THE LIGHT FOR THE FUTURE: EXCIMER AND FREE-ELECTRON LASERS

THE LIGHT FOR THE FUTURE: EXCIMER AND FREE-ELECTRON LASERS

COMITATO NAZIONALE PER LA RICERCA E PER LO SVILUPPO DELL'ENERGIA NUCLEARE E DELLE ENERGIE ALTERNATIVE

= > < *

THE LIGHT FOR THE FUTURE:

AND FREE-ELECTRON LASERS

T. LETARDI, A. REHIERI

Dipartimento TIB, Divisioue Fisica Applicata, C.R.E. Frascati

g ^ C A ; - . mYTIB/84/39

This report has been prepared by: Servizio Studi e Docuaientazione • ENEA, Centro Ricerrhe Energia Fraacati, C.P. 65 - 00044 Frascati, Hone, Italy.

Thia Office vili be glad to aend further copiea of thia report on requeat.

The technical and scientific contents of theae reporta expreaa the opinioni o.' the authora but not necessarily "lose of ENEA

Sjhmittrd to New Technologies in Neurosurgery

tion sources (excimer and free-electron lasers) is described. The working principles of exciser lasers is analyzed together with the most relevant characteristics (active media, operating wave- length, average and peak power, spectrum and time structure). As to the free-electron laser, whose development is at the very first stage, theoretical and experimental aspects are described and perspectives for the future are discussed.

RIASSUNTO

Viene descritto lo stato dell'arte di due tipi di sorgente laser che grande interesse hanno sollevato in questi ultimi anni, il laser ad eccimeri ed il laser ad ad elettroni liberi. Per il laser ad eccimeri, assieme a principi di funzionamento, vengono descritte le più importanti caratteristiche (mezzi attivi, lun- ghezze d'onda di emissione, potenza media e di picco, caratteri- stiche spettrali e temporali). Per quanto riguarda il laser ad elettroni liberi, il cui sviluppo è ancora ai primissimi stadi, vengono esaminate in un certo dettaglio, assieme agli aspetti teorici e sperimentali, le prospettive di sviluppo futuro.

I. INTRODUCTION

In these last years a great effort has been done in order to develop new tunable, powerful and efficient laser sources operat- ing both in the infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) and vacuus ultraviolet (VUV) spectral regions.

Two different laser schemes appear now as the best candi- dates for the realization of these sources. Namely, for the short wavelength region (UV and VUV), the "excimer lasers", while, for IR (and hopefully, in the future, UV, VUV and X too), the "free- -electron lasers" (FEL).

In this article we briefly describe the operating principles and the state of the art of these sources. Namely Sect. II is de- voted to exciaer lasers, whose technology is now at a noticeable

level of development, while theoretical and experimental aspects of FEL devices (which are at the very first stage of investiga- tion, with only six operating sources in all the world!) are discussed in Sect. III.

The list of the symbols more frequently utilized throughout the text is reported in Table 1.

II. EXCIMER LASERS: INTRODUCTION

The existence of molecular systems which are bound in the excited state and dissociated in the ground state was observed for the first time by Lord Rayle-igh [1], while Stevens and Hutton

[2] suggested the term "excimer" to distinguish them from normal excited states, the importance of these molecular systems as laser media is evident: being the gain G = a (n2 - nj) propor- tional to the difference between the upper state population n2

and the lower one n^lf in these systems it reaches the maximum value, because it is always nj = 0.

In the case of a molecular system formed by two atoms, the curves of potential energy vs interatomic distance will have the general form shown in Fig. 1, where the curve 1 refers to the ground state, and the curve 2 refers to the electronically ex-

cited state. The transition energy AE, which defines the emission wavelength, is in the region of few e.V. (A from visible to ul- traviolet). Experimental evidence of laser emission from excimer systems was observed for the first time in pure noble gas by Basov et al. [3]. In the following time, other important excimer systems were made to lase, as the Rare Gas Halogen (RGH) excimers (Searles et al. [4]), and the metal vapor lasers

(Bazhulin et al. [5], Eden [6]).

In the following, the general working scheme of these sys- tems will be shown, comprising the excitation methods, than the main characteristics (wavelength, efficiency, power and energy per pulse) will be detailed, and finally particular methods to extend the capabilities of excimer lasers (wavelength, peak power, pulse length) will be described.

II.1 - Pumping Requirements

In laser systems, very high pumping levels are required as far as the emission wavelength is decreased. Indeed (Hutchinson [7]) the stimulated emission cross section can be written as (for the symbols see Table 1)

8nxAAc'

where T is the lifetime of the excited state and AA is the emis- sion bandwidth. Taking into account that the upper level mean population, in stationary conditions, is linked to the pump power P by

n2 Of P T,

we can conclude that the pumping power density, for gain thre- shold conditions, scales as A-5.

High power pump density can be achieved by means of particle beams, usually electrons, but also protons (Baranov et al. [8]),

by fast electric discharges, after U.V., X-ray or electron beam preionizat'.on, and also by means of microwave devices (Mendelsohn et al. [9]).

Even if in these systems the dissociation of the lower level gets the condition An = n2 - nx > 0 always true, other mecha- nisms, such as instabilities of the discharge, heating of the medium, growing of absorbing species, do not allow the achieving of laser pulses longer than ~ 1 usee, while in most cases only few tens of nanoseconds are achieved.

II.2 - Lasing Systems

Excimer molecules, ccndidates as laser media, form a very large family (Rhodes [10]) which span in wavelength from VUV to visible, but not all have succeeded to lase, and only the class of R.G.H. excimer lasers has, up to cow, reached the stage of commercial development.

Anyway it is worthwhile to mention the class of pure noble gas excimer lasers, which have the shortest wavelength. Laser emission has been observed in Xe (Koehler et al. [il]) (A = 172 run), Krypton (Hoff et al. [12]) (X = 146 nm), Argon (Hughes et al. [13]) (X = 126 nm). The very high pumping power needed, due to the very short wavelength, can be achieved only by means of electron beams. Indeed laser pulses of 10 J, 400 MW have been ob- tained (Ault et al. [14]), using Xe.

Anyway, the complexity of the electron pumping apparatus limits the development of this class of lasers to laboratory systems. Only recently, in the class of metal vapors excimers, the systems operating with HgBr have reached very actractive performances. The laser wavelength is 502 nm, and fast electric discharge, after UV or X-ray preionization, can be used as pump- ing system. High energy per pulse (3.2 J) and high overall effi- ciency (2%) have been obtained (Fisher et al. [15]).

The R.G.H. excimer lasers use, as active medium, an excited molecule (RgH) formed by a noble gas atom Rg (Ar, Kr, Xe) and a halogen atom H (F, CI, Br). As general scheme, few torrs of the

two species Rg and H are nixed together, and some ataospheres of a noble gas (Ar, Ne) are added to absorb the energy froa the puaping systea and trasfer it to the reacting species. Different puaping devices can be used: electron beans, proton beans, dis- charge sustained by electron beans, self-sustained discharge after UV or X-ray preionization, microwave devices. In Table 2 it is shown the RGH systens in which laser action has been ob- served, with the corresponding wavelength in nn (Lakoba and Yakovlenko [16]).

If we define the intrinsic efficiency as the laser pulse energy divided by the energy deposited in the gas, the highest value (14%) has been obtained with KrF (Salesky and Kinura [17]) while with XeCl it has been obtained 5% (Chaapagne [18]) in both cases in electron-bean punped systens. The overall efficiency, it is laser pulse energy divided by the energy furnished by the power supply for the pump system (be it a discharge or an elec- tron bean) is always lower, because it takes into account the transfer efficiency and the coupling to the gas systen. Anyway, very recently (Long et al. [19]) discharge systems for XeCl have been developed in which an overall efficiency of 4%, very close to intrinsic efficiency, has been obtained.

The maximum values of energy per pulse have been achieved in electron-beam pumped systems: 850 J for KrF (Goldhar et al. [20]) and 100 J for XeCl (Baranov et al. [21]). The scalability for this configuration has been confirmed.

Self-sustained discharge systems have volume instabilities which limit the scalability. Only for XeCl output energy of 42 J per pulse have been obtained (Guallorenzi and HcHahon [22]) in a self-sustained discharge system, while a much lower energy (~ 5 J/pulse) has been obtained (Watanabe and Endoh [23]) with KrF.

The laser energy which can be extracted from a given active volume (laser energy density) depends, also for a given type of laser, from the pumping method. For electron beam pumping, 40 J/liter (Tisone et al. [24]) for KrF and 9 J/liter (Tisone and Hoffman [25]) for XeCl have been extracted from the active volu-

ce, while in self-sustained discharge systems 4 J/liter is the maximum value for XeCl and 5 J/liter for KrF (Baranov [26]).

Commercial systems are now available with laser mean power of 100 W, both for KrF and XeCl, typically with pulses of ~ 50 nsec, at a repetition rate ranging from 100 Hz to 500 Hz.

Experimental systems with higher power have been presented (Baranov [26], Fahlen [27]).

As to laser beam angular divergence, typical values for stable oscillators are in the region of few milliradiants, but diffraction limited beams (few tens of microrad) can be obtained (McKee et al.[28]) using unstable cavity configurations. If these techniques are used in oscillator-amplifier systems, low loss of o overall efficiency can be obtained. Spectral linewidth of few A is typical for normal oscillator configurations, but can be en- hanced by means of intracavity devices (etalons, etc) to single- -mode limit (60 MHz) (Pacala et al. [29]). A pulse length of 1 nsec has been achieved in small systems (Takahashi et al. [30]) or using compression and mode-locked techniques (Takahashi et al.

[30]; Watanabe et al. [31]; Efthimiopoulos [32]).

As example, in Fig. 2 it is shown a laser system, developed at the Frascati ENEA Center, which, operating with a discharge system preionized by electron beam or X-ray, can give laser pulses of 4 J energy (Fiorentino et al [33]).

II.3 - Further Developments

The performances obtained by R.G.H. excimer lasers can be extended in more sophisticated systems.

Raman compression techniques (Murray et al. [34]) permits the achieving of shorter pulses, at higher peak power, starting from conventional systems. With nonlinear optical processes in atoms and molecules (Bischel et al. [35]) higher armonics can be produced. In this way, coherent radiation up to 39.5 noi can be obtained (Egger et al [36]). Finally, the combination of a dye laser pumped by an excimer laser (Hohla [37]) permits the construe-

tion of laser sources with high efficiency, tunability, high optical qualities.

III. THE FREE-ELECTRON L/CER (FEL)

One of the most interesting and promising coherent radiation sources developed in these last years is the free-electron laser, designed and operated the first time by J.M.J. Madey and co-work- ers of Stanford University at the beginning of 1977 (Deacon et al. [38]).

The more peculiar characteristics of this source is that the active medium is not made of atoms or molecules but it is simply a beam of high energy electrons running in a periodic magnetic structure. The mechanisms which drives the lasing action of this source is not completely new. Indeed it is very similar to that relevant to the "free-electron" microwave devices (Slater [39]) whose development started between the two world wars, like klys- trons, magnetrons, travelling wave tubes and, more recently, Giratrons, Ubitrons and Orotrons. The novelty of FEL sources is the possibility of the operation at short wavelength, i.e. in the spectral region where, up to now, coherent radiation was generat- ed only by standard (i.e. atomic or molecular) lasers. This possibility is provided by the high energy of the electrons (many tens of millions of electron volt (MeV) instead of few thousands of electron volt), which generates a very large relativistic Doppler shift ind makes possible the operation at short wave-

length (i.e. IR and visible instead of microwaves). Indeed the FEL is just the "relativistic version" of the Ubitron (Phillips [40]), which was developed about twenty years before the first succesful Stanford experiment.

A detailed and analytical description of the physics involv- ed in the FEL process can be found in many review articles [41]

and textbooks [42]. In the next sections we report a very short description of th*> FEL working principles (Sect. III.1) and we outline the state of art of this source Sect. III.2). Finally in Sect. III.3 are reported some outlooks for the future.

III.l - The FEL Operating Principles

A sketch of a typical FEL device is reported in Fig. 3. The electrons, generated by an accelerating machine, are injected in a special magnet which creates a spacially periodic magnetic field. As a consequence electrons are forced to oscillate around the magnet axis (for this reason this item is usually called

"undulator magnet" (UM)) and they emit electromagnetic radiation (synchrotron emission) whose wavelength depends on electron energy and magnetic field intensity and period. Moreover, if the radiation is trapped in an optical cavity, it is possible to obtain stimulated emission and, if the gain overcomes the losses, lasing action. The mechanism which drives the stimulated emission is very simple. Namely the electric field of the wave trapped into the optical cavity and running together the electrons, modulates the energy of tue electron beam. This energy modulation is transformed, during the passage along the UM, in density modulation at the some wavelength of the radiation itself and the electrons emit coherently just at this wavelength and in phase with the stimulating field. The role of the periodic magnetic field is fundamental. Indeed electrons are forced to oscillate around the UM axis and then they acquire a transverse velocity parallel to the stimulating wave electric field. In this way the electric field can work on the electrons and modulates their energy.

Two kinds of UMs are usually utilized for "undulating" the electrons in FEL devices, namely

i) helical UM.

The magnetic field is rotating along the UM axis and the electrons follow an helical trajectory. The emitted light is circularly polarized,

ii) Linear UM.

The magnetic field oscillates in a fixed plane and the electrons follow a sinusoidal trajectory which lies in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field. The emitted light

is linearly polarized.

In figure 4 and 5 two examples of helical and linear UMs are shown. Both UHs are presently utilized for the operation of a FEL source tunable in the FIR region (A = 10 - 30 \m) (Bizzari et al.

[43]), under development at the ENEA Frascati Center.

Let us now outline some interesting features of FEL sources.

The more impressive one is certainly the very large tunability.

Indeed in conventional lasers the radiation wavelength depends on atomic or molecular energy levels of the lasing medium and then it is not possible, in general, to have a large tuning range (apart dye lasers). FEL sources, on the other hand, can be easily tuned simply by changing electron energy or UH parameters. Hore precisely the relationship between radiation wavelength A, elec- tron energy E and r.m.s. magnetic field B and period A of the UH, reads (for the symbols see Table I)

\ eBA 9

* • r <• * <2Ss^»

><T>

•

In FEL literature it is usually defined the following "undulator parameter",

eBA

K = S_, (2) 2nmc2

so that Eq. (1) can be written in the form

A 2

A = - | (1 + I<2) (5|-)2 . (3)

Equation (3) holds for both helical and linear UMs. In addition the tunability of linear UMs is greatly enhanced by the fact that they can operate (if the gain is sufficiently high) also at odd harmonics of the fundamental, i.e.

x = i i (1 + K2) ( 5 T ^{) 2} » <*>

(a = 1, 3, 5, ) .

For typical values of A (~ cm), K (~ 1) and E (~ 14- 1000 MeV) the emitted radiation ranges from millimeter to X-rays region. This very impressive operating bandwith is a unique features of FEL sources.

In addition to this wide tunability, FEL sources present the possibility of modulation of the wavelength during the laser pulse, just by changing the electron beam energy, and, with a linear UH, the operation at several wavelengths in the same laser beam at the same time (see Eq. (4)).

Another interesting aspect of FEL sources is the laser beam time structure, which follows the electron beam one. We can distinguish between single pulse devices, like that operating with induction linac (pulse duration ~ 10-100 nsec) on Pelletron

(pulse duration ~ 100 psec), and radio-frequency (r.f.) accelera- tors (linacs, microtrons, storage rings). In this last case, the electrons are collected in trains of several microbunches, whose duration ranges from few psec to a fraction of nsec. As a conse- quence of this pulse structure, the laser linewidth is Fourier- -transform limited, i.e.it reads

AA s _A

A ~ ex • ^{( 5 )}

where t is the microbunch duration. We stress that the limit given by Eq. (5) can be very severe for some possibile applica- tions, in which very high monochromaticity of laser radiation is required. For example, at A ~ 30 pm, x ~ 20 psec (ENEA IR source - Bizzarri et al. [43]) we obtain

111.2 - FEL Scenario

As pointed out in the introduction, only six FEL devices have been able to lase up to now. In Table 3 the main characteri- stics of these sources are reported together with the year of realization. It is interesting to point out the large delay between the first device (Stanford, 1977) and the second one (Orsay, 1983), mainly due to the complexity of FEL sources in which high level accelerator, magnet and optical technologies are

required. The FEL scenario is developing very fastly. Indeed there is a lot of experiment under realization (see Table 4 ) . In a near future, the number of operating oscillator will increase very rapidly and certainly ..heir performances will be greatly improved. In particular a great effort is presently done in many laboratories (TRW/Stanford, Livermore, Los Alamos, MSNW) in order to increase efficiency and power output by using UMs of special design (tapered and multicomponent devices).

Namely the maximum efficiency obtained up to now is of the order of few percent with a fraction of watt of average output power (let us stress that these values are in very good agreement with theoretical predictions). For the near future efficiencies up to ten percent together with average output power of the order of many hundreds of watts are foresee in FIR and IR. Finally, as to the bandwidth, the operating wavelength ranges presently from 8 mm (Livermore) to visible (Orsay). It is worth noticing that very promising schemes have been recently proposed [44], which would allow operation up to soft X-rays spectral region.

111.3 - The Future of the FEL: Conclusions and Outlooks

It is not a simple task to foresee the future for a source like the FEL, whose development started only few years ago and where very few devices have been able to lase up to now. However

it is possible to outline some very general considerations.

Namely, the present FEL devices present a number of disadvanta- ges, i.e.

i) the operation requires radiation shielding

ii) the system dimensions are very large (from few tens to many hundreds of meters)

iii) FELs are very expensive devices (some millions of dollars).

It is difficult to overcome completely the drawbacks re- levant to point i ) , which are due to the operating principle itself of FEL sources (see Sects. Ill and III.l). However it is possible to minimize the problem. Namely there is a noticeable experimental work aimed to reduce the electron energy (which, in any case, remains relativistic) for a given operating wavelength, by utilizing short period magnetic undulators, wave undulators

[45] (i.e. in place of UMs it is utilized microwave radiation) and dielectric waveguide systems, in which instead of stimulated synchrotron emission (see sect. III.l), it is utilized Cerenkov emission [46].

As to the points ii) and iii), we must take into account that the present FEL devices are just experiments. This means that they need a lot of diagnostics, they must be very flexible, in order to operate in many different experimental configura- tions, and, finally, they are prototypes which utilize, in gene- ral, electron accelerators designed for completely different ap- plications (nuclear physics, synchrotron radiation, nuclear wea- pon simulation, etc.). On the other hand, dedicated FEL sources will be optimized for a given operating regime and they will uti-

lize accelerating systems designed just for FEL operation. In ad- dition compactness and reduction of the cost will be achieved with the integration of many parts of the system, e.g. the elec-

tron beam guiding and focusing channel with the UM itself. Final- ly it is possible to foresee a strong reduction of cost for the fact that these sources would not be prototypes.

All these considerations are very preliminary, however the outlined technological trend (if confirmed by further investiga- tion) will allow FEL devices to have a noticeable impact in many fields [47], like research, industrial and medical applications and energy production (controlled fusion devices).

REFERENCES

[I] Lord Rayleigh: Proc. R. Soc. London, A116, 702 (1966).

[2] Stevens, B., Hutton, E.: Nature 1JJ6, 1045 (1960).

[3] Basov, N.G., Danilychev, V.A., Propov, Yu.M., Khodkevich,, D.D.: JEPT Lett. 12, 329 (1970).

[4] Searles, S.K., Hart, G.A.: Appi. Phys. Lett. 27, 243 (1975).

[5] Bazbulin, S.P., Basov, N.G., Zuev, V.S., Leonov, Yu.S., Stoilov, Yu.Yu.: Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 8, 402 (1978).

[6] Eden, J.G.: Appi. Phys. Lett. 33, 495 (1978).

[7] Hutchinson, M.H.R. - Appi. Phys. 21, 95 (1980).

[8] Baranov, S.V., Bystritskii, V.M., Didenko, A.N., Kozhevnikov, A.V., Prokhorov, A.M., Sulakshin, S.S, Usov, Yu.P.: Sov. J.

Quantum Electron. 12, 70 (1982).

[9] Mendelsohn, A.J., Normandin, R., Harris, S.E., Young, J.F.:

Appi. Phys. Lett. 38, 603 (1981).

[10] Rhodes, Ch.K.: Excimers Lasers. 2nd ed. Springer Verlag, 1983 [II] Koehler, H.A., Ferderber, L.J., Rehhead, D.L., Ebert, P.J.:

Appi. Phys. Lett. 21, 198 (1972).

f12] Koff, P.W., Wingle, J.C., Rhodes, C.K.: Appi. Phys. Lett. 23, 245 (1973).

[13] Hughes, W.M., Shannon, J., Hunter, R.: Appi. Phys. Lett. 24, 488 (1974).

[14] Ault, E.R., Bradford, R.S. Jr., Bhaumik, M.L.: Arpa Contract N 00014-72-C-0456 (1975).

[15] Fisher, C.H., Znotins, T.A., Smilanski, I., Pindroh, A.L., De Hart, T.E., Ewing, J.J.: 1st Conf. on Lasers and Electro-

-Optics. Cleo '83. Tec. Digest p. 240.

[16] Lakoba, I.S., Yakovlenko, S.I.: Sov. J. Quantum Electron.

K) (4), 389 (1980).

[17] Salesky, E.T., Kimura, W.D.: Conf. on Lasers and Electro- -Optics. Cleo '84, Postdeadline Papers ThR6.

[18] Champagne, L.F.: Appi. Phys. Lett. 33, 523 (1979).

[19] Long, W.H. Jr., Plunmer, M.J. Stappaerts, E.A.: Appi. Phys.

Lett. 43, 735 (1983).

[20] Goldhar, J., Jancaitis, K.S., Murray, J.R.: Conf. on Laser and Electro-Optics, Cleo '84. Tech. Digest p. 136.

[21] Baranov, V.Yu., Velikhov, E.P., Gaidarenko, D.V., Isakov, I.M., Krasnikov, Yu.G., Malyuta, D.D, Novobrantsev, I.V., Pis'mennyi, V.D., Smakovskii, Yu.B-, Strel'tsov, A.P.: Sov.

Tech. Phys. Lett 9, 88 (1983).

[22] Giallorenzi, T.G., McMahon, J.M.: Laser Focus/Eleccro-Optics, May 1984 p. 75.

[23] Watanabe, S., Endoh, A.: Appi. Phys. Lett. 41, 799 (1982).

[24] Tisone, G.C., Patterson, E.L., Rice, J.K.: Appi. Phys. Lett.

35, 437 (1979).

[25] Tisone, G.C. Hoffman, J.M.: IEEE J. of Quant. Electr. QE-18, 1008 (1982).

[26] Baranov, V.Yu.: IEEE J. of Quant. Elee. QE-19, 1577 (1983).

[27] Fahlen, T.S.: IEEE J. of Quant. Elee. QE-16, 1260 (1980).

[28] McKee, T.J., Stoicheff, B.P., Wallace, S.C.: Appi. Phys.

Lett. 30, 278 (1977).

[29[ Pacala, T.J., McDermid, I.S., Laudenslager, J.B.: Appi. Phys.

Lett. 45, 507 (1984).

[30] Takahashi, A., Maeda, M. , Noda, Y.: IEEE J. of Quant. Elee.

QE-20, 1196 (1984).

[31] Watanabe, S., Watanabe, M., Endoh, A.: Appi. Phys. Lett. 43, 533 (1983).

[32] Efthimiopoulos, T.: Appi. Phys. Lett. 45, 346 (1984).

[33] Fiorentino, E., Letardi, T., Marino, A., Sabia, E., Vannini, M.: to be published.

[34] Murray, J.R., Goldhar, J., Eimerl, D., Szoke, A.: IEEE J. of Quant. Elee. QE-15, 342 (1979).

[35] Bischel, W.K., Bokor, J., Kliger, D.J., Rhodes, C.K.: IEEE J. of Quant. Elee. QF.-15, 380 (1979).

[36] Egger, H., Furarner, H., Rhodes, C.K.: Laser Focus, p. 59 (1982).

[37] Hohla, K.L.: Laser Focus, p. 67 (1982).

[38] Deacon, D.A.G., Elias, L.R., Madey, J.M.J., Ramian, G.T., Schwettman, H.A., Smith, T.I.: Phys. Rev. Lett. 38, 892 (1977).

[39] See, e.g., Slater, J.C.: Microvawe Electronics. (Van Nostrand, Princeton, 1963).

[40] Phillips, R.M.: IRE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-7, 231 (1960).

[41] See, for example, the special issue devoted to FEL devices, IEEE J. of Quant. Elee. QE-17 issue n. 8, (1981).

and Dattoli, G., Renieri, A.: Experimental and Theoretical Aspects of the Free-Electron Laser, to appear in Laser Handbook, vol. 4, ed. by M.L. Stich and M.S. Bass (North Holland).

[42] On FEL topics have been done many workshops, Conferences and schools. The proceedings of the more recent meetings are:

Colloque International sur les Lasers a Electron Libres.

Bendor, Sept. 1982, J. De Physique, Colloque CI, Suppl. 2, 44 (1983).

Free Electron Generation of Coherent Radiation. Orcas Island;

1982, SPIE Vol. 453 (1984).

1984 FEL Conference. Castelgandolfo, 1984, to appear in Nucl.

Instrum. and Meth. in Phys. Res.

[43] Bizzarri, U., Ciocci, F., Dattoli, G., De Angelis, A., Fiorentino, E., Gallerano, G.P., Marino, A., Renieri, A., Vignati, A.: first of refs [42] p. 677, second of refs [42]

p. 313 and contribution to the last of refs [42].

[44] See, e.g. proceedings of "Topical Meeting on Free Electron Generation of Extreme Ultraviolet Coherent Radiation" AIP

118, Brookhaven (1983) of the last of refs [42], [45] Segali, S.B., see the second of refs [42] p. 383.

[46] Dattoli, G., Walsh, T.E., Johnson, B., Renieri, A.: Phys.

Rev. Lett. 53, 779 (1984).

[47] See, for example, Scoles, S., ed. "The Possible Impact of Free-Electron Lasers in Spectroscopy and Chemistry" IRST, Riva del Garda (1979).

Proc. of "Workshop on Application of FEL", Castelgandolfo 1984, to appear on Nucl. Instrum. and Meth. in Phys. Res.

TABLE 1

LIST OF THE SYMBOLS

c light velocity e electron charge m rest electron mass A radiation wavelength

o stimulated emission cross section IR infrared

UV ultraviolet VUV vacuum ultraviolet

R.G.H. Rare Gas Halide FEL Free-Electron Laser UM Undulator Magnet

A. undulator magnet period.

TABLE 2

R.G.H. excimer molecules in which laser emission has been observed, with corresponding wavelength in nanometers

Ar Kr Xe

F C£

Br

193 175

248 222

350

308

282

YEAR

1977 1983

1983 1983 1983

1984

LABORATORY

STANFORD ORSAY

TRW/STANFORD LOS ALAMOS LIVERMORE

S.BARBARA

ACCELERATOR

LINAC STORAGE RING LINAC LINAC INDUCTION LINAC PELLETRON

E(MeV)

43 160

66 20 4.5

3

A (pm)

3.3

0.65

1.6

9-11 8xi 0a

400

x(psec)

4

500-1000

4 30

3X104

60xiOb

MACROPULSE DURATION (psec)

~ 103

c.w.

~ 103

70

--

—

PEAK POWER

(W)

~ 10b

1

~ 10b

10

8X10'

5X10-3

LABORATORY M p m ) ACCELERATOR E(HeV) 1(A) UNDULATOR \ (cm)

LIVERMORE S.BARABARA 1 S.BARBARA 2- BELL LABS

-stage stages

FRASCATI (ENEA) UK PROJECT

TRW

LOS ALAMOS MSNW-BAC STANFORD NOVOSIBIRSK ORSAY

FRASCATI (INFN)

BROOKHAVEN

(2-10)-

400

1.6

3.3

0.25-0.

10

45

Induction Linac Pelletron

Pelletron Microtron Microtron Linac Linac Linac Linac Linac

Storage Ring Storage Ring Storage Ring ADONE

ACO

VUV Storage Ring

4 3-6 3

20

66 20 19 43 370 166

300-500

10

2 2 5 6.5 10 2.5 25 100 1.3

Pulsed (Tapered) Permanent Magnet FEL Laser Wave Electromagnet Permanent Magnet Permanent Magnet Permanent Magnet Permanent Magnet Permanent Magnet Electromagnet Permanent Magnet Permanent Magnet Electromagnet

Permanent Magnet

9.8 3.6

20

5 8

2.4

2.54-2.22 3.23

10

6.5

3 CO

>-

o

L U

•—

O

Q.

INTERATOMIC DISTANCE la.u)

Fig. 1 Potential energy vs interatomic distance, in arbitrary units, for a typical biatomic excimer molecule.

I

I *

REFLECTING MIRROR

ACCELERATOR

UNDULATOR PERIOD

- * J

SEMITRANSPARENT MIRROR

BEAM DUMP

Fig. 3 Layout of a typical FEL source.

Fig. 4 Helical undulator magnet (electromagnet)

Fig. 5a - Linear undulator magnet: general view

Fig. 5b - Linear undulator magnet: permanent magnets