Scope Management
Scope management can be defined as controlling what is and what is not a part of the project.
According to the 2004 PMBOK scope management:
“Includes the processes required to ensure that the project includes all of the work and only the work required to
complete the project successfully”
During scope management it is the project managers responsibility to:
Make sure that the TEAM is completing all of the required work.
Making sure that no additional work is being added that is not part of the Project Charter.
Make sure that no extra work is being performed.
Remember the contract specifies what work is to be performed. Do not give the customer anything extra this is a waste of time and adds no benefit to the project.
Budget and Resource Considerations
At some point in time within the scheduling process, it becomes necessary to put the "real world" into the project plan:
Balancing the project against available money and resources (people)
While developing the WBS, we were acquiring estimates on the cost and resources needed for each activity. When gathering this data, it is important to watch for some areas of potential problems:
Low bids caused by an incomplete specification
Inflated (padded) estimates from support groups
Missing WBS steps hiding actual costs
Labor times are not based on specific individual talent
Budget
Most of us are not in a position to set our own project budget: At United Technologies -- project budgets are established by
the Government Tank Automotive Command Office
At Mitsubishi Motors -- Finance groups within the specific division designated the budget allocations and had
disbursement control
Within Your Company ……….
As a result of this control we didn't have to worry about the budget, right?
WRONG!!!!!!!!
Two major responsibilities exist regardless of what industry you are involved with:
Ensure you have enough $$$$ for the successful completion of the project
Try to spend less $$$$
By utilizing project management techniques to develop a complete project plan, we should project the budget requirement(s) of our project.
Another Necessary Approach To Making Our Project
Plan Work Is The Manipulation Of Resources
Labor Equipment Material Cost
Resources
Expenditures
During this phase of project planning we start applying real life constraints:
We check the usage of our resources to ensure "good" data. We apply our actual resource availability (Workforce
Graphical Displays of Resources
We use display techniques including the Gantt chart,
Histograms and line graphs to show the various allocations of:
Labor or People Special equipment
Outside purchases (supplies, contract labor support, equipment, machinery)
Money
Using the display techniques, it is possible to predict needs and possible problems in areas such as:
Usage overtime
By showing the resource needs as they occur, we can plan to have required resources at the time they are required. Other support groups, such as purchasing, finance, etc., know what is required and when.
Spikes
When resource needs vary markedly, a major increase is
called a spike. These indicate that a possible problem could exist. During this surge in resource needs, it may be
difficult to supply all requirements within the basic company structure
Constraints
Sometimes, two or more activities need the same resource
and there is not enough of that resource to satisfy both. By showing where this situation exists within the project plan, we can develop the best work around solution.
Resource Loading
Resource loading allows the project manager and team to
visualize what resources they are actually using to support the activities.
A total requirements profile for each resource is calculated by summing, period-by-period, requirements of that resource for all activities as they occur in the project plan.
The labor loading requirements for Project #1 is shown on a Gantt chart Project #1 Task Name I D Man Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Research A 45 15 15 15 Schedule B 5 5 Draft C 30 10 10 10 Graphics D 20 20 Pilot E 5 5 Revise F 20 10 10 Final Proof G 30 10 10 10 Totals 155 20 15 15 10 10 30 5 10 10 10 10 10
The same labor loading data is shown below on a bar graph. The bar graph has been labeled to show the activity I.D.
35 30 D 25 20 A 15 A A 10 C C C F F G G G 5 B E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Resource Leveling
Resource leveling is the process of manipulating activities in order to adjust the loading of resources.
We will look to reduce peak requirements by shifting some effort to non-peak periods.
The objective is to smooth resource usage requirements without delaying the project.
Project #1 Task Name I D Man Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Research A 45 15 15 15 Schedule B 5 5 Draft C 30 10 10 10 Graphics D 20 10 10 Pilot E 5 5 Revise F 20 10 10 Final Proof G 30 10 10 10 Totals 155 5 15 15 10 20 20 5 10 10 10 10 10
Modern day project planning software packages provide the project manager with the capability of trying various
combinations to level resources.
A major advantage of the project management discipline is project plan flexibility. With the computer, changes in both the resource allocation and the project schedule can be made with one keystroke.
Resource Leveling
By a simple adjustment, we were able to show "graphics" being done simultaneously with "draft".
Leveling reworks this project plan to use 2 people for 2 weeks (week #5 & #6), instead of 4 people for 1 week (week #6-previous bar graph), for I.D. D—graphics.
The result in this case is better labor distribution with no change in the project completion date.
Before
35 30 D 25 20 A 15 A A 10 C C C F F G G G 5 B E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12After
35 30 25 20 A D D 15 A A 10 C C C F F G G G 5 B E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Activity Duration, Sequencing, and Estimates
Takt Time
"Takt" is the German word for the baton that an orchestra
conductor uses to regulate the speed at which musicians play. In manufacturing terms, takt time is a calculated value based on customer demand. Takt time is the speed at which parts must be manufactured in order to satisfy demand, and it is the heartbeat of any lean system.
Example:
1. Determine the daily demand (order) volume. Let's say we have orders for 215 super widget units per day.
2. Determine the number of working minutes in a day. Say that we have an eight-hour day, with 30 minutes for lunch and two 10-minute breaks. This means we have (8 x 60)-30-10-10=430 minutes, or 430 minutes in a working day.
3. Divide the number of minutes by the number of products needed. In our current example, the calculation would be 430/215, which equals 2. This means that one unit must be manufactured every other minute in order to meet demand. Therefore the Takt time is 2 minutes.
Takt time is the goal. It must be reached to satisfy demand.
Cycle time is a measured value, not a calculated value as takt time is. In other words, you must go out to the floor, and measure the time it actually does take to manufacture the product.
Activity Duration, Sequencing, and Estimates
Takt Time Continued
When making time observations, it is important to measure both the total cycle time for each operator (how long the job takes from beginning to end), and the time of each of the component tasks that make up the cycle. The cycle cannot be improved without a detailed understanding of what makes it up, and often it is possible to reassign component tasks to rebalance the
operation.
After making the observations, draw out an Operator Loading Bar Chart to graphically express what is going on.
The horizontal axis on this bar chart represents operators, whose times are indicated by the use of stacked bars along the vertical axis, which is the time axis. Draw a thick red line across the chart to represent the takt time (two minutes, in this case); this makes it easy to tell at a glance whether any individual operator is
working within takt time, or exceeding it. Suppose that the six operators are producing one widget every two minutes, but that their cycle times look like this:
Activity Duration, Sequencing, and Estimates
Takt Time Continued
Widgets cannot be produced any faster than the slowest operator works so, in this case, we get one widget every two minutes, but the six operators are working for a total of 8 minutes to do it. Perhaps we observe enough waste in the work cycle to set a team goal for reducing the total cycle time from 8 to 6 minutes. To
determine the staffing of this line, we divide the new total cycle by the takt time: 6 ÷ 2 = 3 operators. Three operators would be sufficient, and the new bar chart would look like this:
Remember to work within the takt time, reassigning the three freed up operators to value-added tasks.
Scheduling Techniques
Gantt or Bar Charts Milestone Charts
Line of Balance Networks
PERT – Program Evaluation and Review Technique (1958) ADM - Arrow Diagram Method
CPM – Critical Path Method
PDM – Precedence Diagram Method
GERT – Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique
What is a Schedule?
A schedule is a timetable that acts as a roadmap for the successful implementation of a project.
Typically the project is broken into discrete activities. The
scheduler will determine the time to complete each activity and arrange these activities in sequential or overlapping order. It shows the project duration (defined by the critical path), non-critical activities (activities with float or leeway), and the delivery dates of key equipment and material.
By updating the schedule on a periodic basis (weekly, bi-weekly, monthly), the status of the project can be ascertained.
This would permit corrective actions to be taken to mitigate potential delays.
The schedule is also used as the key document in the resolution of delay claims and for the collection of historical data on the project.
How is a Schedule Developed?
The following are the steps used in developing a schedule: 1. Break the project down into discrete activities, i.e.
excavation, concrete foundations.
2. Quantify each activity, i.e. excavation: 3,000 C.Y. of soil, concrete foundations: 200 C.Y. of concrete.
3. Apply production rates to each activity to establish durations; i.e. at a placement rate of 200 C.Y./day, the duration of concrete foundations is one (1) work day. 4. Establish a work sequence (or predecessor/successor
relationships) between activities. Typically, this consists of asking the question: Which activities must be started or completed before a particular activity can start?
5. Develop a rough diagram of the schedule using the above information. From this point, the schedule calculations can either be done manually or by using a computer and a scheduling software program. The data input required for generating a computerized schedule are:
a. An activity number
b. A short and abbreviated description of the activity c. activity duration estimates in workdays
d. Identification of all successor or predecessor relationship between activities.
6. Perform schedule calculations and establish the critical path. 7. Examine the project duration, critical path, activity
durations, relationships and floats for accuracy, reasonableness and constructability.
8. Make the necessary corrections and refinements to the schedule.
What are Gantt Charts?
Gantt charts are bar graphs that help plan and monitor project development or resource allocation on a horizontal time scale.
Typically, Gantt charts indicate the relationship between tasks, planned and actual completion dates, cost of each task, the person or persons responsible for each task, and the milestones in a project's development.
Gantt charts are also used by supervisors and team leaders to schedule team members for various time dependent tasks such as visiting client companies for a sales organization or guard duty for the military. They can also show the activity load of departments or machines.
GANTT Charts
Basic Gantt Chart Shapes
Gantt bars indicate the duration of tasks.
Milestone markers signal a major turning point in the project such an approval meeting or the release of a
product. They can also mark the beginning and end of tasks.
Links lines show the relationship between two tasks, often
indicating that a task can only begin when another ends.
CPM or PERT CHARTS
The critical path method (CPM) was invented by project managers in the early 1950's. The US Navy adapted and improved it to
manage the Polaris missile project in the late 1950's. Naming the technique PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) the Defense, Aerospace, and other industries adopted the tool as the major project tool to this day.
This PERT chart shows the relationship between each activity, no activity can begin before its precedent activities are completed. The precedents are the activities that the arrows come from. The time (in days) for each activity is noted in its box.
These relationships create pathways through the process. Summing the times along each pathway gives the pathways length or duration. The longest pathway is the critical pathway; the critical pathway is the longest pathway in
the process. The process cannot end before the critical pathway ends.
PERT Charts also make a great "what if…" tool during pathway design. In fact, we advocate pathway design using PERT Charts. Post-it notes, 3 x 5 cards, project management software, or even chalkboards are all methods for capturing the flow and the data.
One last, technical, note. The difference between PERT and CPM is in the times for each activity or outcome. CPM simply takes the expected (usually average) time, PERT uses the best case,
expected case, and worst case estimates to calculate the duration:
Average Time = (Best Case + (4 x Expected Case) + Worst Case) / 6
This extends the possible analyses to explore Best Case vs.
Worst Case. Who are they? Why are they Best / Worst Case? Can (should) we create separate pathways for the three groups? How can we improve Worst Case scenarios? What can we learn from the Best Case scenarios?
