Notes in Civil Law Review 2
I. OBLIGATIONS
20% Midterm
30% quizzes and recitations 50% finals
Digest – Sales; starting with Sanchez v. Rigos
- 2 quizzes in oblicon
- Certification that the digest is complete and is in your own
handwriting - from 2
classmates
- - cases penned by justice
Azcuna - 2 quizzes OBLICON – Tolentino
Sales – Baviera
Partnership – Bautista
Common Law – general and ordinary law of a country/ community; unwritten law founded on memorial usage and natural justice and reason. Passive solidarity – not always one debtor; may/ may have 2 or more debtors/creditors.
When the fulfillment of the condition depends upon the sole will of the debtor, the conditional obligation shall be void – this is true only in resolutory conditions.
Alternative conditions – simple when
choice has already been
communicated! If not communicated
there is no consent.
Facultative conditions – is the choice always with the creditor?
Obligations:
Art. 1156. An obligation is a juridical necessity to give, to do or not to do. (n)
- it is a civil obligation because of
the phrase juridical necessity. Q: Does a creditor have a right under natural obligations?
A: Yes
Q: Suppose a promissory note was made:
1/2/93 I promise to pay B P1M
A
Is it civil or natural?
A: It may be civil or natural. Civil-within 10 years prescriptive period; natural-beyond ten years.
Q: If it was made beyond the prescriptive period, may it be considered a civil obligation?
A: Yes. If prescriptive period was interrupted or if no written demand was made. Only if demanded within the prescriptive period may it be due and demandable.
Q: Is consent one of the essential elements of obligations?
A: NO. It is true only with contracts.
Essential elements of obligation:
1. Active Subject – creditor/obligee Q: Is any kind of person subject to obligation?
A: Yes. Not only Natural persons but also juridical entities/persons. 2. Prestation – to give, to do, or not to do.
Q: Is it a thing?
A: No. It is the particular conduct of the debtor.
3. Juridical tie – vinculum juris
- that which binds the parties.
Q: When can there be a tie? What creates a tie?
A: when there is an existence of the source of obligation.
Sources of Obligation:
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
(1) Law; (2) Contracts; (3) Quasi-contracts;
(4) Acts or omissions punished by law; and (5) Quasi-delicts. (1089a) QUASI CONTRACTS: Kinds: 1.Nominate: a) solutio indebiti b) Negotiorum gestio 2. Innominate – Articles 2164-2175
SECTION 3. - Other Quasi-Contracts
Art. 2164. When, without the knowledge of the person obliged to give support, it is given by a stranger, the latter shall have a right to claim the same from the former, unless it appears that he gave it out of piety and without intention of being repaid. (1894a)
Art. 2165. When funeral expenses are borne by a third person, without the knowledge of those relatives who were obliged to give support to the deceased, said relatives shall reimburse the third person, should the latter claim reimbursement. (1894a) Art. 2166. When the person obliged to support an orphan, or an insane or other indigent person unjustly refuses to give support to the latter, any third person may furnish support to the needy individual, with right of reimbursement from the person obliged to give support. The provisions of this article apply when the father or mother of a child under eighteen years of age unjustly refuses to support him.
Art. 2167. When through an accident or other cause a person is injured or becomes seriously ill, and he is treated or helped while he is not in a condition to give consent to a contract, he shall be liable to pay for the services of the physician or other person aiding him, unless the service has been rendered out of pure generosity.
Art. 2168. When during a fire, flood, storm, or other calamity, property is saved from destruction by another person without the knowledge of the owner, the latter is bound to pay the former just compensation.
Art. 2169. When the government, upon the failure of any person to comply with health or safety regulations concerning property, undertakes to do the necessary work, even over his objection, he shall be liable to pay the expenses.
Art. 2170. When by accident or other fortuitous event, movables separately pertaining to two or more persons are commingled or confused, the rules on co-ownership shall be applicable. Art. 2171. The rights and obligations of the finder of lost personal property shall be governed by Articles 719 and 720.
Art. 2172. The right of every possessor in good faith to reimbursement for necessary and useful expenses is governed by Article 546.
Art. 2173. When a third person, without the knowledge of the debtor, pays the debt, the rights of the former are governed by Articles 1236 and 1237.
Art. 2174. When in a small community a nationality of the inhabitants of age decide upon a measure for protection against lawlessness, fire, flood, storm
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
or other calamity, any one who objects to the plan and refuses to contribute to the expenses but is benefited by the project as executed shall be liable to pay his share of said expenses.
Art. 2175. Any person who is constrained to pay the taxes of another shall be entitled to reimbursement from the latter.
certain lawful, unilateral act must concur. For negotiorum gestio- there must be abandonment. BAR EXAM QUESTION:
A bought a pack of cigar worth P225.00. He paid P375.00. What relationship was created?
A: Quasi contract; solutio indebiti Q: A had a fishpond. Lawless events forced to go to Manila and then Europe. B, who has in the business of buying and selling fish, realized that it was harvest time, harvested the fish and sold them to X. B borrowed money from Y in order to buy the fingerlings.
a. What Juridical relationship was created between A and B? A: Negotiorum gestio
b. What juridical relationship was created by A with respect to B and X?
A: to remit the sale of fish sold to X
c. A with respect to B and Y?
A: A must pay the loan to B because it was for the benefit of A. d. If A ratified the acts of B, what
will happen?
A: A shall be indebted to B
Q: Is innominate quasi contract exclusive?
A: No. Acts or omissions punishable by law.-> crimes and delicts.
felony is limited
only to the RPC. Requisites for it to arise:
There must be a conviction. Proof beyond reasonable doubt.
Q: Is there a crime where there is no civil liability?
A: Justifying Circumstances.
QUASI DELICT:
Quasi-delict = culpa aquiliana
- it is not culpa extra contractual or torts.
Culpa extra contractual includes: 1. contractual
2. Extra contractual – includes other sources under 1157.
Pineda would say that torts is not quasi-delict because torts include malicious and negligent acts.
Atty. Uribe does not agree with him. Torts is the same as quasi delict. Art. 2177. Responsibility for fault or negligence under the preceding article is entirely separate and distinct from
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
the civil liability arising from negligence under the Penal Code. But the plaintiff cannot recover damages twice for the same act or omission of the defendant. (n)
Cangco v. Manila Railroad (18 Phil 768)
Q: What were the defendant's defenses?
A: plaintiff was negligent; defendant exercised due diligence in selecting its employees. (not a good defense. It is raised only in quasi delict.MRR’s liability was based on contract of carriage.)
Q: Was it the negligence of Cangco? A: No. the proximate cause was the bulk of watermelon. It was dimly lighted. There is negligence considering the person, time and place.
Gutierrez v. Gutierrez (56 Phil 177)
- there were 5 defendants. 3 were held liable. The mother and child were not held liable.
Q: A obliged himself the following to B: a. to give a refrigerator, model 123; b. an 18 inch TV set; c. fix piano of B. A failed to perform any. What are the remedies?
A: Determine first the nature of the thing to be delivered whether determinate or indeterminate:
a.
determinate/specific(ref)-specific performance plus damages.
b. Generic (TV) – to have
another person perform at the expense of the debtor.
c. Service (to do) –
damages;involuntary servitude.
Generic – depends on the purpose and circumstances.
July 7, 2007 (7/7/07)
Compliance of Obligation; specific obligation of the debtor; different kinds of obligation – joint solidary. July 10 and 28 -make up class Compliance – determine the kind of obligation; determine the purpose. BAR EXAM QUESTION:
There was an obligation on the part of A to deliver mangoes on july 1, 2006, 6 months after agreement with B. One month before delivery, A sold to the fruit to X. Can B recover the fruits from X?
A: No. B has no real rights over the fruits since it was not delivered to him. KINDS OF OBLIGATIONS AS TO
PERFECTION AND EXTINGUISHMENT: Q: promissory note:
1/2/93
I promise to pay B P1M
A What kind of obligation?
A: Pure Obligation even if suspensive or postestative condition, the debtor may be
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 compelled if there is a pre existing condition. Impossible Conditions:
If with a term – shall annul condition If without a term – it is void
If negative impossible – valid condition
Art. 1187. The effects of a conditional obligation to give, once the condition has been fulfilled, shall retroact to the day of the constitution of the obligation. Nevertheless, when the obligation imposes reciprocal prestations upon the parties, the fruits and interests during the pendency of the condition shall be deemed to have been mutually compensated. If the obligation is unilateral, the debtor shall appropriate the fruits and interests received, unless from the nature and circumstances of the obligation it should be inferred that the intention of the person constituting the same was different.
Reciprocal – sale Unilateral – donation
Q: A obliged himself to B to deliver a thing on September 2005, after they agreed in January 2003. A however delivered it to in April of 2003. Who has a better right? What about C? A: B has a better right. C will have a better right if he acted in good faith. * with regard to improvements, if voluntarily made by the debtor, no other right than usufructuary. BAR EXAM QUESTION:
Q: A borrowed P1M from B payable at the end of the year; A delivered a car as stipulated, B may use the car. On August 1, A offered to pay P1M, can B be compelled to accept P1M?
A: It depends on whose benefit the term was constituted. If for the benefit
of both parties, there may be no compulsion. If for the benefit of the debtor, creditor may be compelled to accept.
Instances for the benefit of the debtor:
1. on or before 2. Not later than 3. within ___ mos.
Q: A borrowed from B P1M, payable at the end of the year. August 1, creditor demanded a mortgage constituted on the house of A. No mortgage was delivered. On Aug.16, can creditor demand? When?
A: When he loses the right to make use of the period. If debtor has promised, in this case the debtor did not promise anything.
Q: If insolvent, will he lose his right? A: No, if he furnishes a guaranty which is acceptable to the creditor.
Q: How will he be insolvent?
A: by giving one or more of his property.
Q: What if he has no assets? A: third person may guarantee.
Art. 1198. The debtor shall lose every right to make use of the period: (1) When after the obligation has been contracted, he becomes insolvent, unless he gives a guaranty or security for the debt;
(2) When he does not furnish to the creditor the guaranties or securities which he has promised;
(3) When by his own acts he has impaired said guaranties or securities after their establishment, and when through a fortuitous event they
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
disappear, unless he immediately gives new ones equally satisfactory; (4) When the debtor violates any undertaking, in consideration of which the creditor agreed to the period; (5) When the debtor attempts to abscond. (1129a)
Lim v. People (133 SCRA 333)
-> merely an agent; 1197 is not applicable. Period “as soon as sold”
Millares v. Hernando (151 SCRA 484)
-> 1197 is not applicable.
Art. 1197. If the obligation does not fix a period, but from its nature and the circumstances it can be inferred that a period was intended, the courts may fix the duration thereof.
The courts shall also fix the duration of the period when it depends upon the will of the debtor.
In every case, the courts shall determine such period as may under the circumstances have been probably contemplated by the parties. Once fixed by the courts, the period cannot be changed by them. (1128a)
AS TO PLURALITY OF
PRESTATION:
SECTION 3. - Alternative Obligations
Art. 1199. A person alternatively bound by different prestations shall completely perform one of them.
The creditor cannot be compelled to receive part of one and part of the other undertaking. (1131)
Art. 1200. The right of choice belongs to the debtor, unless it has been expressly granted to the creditor. The debtor shall have no right to choose those prestations which are impossible, unlawful or which could not have been the object of the obligation. (1132)
Art. 1201. The choice shall produce no effect except from the time it has been communicated. (1133)
Art. 1202. The debtor shall lose the right of choice when among the prestations whereby he is alternatively bound, only one is practicable. (1134) Art. 1203. If through the creditor's acts the debtor cannot make a choice according to the terms of the obligation, the latter may rescind the contract with damages. (n)
Art. 1204. The creditor shall have a right to indemnity for damages when, through the fault of the debtor, all the things which are alternatively the object of the obligation have been lost, or the compliance of the obligation has become impossible.
The indemnity shall be fixed taking as a basis the value of the last thing which disappeared, or that of the service which last became impossible. Damages other than the value of the last thing or service may also be awarded. (1135a)
Art. 1205. When the choice has been expressly given to the creditor, the obligation shall cease to be alternative from the day when the selection has been communicated to the debtor.
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 Until then the responsibility of the
debtor shall be governed by the following rules:
(1) If one of the things is lost through a fortuitous event, he shall perform the obligation by delivering that which the creditor should choose from among the remainder, or that which remains if only one subsists;
(2) If the loss of one of the things occurs through the fault of the debtor, the creditor may claim any of those subsisting, or the price of that which, through the fault of the former, has disappeared, with a right to damages;
(3) If all the things are lost through the fault of the debtor, the choice by the creditor shall fall upon the price of any one of them, also with indemnity for damages.
The same rules shall be applied to obligations to do or not to do in case one, some or all of the prestations should become impossible. (1136a) Art. 1206. When only one prestation has been agreed upon, but the obligor may render another in substitution, the obligation is called facultative. The loss or deterioration of the thing intended as a substitute, through the negligence of the obligor, does not render him liable. But once the substitution has been made, the obligor is liable for the loss of the substitute on account of his delay, negligence or fraud. (n)
a) alternative b) facultative
c) conjunctive – 2 or more prestations which shall be complied with. Example: I promise to __,__,and ___ (conjunctive) I promise to __,__,or ___ (alternative)
In conjunctive and facultative, no choice is made.
In alternative, choice is with debtor unless:
Art. 1205. When the choice has been expressly given to the creditor, the obligation shall cease to be alternative from the day when the selection has been communicated to the debtor. * choice must be communicated. (relevant if one of the prestation was lost)
1. if fault of debtor after communication – debtor is liable. 2. if loss happened before communication due to fortuitous event – debtor may still choose from the remaining.
IF FAULT WAS DUE TO ONE OF THE PARTIES; MAKE A DISTINCTION, WHO HAS AT FAULT AND WHO HAS THE CHOICE:
1. Choice of debtor; fault of creditor. - debtor may choose from those remaining or debtor may opt to rescind the obligation.
2. Choice of creditor; fault of debtor. - creditor may opt to choose from those remaining or that value of which was lost plus damages.
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 Example:
Choice of debtor, first prestations were lost due to his fault, only one is left and yet was lost through fortuitous event.
- debtor can’t be held liable.
In alternative, if all prestations were lost due to the fault of the debtor?
➔ depends on who has the right to choose:
1. if debtor: value of last prestation plus damages.
2. if creditor’s choice: anything of those lost plus damages.
In Facultative: involves 2 or more prestations but only one is due.
- if one is lost, depends if there
was a communication.
Tolentino: if debtor destroys the substitute, it doesn’t matter.
Q: What if debtor refuses to make a choice?
A: Creditor file an action in the alternative.
Final exams/ midterms (might be asked)
In July 1, 2003, A and B entered into an agreement. When it fell due, B failed to fulfill and was in delay. (Sir said that he is not in delay, because there was no demand.)
Q: When can debtor make a choice of the substitution?
A: He can make a choice even before it becomes due and demandable.
Facultative vs. Penal clause (there should be non-compliance.)
AS TO THE RIGHTS AND OBLIGATION OF MULTIPLE PARTIES:
SECTION 4. - Joint and Solidary Obligations
Art. 1207. The concurrence of two or more creditors or of two or more debtors in one and the same obligation does not imply that each one of the former has a right to demand, or that each one of the latter is bound to render, entire compliance with the prestation. There is a solidary liability only when the obligation expressly so states, or when the law or the nature of the obligation requires solidarity. (1137a)
Art. 1208. If from the law, or the nature or the wording of the obligations to which the preceding article refers the contrary does not appear, the credit or debt shall be presumed to be divided into as many shares as there are creditors or debtors, the credits or debts being considered distinct from one another, subject to the Rules of Court governing the multiplicity of suits. (1138a)
Art. 1209. If the division is impossible, the right of the creditors may be prejudiced only by their collective acts, and the debt can be enforced only by proceeding against all the debtors. If one of the latter should be insolvent, the others shall not be liable for his share. (1139)
Art. 1210. The indivisibility of an obligation does not necessarily give rise to solidarity. Nor does solidarity of itself imply indivisibility. (n)
Art. 1211. Solidarity may exist although the creditors and the debtors may not be bound in the same
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
manner and by the same periods and conditions. (1140)
Art. 1212. Each one of the solidary creditors may do whatever may be useful to the others, but not anything which may be prejudicial to the latter. (1141a)
Art. 1213. A solidary creditor cannot assign his rights without the consent of the others. (n)
Art. 1214. The debtor may pay any one of the solidary creditors; but if any demand, judicial or extrajudicial, has been made by one of them, payment should be made to him. (1142a)
Art. 1215. Novation, compensation, confusion or remission of the debt, made by any of the solidary creditors or with any of the solidary debtors, shall extinguish the obligation, without prejudice to the provisions of Article 1219.
The creditor who may have executed any of these acts, as well as he who collects the debt, shall be liable to the others for the share in the obligation corresponding to them. (1143)
Art. 1216. The creditor may proceed against any one of the solidary debtors or some or all of them simultaneously. The demand made against one of them shall not be an obstacle to those which may subsequently be directed against the others, so long as the debt has not been fully collected. (1144a)
Art. 1217. Payment made by one of the solidary debtors extinguishes the obligation. If two or more solidary debtors offer to pay, the creditor may choose which offer to accept.
He who made the payment may claim from his co-debtors only the share which corresponds to each, with the
interest for the payment already made. If the payment is made before the debt is due, no interest for the intervening period may be demanded. When one of the solidary debtors cannot, because of his insolvency, reimburse his share to the debtor paying the obligation, such share shall be borne by all his co-debtors, in proportion to the debt of each. (1145a)
Art. 1218. Payment by a solidary debtor shall not entitle him to reimbursement from his co-debtors if such payment is made after the obligation has prescribed or become illegal. (n)
Art. 1219. The remission made by the creditor of the share which affects one of the solidary debtors does not release the latter from his responsibility towards the co-debtors, in case the debt had been totally paid by anyone of them before the remission was effected. (1146a) Art. 1220. The remission of the whole obligation, obtained by one of the solidary debtors, does not entitle him to reimbursement from his co-debtors. (n)
Art. 1221. If the thing has been lost or if the prestation has become impossible without the fault of the solidary debtors, the obligation shall be extinguished.
If there was fault on the part of any one of them, all shall be responsible to the creditor, for the price and the payment of damages and interest, without prejudice to their action against the guilty or negligent debtor. If through a fortuitous event, the thing is lost or the performance has become impossible after one of the solidary debtors has incurred in delay through the judicial or extrajudicial demand
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
upon him by the creditor, the provisions of the preceding paragraph shall apply. (1147a)
Art. 1222. A solidary debtor may, in actions filed by the creditor, avail himself of all defenses which are derived from the nature of the obligation and of those which are personal to him, or pertain to his own share. With respect to those which personally belong to the others, he may avail himself thereof only as regards that part of the debt for which the latter are responsible. (1148a)
1. Joint obligation 2. Solidary obligation
In the exams if A, B and C are debtors and X and Y are creditors, and it speaks of solidarity, presume solidarity on both sides.
BAR EXAM QUESTION:
Q: A and B obliged themselves to deliver 1thousand pesos worth of specific sacks of rice to X and Y. What is the type of obligation?
A: It is a joint obligation unless there is a stipulation; the law requires it; the nature of the obligation requires it. Q: B delivered entire 1 thousand pesos to X, can Y compel B to deliver?
A: Yes. Because the obligation is joint. Solidary:
1. Joint and several. 2. jointly and severally. Ronquillo v. CA (132 SCRA 274)
“individually and jointly, respectively, collectively and distinctively.”
In promissory note: I promise to pay A and B (solidary).
We promise to pay. (solidary) If simple “We” – joint
Solidary liability examples: LAW
Solution indebiti, crimes, negotiorum gestio. In agency read b.solidary on the on the outline, 1823-1824-> tortuous act of one of the parties. Art. 1823. The partnership is bound to make good the loss:
(1) Where one partner acting within the scope of his apparent authority receives money or property of a third person and misapplies it; and (2) Where the partnership in the course of its business receives money or property of a third person and the money or property so received is misapplied by any partner while it is in the custody of the partnership. (n)
Art. 1824. All partners are liable solidarily with the partnership for everything chargeable to the partnership under Articles 1822 and 1823. (n)
NATURE OF THE OBLIGATION WHICH REQUIRES SOLIDARITY:
Example:
1. Liability arising from human
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
Art. 2194. The responsibility of two or more persons who are liable for quasi-delict is solidary.
2. Decisions of the Supreme
Court which became final. Liwanag v. WCC Computations: Joint obligations P120 A X B C Y -> X may demand P60
If X demands from A, A is to pay only P20.
Mixed Solidarity
X may demand 120 from any of them.
What if there was an agreement? A = ½; B = ¼; C =1/4; X = ¾ ; Y = ¼ A: If joint- X with respect to A can demand 45;
Q: If mixed:
A: X= 90; Y = 30; X may demand P22.50 from A.
Passive solidarity:
No agreement – debtors are solidarily bound. X may demand 60 from A. If there is an agreement: X may demand from A- 45, B and C- 22.50.
Active Solidarity:
Creditor solidarily bound. X can demand from A = 40; if Y receives 40, he should give 20 to X.
If there is an agreement: X may demand 45 from A and Y may demand 15 from A.
In a joint obligation if A paid the whole 120, he cannot claim reimbursement from B and C unless he proves that they have been benefited. There was payment to the wrong party.
Solidary:
Q: A demanded payment from X, can Y still collect?
A: No. the payment of one debtor extinguishes the obligation.
Q: In joint, C became insolvent, how much can X demand from A?
A: Still P20. Insolvency shall not increase the debt of joint debtors. Q: if X remitted entire obligation in favor of A, can Y still collect from B and C?
A: Yes.
Q: If solidary, C became insolvent, how much can X demand?
A: 120. The share of 1 solidary debtor shall be shouldered by other solidary debtors.
Q: If A was compelled to pay X, how much can A recover?
A: From B=P60
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 Q: X condones share of A and
demanded payment from B. How much can B pay?
A: P80
Q: If after condonation C was already insolvent, how much can B recover from A?
A: Having paid 80, B shall recover 20, even if remitted, it does not exempt if one is insolvent.
EFFECT OF DISMISSAL OF ACTION
Q: X and Y filed a case against A, however it was dismissed. Y filed a case again. Will his action prosper? A: it depends if joint or solidary.
Q: If joint: If reason is prescription, Y still files, may it prosper?
A: Yes. The debts are separate and distinct in joint. Action shall not inure to X.
Q: If the ground is subject to different conditions?
A: Yes. The debts are separate and distinct in joint. Action shall not inure to X.
Q: If ground is minority. May it prosper?
A: No, it is an absolute defense.
Q: If dismissed because contract is void, will it prosper?
A: No.
Q: if solidary?
A: No. The demand of one creditor inures to the benefit of other creditors. BAR EXAMINATION QUESTION:
Q: Four medical students rented an apartment. They agreed for the payment of utilities. Before the lease contract ended, 3 of the 4 went back to their country. They have unpaid telephone bills worth 100k, can the one left pay only P25?
A: Yes. It is presumed to be a joint obligation as provided in Article 1207.
Art. 1207. The concurrence of two or more creditors or of two or more debtors in one and the same obligation does not imply that each one of the former has a right to demand, or that each one of the latter is bound to render, entire compliance with the prestation. There is a solidary liability only when the obligation expressly so states, or when the law or the nature of the obligation requires solidarity. (1137a)
DISJUNCTIVE
1. A will pay P120 either to X or Y 2. A or B will pay X
Q: If X demands payment, A paid Y, can X still demand payment from A? Who has the right to choose?
A: Depends on the agreement. Q: What if there is no agreement? A: Tolentino- should be treated like solidary. Payment should be made to the solidary creditor who demanded first.
* Sir does not agree! Rules on alternative obligation should govern because under the law solidarity is not presumed hence disjunctive is not one of it.
NEXT MEETING TUESDAY! July 24, 2007
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 Q: Corporation promised to deliver
furniture set to A. they agreed that in case of non compliance, a penalty of 100 thousand pesos must be paid. The corporation delivered furniture set which is different, instead of Narra. Buyer is asking for 300 thousand pesos as damages and 100 thousand for the penalty. Is this claim tenable? A: UP Law Center: It is not tenable. The penalty is the substitute for damages.
Alternative answer: Yes, he may claim for damages because there was fraud committed.
PENAL CLAUSE – provides for greater liability.
Robes-Francisco v. CFI 86 SCRA 59
The supreme court ruled that the 4% stipulation is not a penal clause. Even without such stipulation, corporation is still liable to pay 6% based on Article 2209.
Art. 2209. If the obligation consists in the payment of a sum of money, and the debtor incurs in delay, the indemnity for damages, there being no stipulation to the contrary, shall be the payment of the interest agreed upon, and in the absence of stipulation, the legal interest, which is six per cent per annum. (1108)
Bachrach v. Espiritu 52 PHIL 346
Facts: There was a sale of 2 trucks with interest of 12% for the unpaid portion and a penalty of 25%.
Held: Parties expressly stipulated the payment of interest hence liable, the penalty was reduced to 10% because there was partial performance; usurious.
* no need to present proof of damages as long as there is breach of the obligation.
Q: May the aggrieved party be able to compel the other party to pay penalty plus performance?
A: The general rule is they may not, however if it is clearly granted, they may.
Illustration: A construction of a building which has a penalty of 10 thousand pesos per day if not completed on the agreed day, plus performance was agreed upon.
Q: Debtor offered his car instead of paying the penalty. May a debtor compel creditor to accept penalty instead of car.
A: General rule: No; Exception: Unless expressly reserved.
Q: If the principal is void, will it follow that the accessory is void?
A: General Rule: Yes
Exception: if the basis is the nullity of the obligation there can be a penalty. Example:Foreigners who contracted Filipinos usually penalty is provided in case contract is declared void. In this case the nullity of the principal does not affect the penalty.
BREACH OF OBLIGATION:
Q: Who can be held liable?
A: Those who are enumerated in Article 1170; hence, anyone.
Art. 1170. Those who in the performance of their obligations are guilty of fraud, negligence, or delay, and those who in any manner
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
contravene the tenor thereof, are liable for damages. (1101)
FRAUD:
1. Fraud in contract – art. 1338
Art. 1338. There is fraud when, through insidious words or machinations of one of the contracting parties, the other is induced to enter into a contract which, without them, he would not have agreed to. (1269)
2. Causal fraud – dolo causante in contracts; voidable.
3. Incidental fraud – dolo incidente
Art. 1170. Those who in the performance of their obligations are guilty of fraud, negligence, or delay, and those who in any manner contravene the tenor thereof, are liable for damages. (1101)
- if obligation is monetary in character for example, P1M, it is interest by way of damages.
Compensatory damages – expressly stipulated in writing.
Q: Is article 1170 by way of dolo? A: No. Better term is bad faith or malice. The phrase “in any manner” covers not only fraud but also negligence and delay.
WAIVER of future fraud is void:
- consider the dated when waiver
was made, and date when the fraudulent act happened.
NEGLIGENCE (memorize)
Art. 1173. The fault or negligence of the obligor consists in the omission of that diligence which is required by the nature of the obligation and corresponds with the circumstances of the persons, of the time and of the place. When negligence shows bad faith, the provisions of Articles 1171 and 2201, paragraph 2, shall apply. If the law or contract does not state the diligence which is to be observed in the performance, that which is expected of a good father of a family shall be required. (1104a)
- depends on the circumstances,
time and place.
- Degree of diligence: that of a good father of a family unless the law or the stipulations provide otherwise.
Q: May a waiver of future negligence be considered void.
A: Yes. Gross negligence is equivalent to fraud.
Telefast v. Castro 158 SCRA 445
The negligence in this case was considered gross in character.
DELAY:
“Mora”; non-fulfillment with respect to time.
- no delay in obligation not to do.
(obviously!)
Effects of delay:
1. If determinate thing to deliver, there was a fortuitous event – the obligor is still liable.
BAR EXAM QUESTION:
Q: A and B entered into a lease agreement over certain machineries. B
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 was to open a car repair shop. On
February 15, they agreed that the machineries will be leased for one month. On March 15, the lessor demanded return of the machineries. Because the truck of B had a problem, the machineries were not returned. Is B liable?
A: No, B is not liable. There were only 28 days. An agreement of 1 month is 30 days.
*As a rule there has to be a demand. *Demand need not be in writing; It is different from demand to interrupt the prescriptive period.
Art. 1169. Those obliged to deliver or to do something incur in delay from the time the obligee judicially or extrajudicially demands from them the fulfillment of their obligation.
However, the demand by the creditor shall not be necessary in order that delay may exist:
(1) When the obligation or the law expressly so declare; or (2) When from the nature and the circumstances of the obligation it appears that the designation of the time when the thing is to be delivered or the service is to be rendered was a controlling motive for the establishment of the contract; or
(3) When demand would be useless, as when the obligor has rendered it beyond his power to perform.
In 1169 – no demand is needed. 1. by law – eg. Payment of tax,
agency. 2. Stipulation
3. When period is the controlling motive. Ex. Wedding.
4. Demand would be useless due to the of the debtor.
In reciprocal obligations, neither party incurs in delay if the other does not comply or is not ready to comply in a proper manner with what is incumbent upon him. From the moment one of the parties fulfills his obligation, delay by the other begins. (1100a)
Reciprocal obligations:
- arise from the same transaction. Example: Contract of sale.
1169 – should apply only if both are already due and demandable upon establishment or at the same time. Agcaoili v. GSIS 165 SCRA 1
- if both in delay, no right of recission.
Art. 1174. Except in cases expressly specified by the law, or when it is otherwise declared by stipulation, or when the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk, no person shall be responsible for those events which could not be foreseen, or which, though foreseen, were inevitable. (1105a)
- it is the happening of a
fortuitous event. It applies to any kind of obligation.
In obligation to give, Article 1262 applies:
Art. 1262. An obligation which consists in the delivery of a determinate thing shall be extinguished if it should be lost or destroyed without the fault of the debtor, and before he has incurred in delay.
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
When by law or stipulation, the obligor is liable even for fortuitous events, the loss of the thing does not extinguish the obligation, and he shall be responsible for damages. The same rule applies when the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk. (1182a)
In Article 1165, even if obligation became impossible due to Fortuitous event, debtor is still liable.
Art. 1165. When what is to be delivered is a determinate thing, the creditor, in addition to the right granted him by Article 1170, may compel the debtor to make the delivery.
If the thing is indeterminate or generic, he may ask that the obligation be complied with at the expense of the debtor.
If the obligor delays, or has promised to deliver the same thing to two or more persons who do not have the same interest, he shall be responsible for any fortuitous event until he has effected the delivery. (1096)
- promise to deliver to two or more persons, the debtor is still liable. In Napocor v. CA (161
SCRA 344), to be excused there should be no concurring negligence.
BAR EXAM QUESTION:
Q: A ring was delivered to a jewelry shop for cleaning. After a week, the ring was not yet cleaned. Thereafter, the ring was lost due to robbery. Is the jewelry shop liable?
A: Yes. Before the fortuitous event, the jewelry shop was already in delay.
REMEDIES FOR BREACH:
A. Extra judicial – principal remedy, expressly granted by law. - 1191. It can be invoked aside from other remedy. Art.1381 is only a subsidiary remedy.
Art. 1191. The power to rescind obligations is implied in reciprocal ones, in case one of the obligors should not comply with what is incumbent upon him.
The injured party may choose between the fulfillment and the rescission of the obligation, with the payment of damages in either case. He may also seek rescission, even after he has chosen fulfillment, if the latter should become impossible. The court shall decree the rescission claimed, unless there be just cause authorizing the fixing of a period. This is understood to be without prejudice to the rights of third persons who have acquired the thing, in accordance with Articles 1385 and 1388 and the Mortgage Law. (1124) Art. 1381. The following contracts are rescissible:
(1) Those which are entered into by guardians whenever the wards whom they represent suffer lesion by more than one-fourth of the value of the things which are the object thereof;
(2) Those agreed upon in representation of absentees, if the latter suffer the lesion stated in the preceding number;
(3) Those undertaken in fraud of creditors when the latter cannot in any other manner collect the claims due them;
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
(4) Those which refer to things under litigation if they have been entered into by the defendant without the knowledge and approval of the litigants or of competent judicial authority;
(5) All other contracts specially declared by law to be subject to rescission. (1291a)
If court declared the act as rescissory, it will retroact from the time notice was given to the other party.
Q: Why is there a need to file a rescission with the courts when it can be extrajudicial?
A: Because a party cannot take the law in his own hands especially if there is recovery needed.
UP v. de los Angeles (35 SCRA 102)
- there can be unilateral decision provided it is agreed upon.
BAR EXAMINATION QUESTION
Q: A sold a parcel of land to B for P1M, B paid 100 thousand as down payment. Vendor will be liable for eviction of squatters, balance to be paid 30 days after eviction, if squatters are still there for 6 months buyer should return the money.
During the 6th month period, the price
of the land was doubled. Seller offered to return the 100 thousand pesos. Buyer refused and offered to pay the balance and asked seller to sign. Seller filed an action for rescission. Is the action proper? A: No. The seller was not the aggrieved party. Rescission as a remedy maybe invoked only by the aggrieved party.
UFC v. CA (33 SCRA 1)
1. Only those who have complied
with their obligation or at least ready to comply.
2. Violation must be substantial/fundamental in character.
There was no showing that Mafran had exhausted all the remedies available. SC: rescission is under 1191 not 1381.
Q: If obligation becomes impossible, what is the remedy?
A: Rescission. If already rescinded, he can no longer demand for the fulfillment.
Magdalena Estate v. Myrick (71 Phil 344)
Myrick was able to recover because there was no stipulation as to forfeiture.
Other extrajudicial remedies: Rights of unpaid seller:
Art. 1526. Subject to the provisions of this Title, notwithstanding that the ownership in the goods may have passed to the buyer, the unpaid seller of goods, as such, has:
(1) A lien on the goods or right to retain them for the price while he is in possession of them;
(2) In case of the insolvency of the buyer, a right of stopping the goods in transitu after he has parted with the possession of them;
(3) A right of resale as limited by this Title;
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
(4) A right to rescind the sale as likewise limited by this Title. Where the ownership in the goods has not passed to the buyer, the unpaid seller has, in addition to his other remedies a right of withholding delivery similar to and coextensive with his rights of lien and stoppage in transitu where the ownership has passed to the buyer. (n)
B. Judicial Remedies:
a.) Principal remedies – specific performance
Q: In obligation to do, is substitute performance allowed?
A: It depends. If personal qualification was stipulated.
If no specific performance, it amounts to involuntary servitude.
Q: If obligation was to do and obligation was poorly done.
A: Art. 1167. If a person obliged to do
something fails to do it, the same shall be executed at his cost.
This same rule shall be observed if he does it in contravention of the tenor of the obligation. Furthermore, it may be decreed that what has been poorly done be undone. (1098)
b.) Subsidiary remedies
1. accion pauliana – to be discussed in rescissible contracts.
2. accion subrogatoria – creditor may be subrogated to the right of the debtor as to 3rd persons.
- pertains to obligation to give; monetary obligation. It does not
pertain to purely personal right. Example: acts of agency.
Q: What is the extent of liability? A: 2236, applies to present and future property.
Art. 2236. The debtor is liable with all his property, present and future, for the fulfillment of his obligations, subject to the exemptions provided by law. (1911a)
- If a person is judicially declared
to be insolvent, when he inherits, the future property is exempt.
Family Home: May be a subject for tax
nonpayment, creditors for
construction, claim of laborers and mortgagee. (Rules of Court rule 39, sec.13)
MODES OF EXTINGUISHMENT – Article 1231
Art. 1231. Obligations are extinguished:
(1) By payment or performance:
(2) By the loss of the thing due:
(3) By the condonation or remission of the debt;
(4) By the confusion or merger of the rights of creditor and debtor;
(5) By compensation; (6) By novation.
Other causes of extinguishment of obligations, such as annulment, rescission, fulfillment of a resolutory condition, and prescription, are
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
governed elsewhere in this Code. (1156a)
- It presupposes that there is an
existing valid obligation.
Recission – principal remedy is under article 1191.
Art. 1191. The power to rescind obligations is implied in reciprocal ones, in case one of the obligors should not comply with what is incumbent upon him.
The injured party may choose between the fulfillment and the rescission of the obligation, with the payment of damages in either case. He may also seek rescission, even after he has chosen fulfillment, if the latter should become impossible. The court shall decree the rescission claimed, unless there be just cause authorizing the fixing of a period. This is understood to be without prejudice to the rights of third persons who have acquired the thing, in accordance with Articles 1385 and 1388 and the Mortgage Law. (1124)
Extinctive prescription – conversion of civil to natural.
Q: Are thes modes exclusive?
A: No! In Saura v. DBP, there was a mutual dissent. This also considered as a mode. The Supreme Court said that there was a perfected consensual contract of loan. (mutuum)
Q: Aside from it, what are the other modes?
A: Death - To the extent of personal obligation to do. It does not extinguish property rights. Eg. Agency – death of an agent; Partnership – death of a partner.
Q: Fulfillment of resolutory condition in 1231 pertains to?
A: Happening of a resolutory condition.
- will of one of the parties in contracts as a general rule does not extinguish obligation.
- Exception: contracts involving
trust and confidence.
Partnership without prejudice to the possible liability of partner causing dissolution. Q: Is happening of a fortuitous event a mode of extinguishment?
A: Fortuitous events are not modes of extinguishment. Only results to loss of the thing due.
- Insolvency per se is not a mode
of extinguishment, there must be a judicial declaration.
Q: What about renunciation by the creditor?
A: Not necessarily. If it is gratuitous, it
would fall under
condonation/remission. If for a consideration, it falls under novation. Q: Compromise?
A: It may. But it would fall under one of those mentioned by law; common result reduction of obligation which falls under condonation; if it would fall under a totally new obligation, it is novation.
1. PAYMENT
- synonymous with performance.
- May apply to all kinds of
obligation. Rules:
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 b) As to whom payment is made.
c) Prestation in obligation. d) Date, time and place.
a) person who pays.
- Should be called payor, not only
debtor, because third persons may pay.
- Not every person under the
NCC can compel a person to pay except those who have an interest and those who by virtue of stipulation.
Eg. A is indebted to B. X is a 3rd
person.
Q: Who are those who have interest? A: Joint debtors have interest in the fulfillment of the entire obligation, those who are subsidiary liable. (guarantors, mortgagors, pledgors.) Q: If a third person pays, if he has interest, what happens?
A: Subrogation.
- If X is a guarantor, Y is a mortgagor who secured debt, Y pays, he shall be subrogated to the rights of B and can exercise right of a creditor.
- if X pays B, obligation of A to B
is extinguished but accessory
obligations are not
extinguished. It subsists that is why X can still foreclose the mortgage.
Q: A is indebted to B. X pays 100 thousand to B for A’s debt. Does A have a right to recover from A and can he have a right of foreclosure?
A: It depends. If A consented, he has the right.
Q: If before X pays, A partially paid 20 thousand, X paid entire 100 thousand,
how much can Y ask for reimbursement?
A: Only 80 thousand, that which redounded to the benefit of A.
Q: If X pays without the knowledge of A, can he compel A to pay?
A: No. He is not subrogated to the rights of B, hence he cannot foreclose the mortgage.
“consented” – means debtor failed to object at a reasonable time.
Q: X had agreement with B without knowledge of A, can he recover the payment made?
A: As long as payment was without knowledge, third person shall not be subrogated to the rights of the creditor. (1236-1237)
Art. 1236. The creditor is not bound to accept payment or performance by a third person who has no interest in the fulfillment of the obligation, unless there is a stipulation to the contrary. Whoever pays for another may demand from the debtor what he has paid, except that if he paid without the knowledge or against the will of the debtor, he can recover only insofar as the payment has been beneficial to the debtor. (1158a) Art. 1237. Whoever pays on behalf of the debtor without the knowledge or against the will of the latter, cannot compel the creditor to subrogate him in his rights, such as those arising from a mortgage, guaranty, or penalty. (1159a)
Q: X paid B without any intention of being reimbursed. What if X demanded the return after one week? A: Indirect Donation. As far as payment, it is valid and binding.
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 - Payor must have the capacity to
alienate the thing or has free disposal.
b.) as to the person to whom payment is made.
- called payee; normally the creditor. CASE: Arañas v. Tutaan
- creditor does not have to be a party. A creditor may be any person who has the right to compel the performance.
Eg. A is indebted to B. But the real payment should be given to Y; even if A pays B, Y can still compel A to pay.
- there is also payment to a
person authorize to receive payment; the law may provide. Eg. Payment to a sheriff, executors and administrators. Q: May payment to a wrong person extinguish obligation?
A: Gen. rule: No! Except: 1. if payment redounded to the benefit of B. Otherwise, obligation is not extinguished.
Q: Who has the burden to prove? A: No need to prove if: 1. it was ratified by the creditor; 2. principle of estoppel; 3. if the person to whom payment made acquired rights of creditor after the payment.
Q: Are there any more exceptions? A: Yes. If payment was made in good faith to a person in possession of the credit, not a mere possession of the instrument.
Q: X (in possession of PN) demanded payment from A when the promissory note became due and demandable, A paid x in good faith.
A: Obligation is extinguished.
Q: A is indebted to B. However, B dies and is survived by Y. Even if A paid Y, can it be invalidated?
A: Yes. If the payment was not made in good faith, such as when there is a pending action to declare Y incapacitated.
Q: A is indebted to B. B assigned the credit to X. May it extinguish the assignment?
A: Yes.
c.)Prestation in obligation
- identity of the obligation; consider the purpose.
General Rule: A partial performance is non-compliance.
Except:
1. The parties expressly stipulate.
- Subject to different terms – integrity of the prestation. Rescission is not a remedy if
there is substantial
performance. Case: JM Tuason v. Javier
A obligated himself to deliver 100 sacks to B for 1000 pesos. He only delivered 95.
Q: How much can he recover?
A: Amount or value delivered, less damages.
As to kind of obligation:
Q: A is obliged to B. He paid Japanese yen. Is it valid?
A: Yes. RA 8183. Payment may be made in any currency as long as
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 stipulated. Before: RA 529-payment
not in Philippine currency is prohibited. Q: Can creditor be compelled to accept check?
A: No. As stated in New pacific timber v. Señeris. Creditor may refuse to accept check.
Before: If Manager or Cashier’s check, it is deemed as cash.
Q: If partly check and partly cash? A: Creditor may refuse. Except if stipulated. In Article 1249, it is extinguished if encashed.
Art. 1249. The payment of debts in money shall be made in the currency stipulated, and if it is not possible to deliver such currency, then in the currency which is legal tender in the Philippines.
The delivery of promissory notes payable to order, or bills of exchange or other mercantile documents shall produce the effect of payment only when they have been cashed, or when through the fault of the creditor they have been impaired.
In the meantime, the action derived from the original obligation shall be held in the abeyance. (1170)
Q: If check is stale, will the obligation be extinguished?
A: No.
Q: When is payment thru check extinguish obligation?
A: When it is encashed or through fault of the debtor when it had been impaired.
Q: B owes A 1M in 1968. A claimed that in 1968, the value of 1M is only
500k compared to the present because of devaluation, hence he claimed 2M base on Art.1250.
Art. 1250. In case an extraordinary inflation or deflation of the currency stipulated should supervene, the value of the currency at the time of the establishment of the obligation shall be the basis of payment, unless there is an agreement to the contrary. (n)
Is his contention correct?
A: No. As decided in the Philippine Pipe Foundry case, the supreme court said “as far as Philippine experience is concerned, there has never been an extraordinary inflation as experienced by Germany in 1920-1923. Art.1250 may only be invoked if the source is a contract. In Velasco v. Meralco, Article 1250 may not be invoked because the source is a quasi delict.”
d.)date, time, place
Determinate – place where obligation was constituted.
Generic – domicile of the debtor.
SPECIAL FORMS OF PAYMENT 1. Payment by Cession and decion en pago.
Art. 1255. The debtor may cede or assign his property to his creditors in payment of his debts. This cession, unless there is stipulation to the contrary, shall only release the debtor from responsibility for the net proceeds of the thing assigned. The agreements which, on the effect of the cession, are made between the debtor and his creditors shall be governed by special laws. (1175a)
conventional assignment
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 CASE: Filinvest v. Philippine Acetylene
- no dation en pago, the delivery of the case was not consented to.
- Filinvest was only an agent; there was no transfer of ownership.
Dacion en pago Cession
As to transfer of ownership:
The delivery results to the transfer of ownership, same is true with application of payment. No transfer of ownership, creditor only given the power to sell. As to effect of payment: General rule: Extinguished only as to the extent of value delivered. Exception: unless stipulated upon that anything delivered shall
extend the entire obligation.General Rule: governed by law on sales only if the pre- existing obligation is in money. Art. 1245. Dation in payment, whereby property is alienated to the creditor in satisfaction of a debt in money, shall be governed by the law of sales. (n)
General Rule:
Extinguish only as to the extent of the proceeds of the sale of creditor. Exception: Unless there is an express agreement.
-Q: If A is to deliver a carabao, but instead gave a refrigerator. Is it dacion en pago on sale?
A: No. It is novation. The pre-existing obligation is not in money.
Notes in Civil Law Review 2 - no dation en pago if at the time
of the transaction there is no obligation.
- All transactions were executed within one day. The indemnity agreement that they will be liable upon default on payment of surety bond, hence no obligation yet on that day.
- SC: Dation en pago may pertain to delivery of rights/things.
2. Application of payments:
Problem: X is the creditor. A owes him, 100k, 50k, 20k and 10k.
Rules:
1. debtor ha the right to designate to which payment is to be applied.
a.) no partial payment.
b.) to that which is due and demandable, except if payment was made for the benefit of the debtor. c.) If the debt is interest bearing. 2.) if debtor fails to designate, the creditor may designate.
3.) if both failed to designate:
Note: provision for application of payment is not applicable here.
2. that which is most onerous. 3. Proportionate application
(provided, it is of the same nature and burden) – if the debts are of different amounts. Q: How do we determine what is the most onerous?
A: There is no hard and fast rule. We must consider factors and circumstances.
3. Payment by cession:
1255: voluntary assignment requires consent of the creditor.
Art. 1255. The debtor may cede or assign his property to his creditors in payment of his debts. This cession, unless there is stipulation to the contrary, shall only release the debtor from responsibility for the net proceeds of the thing assigned. The agreements which, on the effect of the cession, are made between the debtor and his creditors shall be governed by special laws. (1175a)
Q: How will the proceeds of the sale be applied?
A: 1. based on stipulation. 2. without agreement; rules in concurrence and preference of credits shall be applied.
- debtor must deliver his
property to creditor.
- Resorted to by debtor who is experiencing financial difficulty.
4. Tender of payment and
consignation:
- tender of payment alone shall never extinguish the obligation. - Actual offering of the amount
or thing.
1256 – the only one scenario when tender of payment should be made, when creditor refuses to accept without just cause.
Art. 1256. If the creditor to whom tender of payment has been made refuses without just cause to accept it, the debtor shall be released from responsibility by the consignation of the thing or sum due.
Consignation alone shall produce the same effect in the following cases:
Notes in Civil Law Review 2
(1) When the creditor is absent or unknown, or does not appear at the place of payment;
(2) When he is incapacitated to receive the payment at the time it is due;
(3) When, without just cause, he refuses to give a receipt; (4) When two or more persons claim the same right to collect; (5) When the title of the obligation has been lost. (1176a)
CASE: Soco v. Militante:
Q: When may Tender of payment be made judicial?
A: No. Tender of payment by its nature is extra judicial.
Illustration:
Q: There was a sale with right to repurchase. Seller a retro refuses to accept money, an action was filed. Plaintiff said that he is not obliged because there is no tender of payment required. Is his contention correct? A: Yes. No tender of payment is required. No consignation is required in sale with right to repurchase.
Q: Is notice required by consignation? A: Yes.
Q: 2nd notice after consignation is
required?
A: Yes. Required but it does not need to come from the debtor, it is in the form of summons.
Soco v. militante – 2 notices per amount due.
Q: When will obligation be extinguished?
A: When creditor accepted, even if debtor refuses, may extinguish after consignation, it retroacts from the time of delivery.
Q: The obligation was due in January, 1998. There was a tender of payment in January 1, 2000 but was refused. In January 2, 2004, there was consignation. In January 2, 2007 there was a court ruling. Is the debtor liable to pay interest?
A: Yes. If from January 1998 he was already in delay, up to consignation if court ruled to be valid. If the consignation was ruled by the court to be invalid, the interest must be from January 1998 till court ruled.
According to Sir: however, mora accipiendi.-delay of the creditor to accept. Debtor may release himself from the obligation by the consignation of the thing.
Q: Can debtor withdraw the consignated money?
A: Yes. If the withdrawal is made before acceptance of creditor and before court ruled on the consignation. - if creditor accepted and court ruled, no withdrawal. If no ruling yet, it may be withdrawn if creditor accepted.
- Revival without consent of
accessory – creditor is released.
LOSS
