche in her tradition. There are few images and temples in active worship, and these are sought out primarily by T antric practi-tioners in pursuit of occult powers and yogic perfection.47

The iconography of Chinnamasta closely corresponds to that of her Bud-dhist counterpart. Chinnamasta is sometimes said to be"bright as millions of suns," suggesting a white or golden radiance, but in other cases is described and portrayed as red. The blood issuing from her headless neck streams into the mouths of two companion yoginis, who are variously blue, white, or red. Chinnamasta sits or stands on Kamadeva and Rati, personifications of erotic desire, who recline beneath her in sexual union. Apart from these divergent details, the Hindu and Buddhist goddess triads are virtually indistinguishable

. hicall 48

Iconograp I y.

Chinnamasta figures among a group of ten T antric goddesses known as the Mahavidyas and, like Chinnarnunda, is associated with esoteric yogic prac-tices.49These techniques, designated in the Hindu context as

ku,!c!alinf-yoga,

are closely akin to the Buddhist inner yogas, asseen in the following description by David Kinsley:

The blood spurting from Chinnamasta's severed throat represents the upward-flowing

ku,!c!alinf

that has broken through all the knots

(gran-this)

of the

chakras

and has cleared the central passage, the susumnd

niicff....

The power of the upward-flowing

ku'!c!alinf,

the power of the rising spiritual consciousness, hits the topmost

chakra,

the thous and-petaled lotus, with such force that it blows her head right off, that is, it transforms all conventional, habitual, limited mental structures. 50

The similarity of the two goddesses, both in appearance and the pra c-tices associated with them, naturally raises the question of shared origins or borrowing. Differing viewshave been advanced, but there is substantive evidence that the Buddhist goddess is the earlier figure and that Chinnamasta was pat-terned after her. Extant texts and images of Chinnarnunda predate those of Chinnarnasta, and Buddhist terms (notably,

vajra)

appear in some of the Hindu mantras. 51The possibility ofanearlier, mutual source cannot be ruled out, but if

that isthe case it appears that all traces ofthe prototype have disappeared. The motif of usingone's own body to nourish others, seenin thevisualization practices of both severed-headed goddesses, is rooted in female biological experience and thus arguably has a special resonance for women. Adelheid

414 CHAPTER 20

eleventh or twelfth century, for he cotranslated two Chinnamunda texts (one by Laksrninkara, the other by Virupa) in the Tibetan canon.38 One of the earliest known artistic representations of Chinnarnunda appears in afourteenth-century painting from Nepal, in which composition she isa subsidiary figure, appearing as an emanation of Vajravarahi. 39 It is not clear to what degree her practice flourished in that country. I have not encountered a Newar text relating to the goddess, and one finds little evidence of the practice of Chinnamunda in Nepal today, although other forms of VajrayoginI playa prominent role in Newar Tantrism.

In Tibet, Chinnamunda appeared in multiple sectarian contexts, including the Nyingma repertoire.l" Practice of the goddess in her yellow, severed-headed form is maintained in the Sakya sect, which traces its origins to Vinlpa.41 Apart from this, she seems virtually to have vanished from the active Tibetan pan-theon. However, a range of texts and works of art featuring the goddess suggest her ongoing presence in varying sectarian settings through the centuries. In these sources, the goddess is red and appears in diverse of epiphanies. There is an Indic precedent for envisioning Chinnamunda as red,42 but these Tibetan sources evince novel iconographic configurations.

A nineteenth-century Tibetan painting portrays Chinnamunda as red, dis-playing her severed head in a skull cup. A mystical staff (khatyiinga) is posi-tioned so that it crosses her headless neck, as if to seal the energy within the central channel. Absent are the streams of blood and two companion yoginis.43 This depiction introduces features common to other forms of VajrayoginI, namely, a leftward-facing lunge, mystical staff, and skull bowl. A fascinating vision of Chinnarnunda appears in a mandala centering on the goddess ·in a dancing rather than lunging pose, accompanied by her green and yellow companions. All three are beheaded and hold their dissevered heads in their left hand while raising a chopper aloft in the right.44

An interesting meditation practice recorded by Taranatha (sixteenth cen-tury) evokes Chinnamunda ina sequential visualization. In the initial stage, the practitioner envisions the Narodakini form of VajrayoginI (PI. 11). In the second phase, Chinnarnunda appears with a severed head, two companion goddesses, and streams of blood issuing into their mouths. In the third and final step, her head isrestored to her body.45

These works of art and Taranatha's progressive evocation indicate that Chinnamunda had retained a sufficiently vital presence in the Tibetan pantheon to inspire new visualizations and iconographic forms, but for some reason the severed-headed form of the goddess did not compel the same interest asother forms ofVajrayoginI. The practice of Chinnamunda was perhaps displaced by that of Chod, which also features a motif of self-beheading.

CHINNAMUNDA 415

PARALLEL FIGURES AND PRACTICES

Chinnamunda has a Hindu counterpart in the goddess Chinnamasta, whose name similarly means "Severed-Headed Goddess.,,46 Chinnarnasta, like Chinnarnunda, occupies an important but arcane niche in her tradition. There are few images and temples in active worship, and these are sought out primarily by T antric practi-tioners in pursuit of occult powers and yogic perfection.47

The iconography of Chinnamasta closely corresponds to that of her Bud-dhist counterpart. Chinnarnasta is sometimes said to be "bright as millions of suns," suggesting a white or golden radiance, but in other casesis described and portrayed as red. The blood issuing from her headless neck streams into the mouths of two companion yoginis, who are variously blue, white, or red. Chinnamasta sits or stands on Kamadeva and Rati, personifications of erotic desire, who recline beneath her in sexual union. Apart from these divergent details, the Hindu and Buddhist goddess triads are virtually indistinguishable

. hicall 48

Iconograp I y.

Chinnamasta figures among a group of ten Tantric goddesses known as the Mahavidyas and, like Chinnamunda, is associated with esoteric yogic prac-tices.49These techniques, designated in the Hindu context as kU1}t/alini-yoga, are closelyakin to the Buddhist inner yogas, as seen in the following description by David Kinsley:

The blood spurting from Chinnamasra's severed throat represents the upward-flowing kU1}t/alini that has broken through all the knots (gr an-this) of the chakras and has cleared the central passage, the susumnd

niit/i .... The power of the upward-flowing kU1}t/alini, the power of the rising spiritual consciousness, hits the topmost chakra, the thousand-petaled lotus, with such force that it blows her head right off, that is, it transforms all conventional, habitual, limited mental structures. 50 The similarity of the two goddesses, both in appearance and the prac-tices associated with them, naturally raises the question of shared origins or borrowing. Differing viewshave been advanced, but there issubstantive evidence that the Buddhist goddess is the earlier figure and that Chinnamasta was pat-terned after her. Extant texts and images of Chinnamunda predate those of Chinnarnasta, and Buddhist terms (notably, vajra) appear in some of the Hindu mantras. 51The possibility ofan earlier, mutual source cannot beruled out, but if that is the case itappears that all traces ofthe prototype have disappeared.

The motif ofusingone's own body tonourish others, seenin thevisualization practices of both severed-headed goddesses, is rooted in female biological experience and thus arguably has a special resonance for women. Adelheid

416 CHAPTER 20

Herrmann- Pfandt endorses the psychological appeal ofthe imagery forwomen by

contrasting the motif with the pattern of self-sacrifice associated with the Hindu

goddess Durga, In one strand of Durga worship, amale devotee offershimself to

the goddess through a symbolic or ritual self-decapitation. In this scenario, the

relationship of the sacrificer(the man) and sacrifice(the man) to the recipient deity

(the goddess) isamale-to-female relationship. Herrrnann-Pfandt suggests that the

practice of Chinnamunda was especially appropriate for women because she

"personifies in both of her roles as slayer and sacrifice a female-to-female rela -tionship" in which "not only the goddess but also the ego is feminine," so that "a

woman identifies directly with both aspects.,,52This dual identification accords

with the Tantric emphasis on relinquishing one's ego, or ordinary self, while

affirming one's enlightened essence by visualizing oneself as adeity.

There is evidence that Chinnamasta may have had a special resonance for

women as well. The Tantrasiira offers the intriguing observation that "if any

woman takes this mantra she not only becomes a tjiikinl along with other

tjiikinis but, shedding her husband and son, becomes a perfected yogini who

can move about atwill.,,53 Although men as well as women havebeen counted

among Chinnamasta's votaries over the centuries, this passage speaks to the

possibility that her practice, too, has a distinctive significance for women.

The motif of self-decapitation associated with Chinnamunda invites c

om-parison with the Tibetan practice of Chad. Both entail a visualization inwhich

one uses one's own dissevered body to feed and nourish others. In Chad

practice, the meditator envisions himself orherself as VajrayoginI and proceeds

to dissect, cook, and serve his or her entire body to a host of hungry, bloo

d-thirsting spirits. Whereas Chinnarnunda is envisioned in a cremation ground,

Chad is actually performed in that fearsome setting. Just as Chinnamunda

encompasses the offerer, offering, and recipient, Chad texts underscore the

unity of the giver, gift, and receiver. In both practices the act of self-sacrifice,

although envisioned differently, is a method for overcoming the illusion of

separate selfhood and cultivating nondual wisdom. 54The practice of Chad, like

that of Chinnarnunda, was introduced by a woman, Machig Labdron. The

importance of Chad in contemporary Tibetan Buddhism and the virtual dis

-appearance of Chinnamunda practice raise an interesting but perhaps una

n-swerable question of whether the Chad visualization presently occupies the

same niche, psychologically-cum-religiously, once filled by Chinnamunda.

THE PARADOX OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The bodily manifestation of every Buddha reveals profound truths about the

supreme state of liberation. Chinnamunda's complex image operates on several

CHINNAMUNDA 417

symbolic levels. The reference to esoteric inner yogic visualizations would be

relevant for those pursuing these advanced techniques. Her image also conveys

a deeper truth, however, at the veryheart of the mystery ofultimate liberation.

Chinnamunda brims with vitality in a scene of death and destruction, con

-fronting the viewer with the most seemingly irreducible opposition in human

experience, the polarity of life and death. Dancing blissfully amidst the cre

-mation flames, she proclaims that death is essential to transformation. Death is

tobe understood not as the decease ofthe physical body but rather the demise

of the illusion of separate, egoic existence and passage into a greater reality that

lies beyond and yet within the self. Seeing her image may empower others to

cross the ultimate threshold and join her on the other side.

In Tantric soteriology, the realization beyond the death of the self is

Bud-dhahood, the state of consummate happiness and universal awareness, attended

by an ability to awaken others to their own inner freedom and capacity for

liberation. This state of spiritual perfection is modeled by the severed-headed

female Buddha, who feedsherself and others with her own vital essence. Herein

we discover the ultimate significance of Chinnamunda's shocking iconography.

As she takes her triumphal stand amid the cremation flames, her body flows

with the elixir of eternal life-the nondual wisdom of Buddhahood, the

416 CHAPTER 20

Herrmann- Pfandt endorses thepsychological appeal of the imageryforwomen by contrasting the motif with the pattern of self-sacrifice associated with the Hindu goddess Durga. In one strand ofDurg~ worship, amale devotee offershimself to the goddess through a symbolic or rirual self-decapitation. In this scenario, the relationship of the sacrificer (the man) andsacrifice (theman) to the recipient deity (the goddess) is amale-to-female relationship. Herrrnann-Pfandt suggests that the

practice of Chinnamunda was especially appropriate for women because she

"personifies in both of her roles as slayer and sacrifice a female-to-female rela

-tionship" in which "not onlythe goddess but also theego isfeminine," so that "a woman identifies directly with both aspects.,,52 This dual identification accords

with the Tantric emphasis on relinquishing one's ego, or ordinary self, while

affirming one's enlightened essenceby visualizing oneself as adeity.

There is evidence that Chinnarnasta may have had a special resonance for

women as well. The Tantrasdra offers the intriguing observation that "if any

woman takes this mantra she not only becomes a

r!akini

along with other

r!akinis

but, shedding her husband and son, becomes a perfected yogini who

can move about at will.,,53Although men as wellas women have been counted

among Chinnamasta's votaries over the centuries, this passage speaks to the

possibility that her practice, too, has a distinctive significance for women. The motif of self-decapitation associated with Chinnamunda invites

com-parison with theTibetan practice of Chad. Both entail a visualization in which

one uses one's own dissevered body to feed and nourish others. In Chad

practice, the meditator envisions himself or herself as VajrayoginI and proceeds to dissect, cook, and servehis or her entire body to ahost of hungry, bloo

d-thirsting spirits. Whereas Chinnarnunda is envisioned in a cremation ground, Chad is actually performed in that fearsome setting. Just as Chinnarnunda encompasses the offerer, offering, and recipient, Chad texts underscore the

unity of the giver, gift, and receiver. In both practices the act of self-sacrifice,

although envisioned differently, is a method for overcoming the illusion of

separate selfhood and cultivating nondual wisdom. 54The practice ofChad, like that of Chinnamunda, was introduced by a woman, Machig Labdron. The importance of Chad in contemporary Tibetan Buddhism and the virtual

dis-appearance of Chinnamunda practice raise an interesting but perhaps una

n-swerable question of whether the Chad visualization presently occupies the

same niche, psychologically-cum-religiously, once filled by Chinnamunda.

THE PARADOX OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The bodily manifestation of every Buddha reveals profound truths about the

supreme state ofliberation. Chinnamunda's complex image operates on several

CHINNAMUNDA 417

symbolic levels. The reference to esoteric inner yogic visualizations would be

relevant for those pursuing these advanced techniques. Her image alsoconveys adeeper truth, however, at the veryheart of the mystery ofultimate liberation. Chinnarnunda brims with vitality in ascene of death and destruction,

con-fronting the viewer with the most seemingly irreducible opposition in human

experience, the polarity of life and death. Dancing blissfully amidst the c re-mation flames, sheproclaims that death is essential totransformation. Death is

tobe understood not asthe decease of the physical body but rather the demise

of the illusion of separate, egoic existence and passage into a greater reality that lies beyond and yet within the self. Seeing her image may empower others to cross the ultimate threshold and join her on the other side.

In Tantric soteriology, the realization beyond the death of the self is Bud-dhahood, the state of consummate happiness and universal awareness, attended by an ability to awaken others to their own inner freedom and capacity for liberation. This state of spiritual perfection ismodeled by the severed-headed female Buddha, who feedsherself and others with her own vitalessence. Herein wediscover the ultimate significance of Chinnamunda's shocking iconography. As she takes her triumphal stand amid the cremation flames, her body flows

with the elixir of eternal life-the nondual wisdom of Buddhahood, the ulti-mate form of nourishment in the universe.