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S E C O N D A R Y E D U C A T I O N IN FIJI: AN I N V E S T I G A T I O N INTO S C H O O L E F F E C T I V E N E S S IN A C H A N G I N G SOCIETY.

By H e l e n G oo dw i l l Tavola.

S u b m i t t e d for the d e g r e e of D o c t o r of Phi l o s o p h y . L o n d o n S chool of E c o n o m i c s a n d P o l i t i c a l Science,

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UMI Number: U050087

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A B S T R A C T

The m a jo r issue a d d r e s s e d in this t h e s i s is the q u a l i t y of s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n in Fiji, i n v e s t i g a t i n g the v a r i a b l e s w h i ch a f f e c t school e f f e c t i v e n e s s . The t h e o r e t i c a l an d c o n c e p t u a l p e r c e p t i v e s on the q u a l i t y of

e d u c a t i o n are i n i t i a l l y e x a m i n e d with a r e v i e w of the li t e r ature, c o n t r a s t i n g w e s t e r n p e r s p e c t i v e s wi t h t h o s e s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d to d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s .

The ma i n e m p i r i c a l part of th i s t h e si s is b a s e d on a s t u d y of e l e v e n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s in Fiji a n d the F o rm Four s t u d e n t s in th e s e schools. T h e ai m was to

i n v e s t i g a t e what the c r i t i c a l fac t o r s are for i m p r o v i n g school e f f e c t i v e n e s s , m e a s u r e d la r g e l y in te r m s of pupil

a c hi ev e m e n t . The t h e s i s c o n c l u d e s that i n - s chool f a ct or s are mo r e i m p o r t a n t than the a n t e c e d e n t v a r i a b l e s of the i nd i v i d u a l c h i l dren, such as race or s o c i o - e c o n o m i c status. The s t a b i l i t y an d s t r e n g t h of sc h o o l m a n a g e m e n t ,

p r i n c i p a l s h i p , c o m b i n e d with the j u d i c i o u s use of r e s o u r c e s e m e r g e d as the c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s in sc h o o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s . V a r i o u s p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s r e l a t i n g to s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n in Fiji are d rawn on the b a s i s of

t h e s e findings.

A h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y of e d u c a t i o n in Fiji from p r e - c o l o n i a l t i m e s to the p r e s e n t f o c u s s e s on e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n its s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s and te s t s the

h y p o t h e s i s that s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t s p r o v i d e the d e m a n d for edu c a t i o n .

The G r a n t - i n - a i d s y s t e m of e d u c a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d in 1916 w h i ch p r o v i d e d for g o v e r n m e n t an d the p e o p l e to e n t er into a p a r t n e r s h i p in the p r o v i s i o n of e d u c a ti on . Th i s s y s t e m is s t u d i e d as it has p r o v e d to be both a s t r e n g t h an d a m a j o r w e a k n e s s of the F i j i ’s e d u c a t i o n system.

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-A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S .

R e s e a r c h in the s ocial s c i e n c e s i n e v i t a b l y i n v o l v e s m a n y p e o p l e o t h e r than the r e s e a r ch er . The r e s e a r c h on w h i c h

t h i s t h e s i s is b a s e d is no e x c e ption.

A c c o r d i n g to the B r a z i l i a n s o c i o l o g i s t M a r i a E d y F e r r e i r a , t h e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n is o n l y j u s t i f i e d to the e x t e n t th a t it r e t u r n s to the p e o p l e what t r u l y b e l o n g s to them; to the e x t e n t t h a t it r e p r e s e nt s, not an a t t e m p t to learn a b o u t the people, but to come to k n ow w i t h t h e m the r e a l i t y w h i c h c h a l l e n g e s them. (In Freire, 1972:102). I hope t h i s is true of my thesis, for what it c o n t a i n s b e l o n g s to the m a n y p e o p l e in Fiji who d i r e c t l y an d i n d i r e c t l y made it pos s i b l e .

M a n y p e o p l e in Fiji h e l p e d make my f i e l d w o r k a reality. The P e r m a n e n t S e c r e t a r y for E d u c a t i o n , Mr Hari Ram, g a v e me c o n t i n u o u s s u p p o r t w h i c h e n a b l e d me to p r o c e e d u n h i n d e r e d . The p r i n c i p a l s , t e a c h e r s an d s t u d e n t s in the e l e v e n s c h o o l s I v i s i t e d gave th e i r ti m e f r e e l y an d w i t h o u t t h e i r g e n e r o u s a s s i s t a n c e , this r e s e a r c h c o u l d

not have been done, for t h e y are the e s s e n c e of it.

A lso in Fiji, Ruth L e c h t e of Nadi, the Y a r r o w a n d N a b a i n i v a l u f a m i l i e s of S u v a and the S a l u f a m i l y of N a m a l a t a , K a d a v u ga v e me a c c o m m o d a t i o n an d f r i e n d s h i p . My f a t h e r - i n - l a w M a c i u W a q a n i s a u was my v a l u e d gu i d e an d i n t e r m e d i a r y in Kadavu. L o s e n a S a l a b u l a g u i d e d me up the S i g a t o k a Valley.

The s u p p o r t of m a n y f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s in v a r i o u s o t h e r p a r t s of the w o r l d have h e l p e d me greatly. My s i s t e r s Jenny, S y l v i a a n d R o s e m a r y in New Z e a l a n d took c a r e of my c h i l d r e n w h i l e I di d the bulk of my f i e l d w o r k in Fiji. V i m l a and P e t e r W e s t w o o d p r o v i d e d f r i e n d l y a c c o m m o d a t i o n in L o n d o n on m a n y o c c a s i o n s . M e r e i a S a u v u k i v u k i R a v a n a l i b e r a t e d me fr o m m a n y d o m e s t i c c h o r e s d u r i n g the latter part of my t h e s i s w r i t i n g in B r u s sels. My c h i l d r e n Mereia, G e o r g i e a n d E m a have been c h e e r f u l l y t o l e r a n t of my p r e o c c u p a t i o n s an d my a b s e n c e s from home over the past few years. T h e i r s t e a d f a s t c o n f i d e n c e in my

a b i l i t y to s u c c e e d has be e n a strength.

A grant f r o m the C e n t r a l R e s e a r c h F u n d of the U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n was of gr e a t a s s i s t a n c e t o w a r d s the cost of f ieldwork.

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-Dr. A n t h o n y Hall of the L o n d o n S chool of E c o n o m i c s an d P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e was my s u p e r v i s o r for the d u r a t i o n of this thesis. He g u i d e d me t h r o ug h the s ta g e s a n d f a c i l i t a t e d my path. For t h i s I am grateful.

Th i s t h e s i s w o u l d n e v e r have e v e n t u a t e d w i t h o u t the p r o f e s s i o n a l h e l p an d g u i d a n c e of Mr. H.C.A. (Tony)

S o m e r s e t . He was c o - s u p e r v i s o r both o f f i c i a l l y a n d u n o f f i c a l l y and gave g e n e r o u s l y of his ti m e and

e x p e r t is e. He i l l u m i n a t e d my t h i n k i n g at m a n y stages, e s p e c i a l l y when d e s i g n i n g f ie l d w o r k q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ,

a n a l y s i n g s t a t i s t i c s a n d b r i n g i n g it all t o g ether. I am t r u l y i n d e b te d to him.

For his u n f a i l i n g s u pport, love a n d str e n g t h , I am d e e p l y g r a t e f u l to my husband, K a l i o p a t e Tavola. He h e l p e d me in so m an y ways, n o t a b l y with the time c o n s u m i n g t a s k s of d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and p r o o f - r e a d i n g . For this, I d e d i c a t e

this t h e s i s to him.

H e l e n Tavola.

B r u s s e l s , April 1990.

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-T A B L E OF C O N -TEN-TS,

C H A P T E R ONE: I N T R O D U C T I O N ... 11

1.1 The Issues U n d er S t u d y ... 11

1.2 M e t h o d o l o g y ... 13

1.3 The F i e l d w o r k ... 15

C H A P T E R TWO: T H E O R E T I C A L A ND C O N C E P T U A L P E R S P E C T I V E S ON TH E Q U A L I T Y OF E D U C A T I O N IN D E V E L O P I N G C O U N TR IE S : A R E V I E W OF T HE L I T E R A T U R E 19 2.1 E d u c a t i o n a l E x p a n s i o n an d the Hu m a n C a p i t a l T h e o r y ... . ... 19

2 . 2 W e s t e r n R e s e a r c h on Q u a l i t y an d E q u a l i t y in E d u c a t i o n ... 32

The I nf l u e n c e of E n v i r o n m e n t a l F a c t o r s ... .33

The G e n e t i c D e t e r m i n i s t s ... 36

The S t r u c t u r a l i s t P e r s p e c t i v e ... 40

The I m p or ta n ce of Internal School F a c t o r s ... .. . . 4 5 2 . 3 The Q u a l i t y of E d u c a t i o n in D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s ...50

B e e b y ’s P i o n e e r i n g W o r k ... 50

The M o v e T o w a r d s Q u a l i t a t i v e I m p r o v e m e n t s ... 52

T e a c h e r s as the C r it i c a l V a r i a b l e ... 56

T e x t b o o k s as the C r i t i c a l V a r i a b l e ...61

O t h er E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c y V a r i a b l e s ... 65

The Home B a c k g r o u n d V a r i a b l e ... 71

2.4 C r o s s - n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s ... 72

C H A P T E R THREE: P R E - I N D E P E N D E N C E E D U C A T I O N IN FIJI IN ITS S O C I O - E C O N O M I C AN D P O L I T I C A L C O N T E X T . . . 81

3.1 P r e - c o l o n i a l F i j i ... 82

W h i t e S e t t l e r s an d M i s s i o n a r i e s ... 85

3 . 2 E a r l y C o l o n i a l R u l e from 1874 to 1916: the P e r i o d of I n t e r v e n t i o n in E d u c a t i o n ... . .. . 9 2 3 .3 The B e g i n n i n g of G o v e r n m e n t I n t e r v e n t i o n : 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 4 8 ...96

The C o l o n i a l P o l i t i c a l A g e n d a ... 99

The E m e r g e n c e of a T r i p a r t i t e E d u c a t i o n System. 101 3 .4 I n c r e a s i n g G o v e r n m e n t I n t e r ve nt io n: 1 9 4 8 - 1 9 6 0 ... 116

3 . 5 The D e c a d e L e a d i n g to I n d e p e n d e n c e ... 120

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-C H A P T E R FOUR: P O S T - I N D E F E N D E N -C E E D U -C A T I O N IN F I J I ... 135

4.1 P o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e E d u c a t i o n P o l i c y ... 137

I n t e g ra t io n: the P o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e G o a l ... 150

4 . 2 Q u a l i t a t i v e I m p r o v e m e n t t h r o u g h C u r r i c u l u m C h a n g e . 153 4 .3 The A c ce s s I s s u e ...158

4 .4 A f t e r May 1987: E d u c a t i o n in the Ne w R e p u b l i c . . . 1 6 9 C H A P T E R FIVE: E X A M I N A T I O N S AS AN I N D I C A T O R OF S C H O O L Q U A L I T Y ... 182

5. 1 The Use of E x a m i n a t i o n s in A s s e s s i n g E d u c a t i o n a l P e r f o r m a n c e , ... 182

The Ca s e for a n d a g a i n s t E x a m i n a t i o n s ... 183

I m p r o v i n g E x a m i n a t i o n s to Improve P e d a g o g y ... 186

5 . 2 The Use of E x a m i n a t i o n s in F i j i ... 188

The P r i m a r y S chool E x a m i n a t i o n s ... . . . 18 9 The Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e E x a m i n a t i o n ... 198

S e n i o r S e c o n d a r y E x a m i n a t i o n s ...2 0 3 S e t t i n g E x a m i n a t i o n s in F i j i ... 2 0 9 5 . 3 R e s e a r c h into E d u c a t i o n a l A c h i e v e m e n t in Fiji: A B r ie f R e v i e w ... 2 1 2 P s y c h o l o g i c a l an d S o c i o - P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h .... 2 1 3 S o c i o - c u l t u r a l E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h ... 2 1 8 C H A P T E R SIX: THE F I E L D S T U D Y - THE S C H O O L S ... 2 2 7 6.1 The Role of M a n a g e m e n t ... 2 2 7 6 . 2 The Sc h o o l P r i n c i p a l ... 2 4 3 P r i n c i p a l s and S chool E t h o s ... 2 4 7 6 . 3 The Role of M a t e r i a l R e s o u r c e s ... 251 6. 4 The Ro l e of T e a c h e r s ... 2 5 8 T e a c h e r s and A t t a i n m e n t ... 2 6 3 6 .5 Sch o o l Size: d o e s it Make a D i f f e r e n c e ? ...2 6 7

C H A P T E R SEVEN: T H E S T U D E N T S IN T HE S C H O O L S ... 27 3 7.1 Social, E c o n o m i c a n d P o l i t i c a l C o n t e x t u a l V a r i a b l e s . .

...2 7 3 7 .2 P a r e n ta l O c c u p a t i o n s an d E d u c a t i o n ...2 8 0

7 .3 H o m es and H o m e w o r k ... 2 86

7 . 4 The Age F a c t o r ... 2 9 5 7 . 5 W a s t a g e ... 2 9 8

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-7 . 6 A s p i r a t i o n s and P e r c e p t i o n s of E d u c a t i o n ... 301

7 .7 E t h n i c i t y : does it O v e r r i d e All E l s e ? ... 305

C H A P T E R EIGHT: S C H O O L E F F E C T I V E N E S S : T H E C R I T I C A L F A C T O R S ... 312

8.1 B r i n g i n g the D a t a T o g e t h e r ... 312

A C l o s e r Look at Sc h o o l E f f e c t i v e n e s s ... 321

8 . 2 C a s e Study: The T h r e e S c h o o l s on K a d a v u ... 327

C H A P T E R NINE: C O N C L U S I O N S AN D P O L I C Y I M P L I C A T I O N S .... 340

9.1 The Q u a l i t y of E d u c a t i o n : S e t t i n g the P a r a m e t e r s for S ch oo l E f f e c t i v e n e s s ... 340

T e a c h e r s , P r i n c i p a l s an d M a n a g e r s ... 340

S c h o o l s in th e i r Local and N a t i o n a l C o n t e x t s ... 346

R e s o u r c e s an d F a c i l i t i e s ...348

9 .2 I m p r o v i n g School Q u a l i t y: P o l i c y I m p l i c a t i o n s . .... 351

S ch o o l S u p p o r t S e r v i c e s ... 352

R e s e a r c h an d S t a t i s t i c s ... 356

T h e Role of C u r r i c u l u m an d E x a m i n a t i o n s in S c hool £ f f e e t i v e n e s s . . 357

R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n for Q u a l i t a t i v e I m p ro ve m e n t : the F u t u r e of Ju n i o r S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s a n d V e r y Small S c h o o I s ... 360

9 . 3 C o n c l u d i n g R e m a r k s . . . ... 369

T y i n g in the T h e o r e t i c a l E n d s ...369

R e t u r n i n g to the H y p o t h e s e s ... 371

A P P E N D I C E S A p p e n d i x One: F i e l d w o r k Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ... 377

A p p e n d i x Two: M a p of F i j i ... ...380

A p p e n d i x T hree: Racial C o m p o s i t i o n , Si z e and L o c a t i o n of S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s in Fiji, 1 9 8 6 ... 381

A p p e n d i x Four: Fiji J un i o r C e r t i f i c a t e Results, 1983 1 9 8 8 ... 386

A p p e n d i x Five: S u m m a r i e s of School D a t a ... 391

A p p e n d i x Six: C o r r e l a t i o n s of Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e M a r k s by S u b j e c t For S c h o o l s in F i el d S t u d y ... 404

B I B L I O G R A P H Y ... 408

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-T A B L E S

3 . 3 . 1 P o p u l a t i o n of Fiji: 1921 - 1 9 4 6 ... 99

3 . 3 . 2 N u m b e r of M e t h o d i s t M i s s i o n S c h o o l s and S t u d e n t s ... 103

3 . 3 . 3 E x p e n d i t u r e Per C a p i t a on E d u c a t i o n for C h i l d r e n A g e d 5 to 15 Y e a r s ... 112

3 . 3 . 4 S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l E n r o l l m e n t s in 1 9 4 6 ... 115

3 . 5 . 1 M a n a g e m e n t of S c h ools, 1 9 6 4 ... 122

3 . 5 . 2 S e c o n d a r y S c h o ol P o l ls 1946 - 1 9 6 0 . . . ... 123

3 . 5 . 3 S c h o o l s and Sc h o o l E n r o l l m e n t s 1960 - 1 9 6 9 ... 123

3 . 5 . 4 Pac i a l B r e a k d o w n of P u p i l s A t t e n d i n g School, 1968 126 3 . 5 . 5 S e c o n d a r y E n r o l l m e n t s 1 9 6 9 ... 126

3 . 5 . 6 P r o p o r t i o n of C h i l d r e n Ag e d 6 - 1 3 Y e a r s in S c h o o 1 ... 126

3 . 5 . 7 E x a m i n a t i o n R e s u l t s 1961 - 1 9 6 9 ... 130

4 . 1 . 1 N u m b e r of S c h o o l s an d E n r o l l m e n t s 1971-1984... 140

4 . 1 . 2 T y p e s of E d u c a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s and C o n t r o l l i n g A u t ho ri t i es , 1 9 8 6 ... 140

4 . 1 . 3 E d u c a t i o n a n d H e a l t h in Fiji G o v e r n m e n t ’s O p e r a t i n g Budget, 1964 - 1 9 7 8 ... 145

4 . 1 . 4 G o v e r n m e n t E x p e n d i t u r e on E d u c a t i o n an d H e a l t h Per H e a d of P o p u l a t i o n ... .. ..145

4 . 1 . 5 Pa c i a l C o m p o s i t i o n of S e c o n d a r y Sc h o o l s , 1 9 8 6 . . . 1 5 2 4 . 3 .1 S t u d e n t E n r o l l m e n t in S e c o n d a r y Sch o o l s , 1 9 8 6 . . . 1 5 9 5. 2 . 1 S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s E n t r a n c e R e s u l t s 1954 - 1 96 9 . . 1 9 0 5 . 2 . 2 P e r c e n t a g e of C l a s s Ei g h t C h i l d r e n S i t t i n g the S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s E n t r a n c e E x a m i n a t i o n , 1971-1986.. ... 192

5 . 2 . 3 S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s E n t r a n c e E x a m i n a t i o n Pass Rates for D i f f e r e n t E t h n i c G r o u p s 1966 - 1 9 8 4 ... 195

5 . 2 . 4 Fiji J un io r C e r t i f i c a t e Pass P a te s and N u m b e r s of C a n d i d a t e s 1955 - 1 9 8 9 ...200

5 . 2 . 5 Fiji J un io r C e r t i f i c a t e Pass P a t e s by E t h n i c Group, 1971 - 1 9 8 6 ...201

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-5 * 2 . 6 W a s t a g e for 1983 F o r m Four C o h o r t * . . * . . * * ... 20 -5 6. 1 . 1 Fiji J u ni or C e r t i f i c a t e E x a m i n a t i o n Pa s s R a t e s for

S c h o o l s in F i e l d Survey, 1983 - 1 9 8 8 ... 23 0 6 . 4 .1 Fiji J un i o r C e r t i f i c a t e S u b j e c t H a r k s - Mean

P e r c e n t a g e Marks:

(a) Ma r k s for Four C o m p u l s o r y S u b j e c t s . . . 2 6 5 (b) Ma r k s for O p t i o n a l S u b j e c t s ... 266 7 . 2 . 1 Me a n S c o r e s in F.J.C. E x a m i n a t i o n (1988) by

O c c u p a t i o n s of F a t h e r s in S a m p l e . . . . ... 281 7 . 2 . 2 M aj o r O c c u p a t i o n a l G r o u p s by R a c e ... 28 3 7. 3 .1 N um b e r of S i b l i n g s an d Fiji J un i o r M e a n s for

D i f f e r e n t F a m i l y S i z e s for F i e l d w o r k S a m p l e . . . . 2 8 6 7 . 3 . 2 P o s s i b l e S o u r c e s of H o m e w o r k H e l p . . . ... 288 7 . 3 . 3 Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e M e a n s by P l a c e by A b o d e . 291 7 . 4 .1 Age S p r e a d in F i e l d S t u d y S c h o o l s ... 2 9 6 7 . 4 . 2 Age P a t t e r n s by R a c e ... 2 9 6 7 . 4 . 3 Age a n d Race in Fiji P r i m a r y S ch o o l s , 1 9 8 6 ...297 7 . 4 . 4 Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e M e a n s for F i e l d S a m p l e by

Age G r o u p ... 297

7. 5 . 1 S t u d e n t s who Left S chool B e t w e e n J u l y / A u g u s t 1988 a nd N o v e m b e r 1988, by School, Race a n d S e x 299 7. 7 . 1 Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e (1988) M e a n s for S c h o o l s in

F i e l d Sample, by R a c e ... 3 0 8

8. 1 . 1 Mean M a r k s in Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e E x a m i n a t i o n (1988) for F i e l d S a m p l e P o p u l a t i o n by S c h o o l and a n d F a t h e r s * O c c u p a t i o n ... 313 8 . 1 . 2 (a) S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of S E S G r o u p s W it hi n S c h o o I s * . ... 317 (b) S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of S c h o o l s W i t h i n SE S

G r o u p s . ...317 8 . 1 . 3 P o s i t i o n of S c h o o l s in F i e l d w o r k S a m p l e R e l a t i v e to

Each O t h e r by Way of Total M e a n s a n d Four C o m p u l s o r y S u b j e c t s in Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e E x a m i n a t i o n ... 322 8 . 1 . 4 S u m m a r y of C r i t i c a l S chool F a c t o r s by G ro u p s D e f i n e d in Ta b l e 8 . 1 . 3 ... 323 8 . 2 . 1 Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e S u b j e c t M e a n s (1988) for

K a d a v u S c h o o ls

(i) M a r ks for Fo u r C o m p u l s o r y S u b j e c t s ... 334 (ii) Ma r k s for O p t i o n a l S u b j e c t s ...334

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-8 . 2 . 2 C a r e e r A s p i r a t i o n s of S t u d e n t s from K a d a v u S c h o o l s

FIGURES.

8. 1. 1 C h a r t S h o w i n g I n dices of S p r e a d of S ch o o l M e a ns and S E S M e an s from P o p u l a t i o n M e a n ... 315 8 . 2 . 1 M a p of K a d a v u S h o w i n g S c h o o l s in C a s e - s t u d y 330

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-C H A P T E R ON E I N T R O D U C T I O N

1.1 The Issues U n d er Study.

^ I n the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 150 y e a r s s i n c e formal s c h o o l i n g was i n t r o d u c e d to Fiji, e d u c a t i o n has g a i n e d i m p o r t a n c e in the n a t i o n a l agenda. P r i m a r y s c h o o l i n g is n ow v i r t u a l l y

u n i v e r s a l , a l t h o u g h it is not c o m p u l s o r y , a n d a high p r o p o r t i o n of p r i m a r y sc h o o l l e avers p r o c e e d to s e c o n d a r y

s chool. The c o u n t r y a n n u a l l y s p e n d s so m e 2 0 % of its b u d g e t s u p p o r t i n g th i s system. H o w e v e r the q u a l i t y of

s c h o o l i n g v ar i e s g r e atly. The b r o a d f ocus of t h i s t he si s is an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p o l i c y v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g the q u a l i t y of s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n in Fiji.

The m a jo r h y p o t h e s i s of the thesis, on w h i ch the f i e l d - w o r k is based, d ea l s with the issue of w h e t h e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s or s chool v a r i a b l e s d e t e r m i n e

s c h o o l a c h i e v e me n t . Th i s has been the t o p i c of much d e b a t e in r e c e n t decades. The W o r l d Ba n k h o l d s that

s c h o o l v a r i a b l e s are of g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e than s o c i o - e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s in d e v e l o p i n g c ou n t r i e s , c o m p a r e d to d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s . W h i l e social, e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s p r o v i d e the c o n t e x t for e d u c a t i o n , t h e y are not e a s i l y a l t ered. At the s c hool level, it is i n t r a - s c h o ol v a r i a b l e s w h i c h can be a d j u s t e d to i m p r o v e the l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . T h u s it is h y p o t h e s i z e d that in s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s in Fiji, school v a r i a b l e s are of ma j o r i m p o r t a n c e in e x p l a i n i n g v a r i a t i o n in s c h o o l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d v a r i a t i o n s in o v e r a l l school

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-e f f -e c t i v -e n -e s s .

An h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s t e s t s a r e l a t e d h y p o t h e s i s th a t the s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t s p r o v i d e the d e m a n d for e d u c a t i o n . P r i o r to an d d u r i n g the c o l o n i a l

period, the d e m a n d for e d u c a t i o n g r a d u a l l y g a i n e d m o m e n t u m with d i f f e r i n g r e s p o n s e s from the v a r i o u s e t h n i c g r o u p s in Fiji. As the e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a a l t e r e d b e f o r e a n d a f t e r i n d e p e n d e n ce , the d e m a n d for

more e d u c a t i o n at h i g h e r levels c o n t i n u e d u na b a t e d . The p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l s of the late 1980s have a l t e r e d the s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l context, which has h a d c o n c o m i t a n t e f f e c t s on the e d u c a t i o n system. P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h has r e l a t e d the h i s t o r y of e d u c a t i o n in Fiji, but has not a n a l y s e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n its

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l p a ra me t e r s .

A f u rt he r h y p o t h e s i s e x a m i n e s the G r a n t - i n - a i d s y s t e m wh i ch is the b a s is of e d u c a t i o n in Fiji. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the G r a n t - i n - a i d s y s t e m in 1916 by the

c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t i n i t i a l l y a l l o w e d the r a p i d e x p a n s i o n of s c ho ol in g. It is h y p o t h e s i z e d that it is the G r a n t - i n - a i d s y s t e m w h i ch is the root c au s e of the g o v e r n m e n t ’s i n a b i l i t y to e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l the e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m t o d a y a nd is the c a u se of m a j o r i n e q u a l i t i e s in the q u a l i t y and p r o v i s i o n of e d u c a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t Fiji.

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-1,2 Hethodo l o g y .

S t u d i e s into school e f f e c t i v e n e s s in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s h ave co m e to be s e e n as i m p o r t a n t for i m p r o v i n g the q u a l i t y of e d u c ation. A l t h o u g h m o s t s t u d i e s do c i t e the

C o l e m a n / J e n c k s t h e s i s of the i m p o r t a n c e of a n t e c e d e n t f a c t o r s such as s o c i o - e c o n o m i c status, it is b e c o m i n g w i d e l y a c c e p t e d that sch o o l v a r i a b l e s are of g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e in p o o r c o u n t ri es , as s u g g e s t e d by H e y n e m a n a n d others. The p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s are c r u c ia l to s u ch res e a r c h . It is more r e l e v a n t to c o n c e n t r a t e on v a r i a b l e s w h i c h are s u b j e c t to i n t e r v e n t i o n r a t h e r than s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s which have less p o t e n t i a l for a d j u s t m e n t . The c e n t r a l issue is to d i s c o v e r w h i c h e d u c a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s or e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s are most l i k e ly to p o s i t i v e l y

a f f e c t the t e a c h i n g an d l e a r n i n g p r o cess, in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e f i n a n c e is scarce.

C o l m a n d R o s s m i l l e r (1987) have n o t e d th a t s c h o o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s s t u d i e s t e n d to fall into two d i s t i n c t t y p e s of r e s e a r c h : q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s u s i n g m u l t i - v a r i a t e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s a n d q u a l i t a t i v e

r e s e a r c h u s i n g case studies. Each m e t h o d has c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s and c e r t a i n i n h e r e n t w e a k n e s s e s an d t h e r e has

be e n m u c h d e b a t e on this s u b j e c t in the past t h r e e decades. The main c r i t i c i s m s of the q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t h o d ar e p r o b l e m s of a r r i v i n g at u n a m b i g u o u s r e s u l t s in r e s e a r c h of hu m a n a c i t i v i t i e s , w h e r e v a r i a b l e s c a n n o t

g e n e r a l l y be h e l d c o n s t a n t , let a l o n e e s t i m a t e d . R e l a t e d to t h i s is the c o n t r o v e r s i a l issue of c a u s a l i t y wh i c h is

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-o ft e n assumed. A m a j -o r c r i t i c i s m is the lack -of a t t e n t i -o n p a i d to c o n t e x t u a l or s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s w h i c h ma y q u a l i f y d a t a an d the lack of d e s c r i p t i o n of p r o c e ss es . As

N e u m a n n has p o i n t e d out " E d u c at io n d o e s not take p l ac e in a s o c i al v a c u um " ( N e u m a n n ;1987:161). C a m p b e l l (in L a n d s h e e r e , 1982) c l a i m s that so c i a l s c i e n t i s t s have w e a k e n e d t h e i r a p p r o a c h by i g no ri ng c o m m o n s en s e

e x p l a n a t i o n s to c r o s s - v a l i d a t e q u a n t i t a t i v e data. He m a i n t a i n s that " q u a n t i t a t i v e k n o w i n g d e p e n d s on

q u a l i t a t i v e k n o w i n g " ( L a n d s h e e r e ; 1 9 8 2 : 2 7 ) . Q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s ha v e been c r i t i c i z e d for t h e i r t y p i c a l l y c a s e s t u d y n a t u r e a n d the c o n s e q u e n t lack of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s or a b i l i t y to d r a w g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

fr o m them. The lack of ’s c i e n t i f i c ri g o u r * a n d o b j e c t i v i t y are i n e v i t a b l e c r i t i c i s m s from e mp ir i c i s t s .

A f t e r d e c a d e s of deb a t e , t h e r e a p p e a r s to be a g r o w i n g c o n s e n s u s that t h e r e s h o u l d not be a c l e a r d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n a q u a n t i t a t i v e or q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y . "It is no w w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d that no s i n g l e r e s e a r c h p a r a d i g m can a n s w e r all the q u e s t i o n s w h i c h a r i s e in e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h " (N e u m a n n ;1987: 161). An

i n t e g r a t e d d i a l e c t i c to so c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y is g a i n i n g a wi d e a c c e p t a nc e. K e e v e s a nd Rist h a v e s u m m e d up t h i s a p p r o a c h thus: "We see q u a n t i t a t i v e a nd q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s as c o m p l e m e n t a r y e m p h a s e s w i t h i n

the r e s e a r c h program. W h i l e both s i d e s of i n q u ir y have the p o t e n t i a l to p r o v i d e g e n e r a l i z a b l e findings, the r e s o u r c e d e m a n d s of the q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s u s u a l l y limit t h e m to small n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples. T h e i r ro l e then

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-is to p r o v i d e the rich o b s e r v a t i o n a l d e t a i l t h a t s u g g e s t s e x p l a n a t i o n s for the mo r e g r o ss e f f e c t s in the q u a n t i t a t i v e s u r v e y work, a n d to a d v a n c e p r o p o s i t i o n s for

s u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h "(in L a n d s h e e r e ;1982:39).

The r e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n in t h i s t h e s i s f o l l o w s the m e t h o d o l o g y of the i n t e g r a t e d d i a le c t i c . Q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s are u n d e r t a k e n wi t h some s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s and

a q u a l i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h is also u s e d to e x p l a i n the s p e c i f i c social r e a l i t i e s and to d e s c r i b e the school ♦ p r o c e s s ’, a p h e n o m e n o n much r e c o g n i z e d but not e a s i l y qu a n t i f i a b l e .

1.3 The fieldwork.

The f i e l d r e se a r c h for th i s t h e s i s took p l a ce in J u l y and A u g u s t 1988. B e c a u s e of the g r e a t d i v e r s i t y a m o n g s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s in Fiji, it was d e c i d e d to n a r r o w the

s t u d y down to s c h o o l s that ha d a c o m m o n factor, w h i l e at the sa m e time i n c l u d i n g s c h o o l s of d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n , rel i g i o n , s i z e an d location. The c o m m o n f a c t o r was that of n o n - s e l e c t i o n in e n t r y cri t e r i a .

The G r a n t - i n - a i d s y s t e m in Fiji, d e s c r i b e d in d e t a il in C h a p t e r s T h r e e an d Four, has gi v e n r i s e to a m u l t i p l i c i t y of s c h o o l s with w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . In theory, p a r e n t s are a b l e to c h o o s e s c h o o l s w h i c h suit t h e i r r e l i g i o u s or e t h n i c p r e f e r e n c e , or s c h o o l s which are s u i t a b l e b e c a u s e of g e o g r a p h i c location. In p r a c t i c e

h o w ever, e s p e c i a l l y in u r b a n areas, the s c h o o l s se l e c t

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-the pupils* S c h o o l s a c q u i r e t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n l a r g e l y t h r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n s u c c e s s rates, t h u s s c h o o l s with high

p r e s t i g e are ab l e to s c r e e n th e i r pu p i l intake a n d limit t h e m s e l v e s to t h o s e of s u p e r i o r s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y or c o m p a t i b l e so c i a l or r e l i g i o u s b a c k g r o u n d s . In rural a r ea s s u ch s e l e c t i o n is not so p r e v a l e n t . C h i ld re n,

e s p e c i a l l y th o s e of p o o r e r families, are l ikely to a t t e n d the n e a r e s t school. Rural s c h o o l s are o f te n sm a l l a n d are

in no p o s i t i o n to be s e l e c t i v e a b o ut t h e i r p upil intake. T h e o r e t i c a l l y , a wi d e r a n g e of a b i l i t i e s s h o u l d be

r e p r e s e n t e d in ru r a l n o n - s e l e c t i v e s c h ools.

S e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a d e c i d e d upon by i n di vi du al s c h o o l s a nd a. ^ l ar g e l y a m a t t e r for the p r i n c i p a l ’s d i s c r e t i o n . Th e r e are no h ar d an d fast r u l e s r e g a r d i n g s e l e c t i o n laid d o w n by the M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n, ap a r t fr o m a r e g u l a t i o n wh i c h d i s a l l o w s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on g r o u n d s of ra c e or religion.

The s c h o o l s i n cl ud ed in the s a m p l e are d r a wn f ro m four g e o g r a p h i c a r e as in Fiji. The Nadi a r e a in the west of the ma i n i sland of Viti L e v u is r e p r e s e n t e d by t h r e e

s c ho o l s : one urban, one p e r i - u r b a n a n d one rural. Two small j un io r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s in the r ural S i g a t o k a V a l l e y of w e s t e r n / c e n t r a l Viti Levu; t h r ee s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s in the S u v a u r b an a r e a a n d t h r ee on the i s l a nd of K a d a v u are the r e m a i n i n g a r e as i n c l u d e d in the study. T h e se 11 s c h o o l s v ar y w i d e l y in t h e ir e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n , size, location, s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c o n t e x t a n d m a n a g e m e n t . Si x of the s c h o o l s are run by local c o m m i t t e e s , one by

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-the M e t h o d i s t Church, on e by the S o m a n C a t h o l i c A r c h d i o c e s e , one by the C h u r c h of J e s us C h r i s t of the L a t t e r D a y Saints, one by the M u s l i m L e a g u e a n d one by

the g o v er nm e nt . (The a ct ua l n a m e s of the s c h o o l s are not u s e d in the thesis).

All of the F o r m Fo u r s t u d e n t s in the s c h o o l s v i s i t e d to o k p a r t in a survey, r e s p o n d i n g to q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e i r h o m e b a c k g r o un d, p a r en ts * o c c u p a t i o n s and e du ca t i o n ,

h o m e w o r k p r o b l e m s a n d t h e i r a s p i r at io ns . In N o v e m b e r 1988 th e s e s t u d e n t s sat the Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e

e x a m i n a t i o n and t h e i r i n d i v i d ua l results, both a g g r e g a t e an d by ind i v i d u a l s u b j e c t ha v e been c o r r e l a t e d with the

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i r o r i g i n a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . S o m e 5 % of all the F o r m Four s t u d e n t s in Fiji in 1988 were i n c l u d e d in the survey. 4 7 8 s t u d e n t s took part in the survey, but o n l y 4 5 6 of t h e s e a c t u a l l y sat the Fiji J u n i o r C e r t i f i c a t e e x a m i n a t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e part of the final s t a t i s t i c a l an a l y s i s . The i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d

f r o m th i s s u r v e y is u s e d in c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h q u a l i t a t i v e data, o b t a i n e d f r o m i n t e r v i e w s wi t h p r i n c i p a l s a n d

t e a c h e r s a n d in s o m e c a s e s p a r e n t s a n d s t u d e n t s in the v a r i o u s schools, a n d f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n of the s c h o o l s a n d t h e i r pro c e s s e s . W h e r e pos s i b l e , c l a s s r o o m t e a c h i n g was obs e r v e d .

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t e d m a i n l y of o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n s . (See A p p e n d i x One). Th i s a l l o w e d c a t e g o r i e s to e m e r g e f r o m the a n s w e r s g i v e n an d p r e v e n t e d p r e s c r i b e d

’p i g e o n h o l i n g * of a n s w e r s . All q u e s t i o n n a i r e s we r e

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-a d m i n i s t e r e d p e r s o n -a l l y by the r es e -a r c h e r , e n a b l i n g the q u e s t i o n i n g p r o c e s s to be w o r k e d t h r o u g h in c ar e f u l

s t a g e s with full e x p l a n a t i o n s gi v e n for ea c h question* Th is s i m u l a t e d the i n t e r v i e w s i t u a t i o n to so m e extent, but h a d the a d d e d a d v a n t a g e of a l l o w i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s a d e gr e e of pr i v a c y , a l s o a l l o w i n g t he m to r e f l e c t as th e y wrote. Th i s a p p r o a c h a l l o w e d a g r e a t e r d e g r e e of s e n s i t i v i t y th a n the c o n v e n t i o n a l s t y l e of p r e c o d e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e a n d a l l o w e d p a r t i c i p a n t s to be in c o n t r o l of t h e ir a n s wers, r a t h e r than c o n f o r m i n g to e xt er n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s .

The d a t a from the s u r v e y was p r o c e s s e d ( using m a i n l y the S P S S / P C + p a c ka ge ) w h i c h g i v e s a s t r o n g q u a n t i t a t i v e element, but it is d i s c u s s e d w it h i n th e q u a l i t a t i v e l y o b s e r v e d p a r a m e t e r s w h e re t h e y occ u r r e d .

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-C H A P T E R T W O T H E O R E T I C A L A ND C O N C E P T U A L P E R S P E C T I V E S ON E D U C A T I O N IN D E V E L O P I N G C O U N T R I E S - A R E V I E W O F T H E L I T E R A T U R E ,

2.1 E d u c a t i o n a l E x p a n s i o n a n d the Hu n a n C a p i t a l Theory.

( ^ T h e 1950s a n d 1960s w e r e a time of m a s s i v e e x p a n s i o n of formal e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . B e t w e e n

1950 a n d 1975, the a g g r e g a t e inc r e a s e at the p r i m a r y level of s c h o o l i n g in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s was 365%, s e c o n d a r y level i n c r e a s e d by 9 2 0 % a n d t e r t i a r y by 1056%. ( H ar d i m a n and H i d g l e y , 1982:183). C o n s e q u e n t l y , p o o r c o u n t r i e s were s p e n d i n g vast a m o u n t s on e d u c at io n, bo t h in r e l a t i v e a n d a b s o l u t e terms. The i n c r e a s es in s e c o n d a r y and t e r t i a r y e d u c a t i o n i n f l at ed e x p e n d i t u r e , as t h e s e levels we r e far m o r e e x p e n s i v e to f i n a n c e th a n p r i m a r y s ch o o l i n g . In A s i a total e x p e n d i t u r e t r i p l e d d u r i n g the 1960s a nd in A f r i c a an d L a t in Ame r i c a , p u b l i c e x p e n d i t u r e more than dou b l e d . ( T o d a r o , 1977:257). T o d a r o a l s o r e c o r d e d that by th e m i d- 19 70 s, e d u c a t i o n a l b u d g e t s

in m a n y T h i r d W o r l d n a t i o n s we r e a b s o r b i n g b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 3 5 per c e n t of total g o v e r n m e n t r e c u r r e n t e x p e n d i t u r e s .

(1977:257).

E d uc at io n, t h r o u g h fo r m a l W e s t e r n s t y l e s c h o o l i n g , ha d b ec o m e f ir ml y e s t a b l i s h e d as an a l l o c a t o r of l i f e - c h a n c e s in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s an d d e m a n d for s ch o o l p l a c e s f r e q u e n t l y e x c e e d e d supply. P a r e n t s p e r c e i v e d s c h o o l i n g

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-in an i n s t r u m en ta l way: as an e s c a p e r o u t e from the d r u d g e r y a n d p o v e r t y of s u b s i s t e n c e a g r ic u l t u r e . F o s t e r

for e x a mple, o b s e r v e d that in Ghana, e d u c a t i o n was not s o u g h t for its own sake, but was v a l u e d m a i n l y for the o p p o r t u n i t i e s it g a v e for e m p l o y me nt . MA f r i c a n d e m a n d s for a c a d e m i c e d u c a t i o n ha d little to do with the c u r r i c u l u m s of the s c h o o l s but r e f l e c t e d t h e i r r e a l i s t i c p e r c e p t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t i a l r e w a r d s a c c o r d e d to i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e "(1965:105). P o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e was ap p l i e d ,

from both rich an d poor, to in c r e a s e the a v a i l a b i l i t y of e d u c a t io n. G o v e r n m e n t s had to m a k e c h o i c e s a b o u t w h i c h

levels a n d ty p e s of e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d ha v e the g r e a t e s t s u p p o r t a n d who in s o c i e t y d e s e r v e d a c c e s s to the l i mi te d

e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s . (Thomas, 1983:8).

The d r i ve t o w a r d s e d u c a t i o n a l e x p a n s i o n in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s in the 1950s a n d 1960s was c o n c u r r e n t with the e m e r g e n c e of a sc h o o l of e c o n o m i c t h e o r y w h i c h f u l l y s u p p o r t e d the n o t i o n that e d u c a t i o n was the key fac t o r in p r o m o t i n g e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t . The e c o n o m i c s of e d u c a t i o n was bo r n as an i n d e p e n d e n t d i s c i p l i n e in the U.S.A. in the e a r l y 1960s wh e n " e c o n o m i s t s r e a l i z e d that the facts of e c o n o m i c g r o w t h d e m a n d e d a n e w e x p l a n a t i o n " (Mundi, 1981:23). I n v e s t m e n t in p e o p l e was its c e n t r a l c o n c e p t and a d e f i n i t e link b e t w e e n e d u c a t i o n a n d e c o n o m i c g r o w t h was c la i m e d . D e n i s o n (1962) m a i n t a i n e d th a t i n c r e a s e d q u a l i t y in the labour force in the U.S.A. a c c e l e r a t e d e c o n o m i c g r owth. He c a l c u l a t e d t ha t b e t w e e n 1929 a n d 1957, e d u c a t i o n was the s o u r c e of 23 per cent of

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-the g r o w t h of real n a t i o n a l income, but in the p e r i o d s i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e a n d after, the c o n t r i b u t i o n of e d u c a t i o n w o u l d be o n l y a b o u t half as much.

S c h ultz, a n o t h e r p i o n e e r of what came to be k n o wn as H um a n C a p i t a l Theory, m a d e s i m i l a r c l a i m s b a s e d on the p r e m i s e that the n a t i o n a l income of the U.S.A. c o u l d not

be e x p l a i n e d by e s t i m a t e s of real c a p i t a l s t o c k a lone: “e c o n o m i s t s h a v e c o m e up o n n u m e r o u s s i g n s p o i n t i n g to i m p r o v e m e n t s in the q u a l i t y of h u m an r e s o u r c e s as one of the m a j or s o u r c e s of e c o n o m i c g r o w t h “ (1962:3). S c h u l t z a t t e m p t e d to e x p l o r e the c o s t s an d p r o f i t s (sic) of e d u c a t i o n by c o m p a r i n g the total c o s t s of e d u c a t i o n with

the total of i n d i v i d u a l incomes. He also c a l c u l a t e d r a t e s of r e t u r n of d i f f e r e n t levels of e d u c a t i o n for both rich

a n d po o r c o u n t r i e s a n d he d r e w a n u m b e r of c o n c l u s i o n s ; inter a l i a that p r i m a r y s c h o o l s are o p e r a t e d at the lowest c o st an d that ra t e of r et u r n is

e s p e c i a l l y high fr o m p r i m a r y s c h o o l s in low income c o u n t r i e s .

B e c k e r (1962) s a w e x p e n d i t u r e on s c h o o l i n g, o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g an d m e d i ca l c a r e as i n v e s t m e n t s w h i ch w o u l d i m prove the p h y s i c a l a nd m e ntal a b i l i t i e s of people, th u s r a i s i n g t h e ir real i n come p r o s p e c t s . He s a w that it was i n c r e a s i n g l y e v i d e n t that f a c t o r s o t h e r than p hy s i c a l r e s o u r c e s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role in e c o n o m i c growth. Becker, like Sc h u l t z , a l s o l o oked at the o p p o r t u n i t y

c o s t s of e d u c a t i o n a n d r a t e s of return, b a s e d on the idea that i n v e s t m e n t s in c e r t a i n p e r i o d s w o u l d b r i n g r e t u r n s

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-in all r e m a i n i n g per i o d s . (1962:26). R a t e of r e t u r n a n a l y s i s in e d u c a t i o n has s i n ce h a d s u b s t a n t i a l influence.

P r o p o n e n t s of r a t e - o f - r e t u r n a n a l y s i s s e e it as a m e a s u re of the p r o f i t a b i l i t y of i nv es t m e n t from the p o i nt of v i ew of i nd i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s ( p rivate ra t e of re t u r n ) or from the p o i n t of v ie w of s o c i e t y as a w h o l e (social ra t e of return). P s a c h a r o p o u l o s has c a l c u l a t e d r a t e s of re t u r n

for e d u c a t i o n for o v er 5 0 c o u n t r i e s an d has d r a w n some p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s fr o m them. He c o n t e n d s for e x a m p l e t h at b e c a u s e the a v e r a g e ra t e of r e t u r n in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s is h i g h e r for p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n c o m p a r e d to s e c o n d a r y or t e r t i a r y e d u ca ti on , p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v en t op p r i o rity. A l t h o u g h rate of r e t u r n a n a l y s i s is still v e ry i nf lu en t i a l , it has a n u m b e r of s h o r t c o m i n g s . S a l a r i e s a n d w a g e s are u s e d as a p r o x y for p e o p l e ’s va l u e or c o n t r i b u t i o n a n d are a s s u m e d to be d i r e c t l y l inked to t h e i r e du c a t i o n . D e t a i l e d and c o m p r e h e n s i v e d a t a are r e q u i r e d to c a l c u l a t e ra t e of return. T h e se d a ta are o f t e n u n a v a i l a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y in d e v e l o p i n g c o u nt ri es . But the f u n d a m e n t a l flaws of rate of r e t u r n a n a l y s i s are m or e basic: e q u a t i n g p e o p l e with c o m m o d i t i e s an d the g l a r i n g o m i s s i o n of so c i a l and p o l i t i c a l factors.

H a r b i s o n a nd H y e rs (1964) were e d u c a t i o n a l e c o n o m i s t s who l oo k e d up o n i nv es t m e n t in e d u c a t i o n as h u m a n r e s o u r c e d e v e l o p m e n t , n e c e s s a r y for p o l i t i c a l , c u l tu ra l, social a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t . T he y were c r i t i c a l of p r e v i o u s h u m an c a p i t a l t h e o r i s t s su c h as D e n i s o n an d S c h u l z for

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-a l l e g e d l y g i v i n g o n l y p e r i p h e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n to the a n a l y s i s of h u m an r e s o u r c e s , c o n c e n t r a t i n g s o l e l y on l o o ki ng at i n v e s t m e n t s in e d u c a t i o n as ’e c o n o m i c 1 , b e c a u s e t h ey c o n t r i b u t e to e c o n o m i c growth. D e s p i t e this, H a r b i s o n an d M y e rs f o un d "a v er y high c o r r e l a t i o n and p r e s u m a b l y so m e c au sa l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e n r o l l m e n t s in e d u c a t i o n (and h e n c e i n v e s t m e n t s in e d u c a t i o n ) a nd a c o u n t r y ’s level of e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t as e x p r e s s e d by G N P per c a p i t a " (1964:165). T h e y c l a i m e d that an initial

h e a v y i n v e st me n t in h u m an r e s o u r c e d e v e l o p m e n t is n e c e s s a r y to get a c o u n t r y s t a r t e d on the r o a d to s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g e c o n o m i c growth. The p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n from t h i s a s s u m p t i o n was that i n v e s t m e n t in e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d at the t e r t i a r y level, p a r t i c u l a r l y that of a t e c h n i c a l nature. H a r b i s o n an d M y e r s saw l o n g - t e r m m a n p o w e r p l a n n i n g b a s e d on t a r g e t s e t t i n g as an i n d i s p e n s a b l e part of p l a n n i n g for hu m a n r e s o u r c e d e v e l o p m e n t . H a r b i s o n a n d M y e r s wr o t e prolifically in the 1960s a n d t h e i r ideas w e r e v e r y i n f l u e nt ia l in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y in Africa.

M a n p o w e r p l a n n i n g was an o f f s h o o t of t h e H u m a n C a p i t a l T h e o r y with its b a s i c u n d e r l y i n g b e l i e f that s k i l l e d m a n p o w e r is one of the c r u c i a l i nputs of a m o d e r n ec o n o m y . "The idea th a t a c o u n t r y ’s f u t u r e m a n p o w e r s t r u c t u r e can be p r e d i c t e d a nd the f o r e c a s t s u s e d as a b a s i s for p l a n n i n g th e s c a l e of e d u c a t i o n is i n t u i t i v e l y a p pe al in g, s i n ce it a p p e a r s to o f f e r u n a m b i g u o u s g u i d a n c e

to the p o l i c y m a k e r on h o w to plan e d u c a t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t " (P s a c h a r o p o u l o s a n d U o o d ha l l , 1985:72). T h e w e a k n e s s e s of

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-m a n p o w e r p l a n n i n g so o n b e c a -m e -m a n i f e s t however* B a s e d on f i x e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n inputs of s k i l l e d m a n p o w e r a n d o u t p u t s a n d q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a nd p r o d u c t i v i t y , t h e y f a i l e d to take issues su c h as labour p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y into account. M a n p o w e r p l a n n i n g e m p h a s i z e d v o c at io na l , s e c o n d a r y a n d t e r t i a r y e d u c a t i o n at the e x p e n s e of p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n a n d d i d not ta k e co s t or c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s f a ct or s into account. The c r i t i c i s m s of m a n p o w e r p l a n n i n g are n um e r o u s , s h a r i n g a r e c u r r e n t theme, t h a t su c h q u a n t i t a t i v e e s t i m a t e s e x a g g e r a t e d the n e e d for m i d d l e a nd hi g h levels of s k i l l s

a n d t h a t it f a i l e d to give c l e ar g u i d e l i n e s to p o l i c y m a k e r s . (Blaug, 1970; P s a c h a r o p o u l o s an d W o o d h a l l ,

1985; C o o m b s : 1970; Foster, 1987) The i n a d e q u a c i e s of m a n p o w e r p l a n n i n g we r e r e a l i z e d when m a n p o w e r s h o r t a g e s r a p i d l y t u r n e d into m a n p o w e r s u r p l u s e s . M a n p o w e r f o r e c a s t s have been d e s c r i b e d by B l a u g as " h o p e l e s s l y i n a c c u r a t e and little b e t t e r than g u e s s w o r k " (1983:13) a n d by P s a c h a r o p o u l o s a n d W oo d h a l l as " i n a c c u r a t e a n d

u n r e 1 i a b l e "(1985:86).

B o w m a n a n d A n d e r s o n ( 1 9 6 5 ,1968) were n o t a b l e for a p p l y i n g th e H u m an C a p i ta l T h e o r y to the e c o n o m i e s of d e v e l o p i n g c o un tr ie s. Th e i r c r o s s - s e c t ion a n a l y s i s of the w o r l d ’s

c o u n t r i e s in the 1950s c o n c l u d e d that a l it e r a c y rate of 40 per ce n t is n e c e s s a r y (though not s u f f i c e n t a lone) as a s u p p o r t i v e base for s u s t a i n e d e c o n o m i c growth. T h e y maintained that a d d i t i o n a l l i t e r a cy b r i n g s little a d d i t i o n a l e c o n o m i c g r o w t h until l i t e r a c y r a t e s r e a c h 7 0 - 8 0 per cent. T h e y c o nc lu de d, inter a l i a , that

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-e d u c a t i o n c h a n g -e s v a l u e s a n d a t t i t u d e s a n d c a u s e s a s o c i e t y to b ec om e ’open* a n d th u s more l i kely to h a ve

v i g o r o u s d e v e l o p m e n t of h u m a n res o u r c e s . T h e y c l a i m s that ma j or e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s c a n n o t o c c u r w i t h o u t i m p r e s s i v e m i g r a t i o n of h u m a n c a p it al , b r i n g i n g s k i l l s a n d k n o w l e d g e f ro m o t h e r s o c i et i es . (1968:272).

An e x p l a n a t i o n of w hy the b a s i c c o n c e p t of H u m an C a p i t a l T h e o r y h e l d gr e a t a p p e a l for d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s is m a d e by C o l c l o u g h : "It s e e m e d to be a m a t t e r of e as y logic to t r a n s l a t e the i m p l i c a t i o n s of th i s work to the d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d w h e r e s k i l l e d m a n p o w e r was in c r i t i c a l l y s h o r t s u p p l y . . . t h e a s s u m p t i o n was made that ’s k i l l e d m a n p o w e r ’ was b r o a d l y s y n o n y m o u s with ’s c h o o l e d m a n p o w e r ’ : by i m p l i c a t i o n , W e s t e r n m o d e s of e d u c a t i o n w e r e to b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l m o d e s of sk i l l creation, a n d e d u c a t i o n a l i nv es t m e n t w o u ld h a v e to o c c u p y a c e n t r a l part of

i n ve s t m e n t s t r a t e g y if g r o wt h was to s u c c e e d " ( C o l c l o u g h , 1980:2). T h i s h a d g r e a t p o l i t i c a l ap p e a l for g o v e r n m e n t s of n e w l y e m e r g e n t nations. T h e re was int e n s e s ocial p r e s s u r e to e x p a n d e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n a n d the

h u m a n c a p i t a l p h i l o s o p h y j u s t i f i e d t h e i r actions.

_.iternational aid a g e n c i e s as well as g o v e r n m e n t s and p l a n n e r s were i n f l u e n c e d by the b o d y of t h e o r y wh i c h p r o c l a i m e d the e c o n o m i c v a l u e of e d u c a ti on . The W o r l d Bank, for example, i n i t i a t e d its first e d u c a t i o n p r o j e c t in 1962. "The j u s t i f i c a t i o n for th i s i n v e s t m e n t was that e d u c a t i o n is not o n l y a b a s i c hu m a n right, but also a b a s i c c o m p o n e n t of s o c i a l an d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d

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