CHAPTER
1
A Perspective on Educational Assessment,
Measurement, and Evaluation
As teaching is causing learning among learners, teachers need to be thoroughly aware of the processes in determining how successful they are in the aforementioned task. They need to know whether their students are achieving successfully the knowledge, skills, and values inherent in their lessons. For this reason, it is critical for beginning teachers, to build a repertoire measurement and evaluation of student learning. This chapter is geared towards equipping you with the basic concepts in educational assessment, measurement, and evaluation.
Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation
Measurement as used in education is the quantification of what students learned through the use of tests, questionnaires, rating scales, checklists, and other devices. A teacher, for example, who gave his class a 10 – item quiz after a lesson on the agreement of subject and verb is undertaking measurement of what was learned by the students on that particular lesson.
Assessment, however, refers to the full range of information gathered and synthesized by teachers about their students and their classrooms (Arends, 1994). This information can be gathered in informal ways, such as through observation or verbal exchange. It cal also be gathered through formal ways, such as assignments, tests, and written reports or outputs.
While measurement refers to the quantification of students’ performance and assessment as the gathering and synthesizing of information, evaluation is a process of making judgments, assigning value or deciding on the worth of students’ performance. Thus, when a teacher assigns a grade to the score you obtained in a chapter quiz or term examination, he is performing an evaluative act. This is because he places value on the information gathered on the test.
Measurement answers the question, how much does a student
learn or know? Assessment looks into how much change has occurred on the student’s acquisition of a skill, knowledge or value before and after a
given learning experience. Since evaluation is concerned with making judgments on the worth or value of a performance, it answers the question,
how good, adequate or desirable is it? Measurement and assessment are,
Educational Assessment:
A context for Educational
Measurement and Evaluation
As a framework for educational measurement and evaluation, educational assessment is quite difficult to define. According to Stiggins and his colleagues (1996) assessment is a method of evaluating personality in which an individual, living in a group meets and solve a variety of lifelike problems. From the viewpoint of Cronbach, as cited by Jaeger (1997), three principal features of assessment are identifiable: (1) the use of a variety technique; (2) reliance on observations in structured and unstructured situations; and (3) integration of information. The aforementioned definition and features of assessment are applicable to a classroom situation. The term personality in the definition of assessment refers to an individual’s characteristics which may be cognitive, affective and psychomotor. The classroom setting is essentially social, which provides both structured and unstructured phases. Even problem – solving is a major learning task. Holistic appraisal of a learner, his or her environment, and his or her accomplishments is the principal objective of educational assessment.
Bloom (1970) has this to say on the process of educational assessment:
Assessment characteristically starts with an analysis of the criterion and the environment in which an individual lives, learns, and works. It attempts to determine the psychological pressures the environment creates, the role expected, and the demands and pressures – their hierarchical arrangement, consistency, as well as conflict. It then proceeds to the determination of the kinds of evidence that are appropriate about the individuals who are placed in this environment, such as their relevant strengths and weaknesses, their needs and personality characteristics, their skills and abilities.
From the foregoing description of the process of educational assessment, it is very clear that educational assessment concerns itself with the total educational setting and is a more inclusive term. This is because it subsumes measurement and evaluation. It focuses not only on the nature of the learner but also on what is to be learned and how it is to be learned. In a real since, it is diagnostic in intent or purpose. This is due to the fact that through educational assessment the strengths and weaknesses of an individual learner can be identified and at the same
time, the effectiveness of the instructional materials used and the curriculum can be ascertained.
Assessments are continuously being undertaken in all educational settings. Decisions are made about content and specific objectives, nature of students and faculty, faculty morale and satisfaction, and the extent to which student performances meet standards. Payne (2003) describes a typical example of how assessments can be a basis for decision making:
1. The teacher reviews a work sample, showing some column additions are in error and there are frequent carrying errors. 2. He / She assigns simple problems on proceeding pages, with
consistent addition errors in some number combinations, as well as repeated errors in carrying from one column to another.
3. He / She give instruction through verbal explanation, demonstration, trial and practice.
4. The student becomes a successful in calculations made in each preparation step after direct teacher instruction.
5. The student returns to the original pages, completes it correctly, and is monitored closely when new processes are introduced.
From the foregoing example, it can be seen that there is a very close association between assessment and instruction. The data useful in decision – making may be related from informal assessments, such as observations from interactions or from teacher – made tests.
Informed decision – making in education is very important owing to the obvious benefits it can bring about (Linn, 1999). Foremost among these benefits evaluation of feelings of competence in the area of academic skill and the sense of one’s perception of being able to function effectively in society is something obligatory. Finally, the affective side of development is equally important. Personal dimensions, like feelings of self – worth, being able to adjust to people and cope with various situations lead to better overall life adjustment.
Purposes of Educational Assessment, Measurement
and Evaluation
Educational assessment, measurement and evaluation serve the following purposes (Kellough, et al, 1993):
• Improvement of Student Learning – Knowing how well students are performing in class can lead teachers to devise ways and means of improving student learning.
• Identification of Students’ Strengths and Weaknesses – Through measurement, assessment, and evaluation, teachers can be able to single out their students’ strengths and weaknesses. Data on these strengths and weaknesses can serve as bases for undertaking reinforcement and / or enrichment activities for the students.
• Assessment of the Effectiveness of a Particular Teaching Strategy – Accomplishment of an instructional objective through the use of a particular teaching strategy is important to teachers. Competent teachers continuously evaluate their choice of strategies on the basis of student achievement.
• Appraisal of the Effectiveness of the Curriculum – Through educational measurement, assessment, and evaluation, various aspects of the curriculum are continuously evaluated by curriculum committees on the basis of the results of achievement test results.
• Assessment and Improvement of Teaching Effectiveness – Results of testing are used as basis for determining teaching effectiveness. Knowledge of the results of testing can provide school administrators inputs on the instructional competence of teachers under their charge. Thus, intervention programs to improve teaching effectiveness can be undertaken by the principals or even supervisors on account of the results of educational measurement and evaluation.
• Communication with and Involvement of Parents in Their Children’s Learning – Results of educational measurement, assessment, and evaluation are utilized by the school teachers in communicating to parents their children’s learning difficulties, knowing how well their children are performing academically can lead them to forge a partnership with the school in improving and enhancing student learning.
Types of Classroom Assessment
There are three general types of classroom assessment teachers are engaged in (Airisian, 1994). These are as follows: official; sizing up; and instructional.
Official assessment is undertaken by teachers to carry out the bureaucratic aspects of teaching, such as giving students grades at the end of each marking period. This type of assessment can be done through formal tests, term papers, reports, quizzes, and assignments. Evidence sought by teachers in official assessment is mainly cognitive.
Sizing up assessment, however, is done to provide teachers information regarding the students’ social, academic, and behavioral characteristics at the beginning of each school year. Information gathered by teachers, in this type of assessment, provides a personality profile of each of these students to boost instruction and foster communication and cooperation in the classroom.
Instructional assessment is utilized in planning instructional delivery and monitoring the progress of teaching and learning. It is normally done daily throughout the school year. It, therefore, includes decisions on lessons to teach, teaching strategy to employ, and instructional materials and resources to use in the classroom.
Methods of Collecting Assessment Data
Airisian (1994) identified two basic methods of collecting information about the learners and instruction, namely: paper and pencil; and observational techniques.
When the learners put down into writing their answers to questions and problems, the assessment method is pre – and – pencil technique. Paper and pencil evidence that teachers are able to gather includes tests taken by students, maps drawn, written reports; completed assignments and practice exercises. By examining these evidences, teachers are able to gather information about their students’ progress.
There are two general types of paper and pencil techniques: supply and selection. Supply type requires the student to produce or construct an answer to the question. Book report, essay question, class project, and journal entry are examples of the supply – type of paper and pencil technique.
Selection type, on the other hand, requires the student to choose the correct answer from a list of choices or options. Multiple choice, matching test, alternate response test are technique as the students answer questions by simply choosing an answer from a set of options provided.
The second method teachers utilize is observation. This method involves watching the students as they perform certain learning tasks like speaking, reading, performing laboratory investigation and participating in group activities.
Sources of Evaluate Information
To be able to make correct judgments about students’ performance, there is a need for teachers to gather accurate information. Thus, teachers have to be familiar with the different sources of evaluative information.
Cumulative Record. It holds all the information collected on students over the years. It is usually stored in the principal’s office or guidance office and contains such things as vital statistics, academic records, conference information, health records, family data and scores on tests of aptitude, intelligence, and achievement. It may also contain anecdotal and behavioral comments from previous teachers. These comments are useful in understanding the causes of the students’ academic and behavioral problems.
Personal Contact. It refers to the teacher’s daily interactions with his / her students. A teacher’s observation on students as he / she works and relaxes, as well as daily conversation with them can provide valuable clues that will be or great help in planning instruction. Observing students not only tells the teacher how well students are doing but allows him / her to provide them with immediate feedback. Observational information is available in the classroom as the teacher watches and listens to students in various situations. Examples of these situations are as follows:
1. Oral Reading. Can the student read well or not?
2. Answering Questions. Does the student understand concepts?
3. Following Directions. Does the student follow specified
instruction?
4. Seatwork. Does the student stay on – task?
5. Interest in the Subject. Does the student participate actively in
learning activities?
6. Using Instructional Materials. Does the student use the
material correctly?
Through accurate observations, a teacher can determine whether the students are ready for next lesson. He / She can also identify those students who are in need of special assistance.
Analysis. Through a teacher’s analysis of the errors committed by students, he / she can be provided with much information about their attitude and achievement. Analysis can take place either during or following instruction. Through analysis, the teacher will be able to identify immediately students’ learning difficulties. Thus, teachers have to file samples of students’ work for discussion during parent – teacher conferences.
Open – ended Themes and Diaries. One technique that can be used to provide information about students is by asking them to write about their lives in and out of the school. Some questions that students can be asked to react to are as follows:
1. What things do you like and dislike about school? 2. What do you want to become when you grow up?
3. What things have you accomplished which you are proud of? 4. What subjects do you find interesting? Uninteresting?
5. How do you feel about your classmates?
The use of diaries is another method for obtaining data for evaluative purposes. A diary can consist of a record, written every 3 or 4 days, in which students write about their ideas, concerns, and feelings. An analysis of students’ diaries often gives valuable evaluative information.
Conferences. Conferences with parents and the students’ previous teachers can also provide evaluative information. Parents often have information which can explain why students are experiencing academic problems. Previous teachers can also describe students’ difficulties and the techniques they employed in correcting them. Guidance counselors can also be an excellent source of information. They can also shed light on test results and personality factors, which might affect students’ performance in class.
Testing. Through testing, teachers can measure students’ cognitive achievement, as well their attitudes, values, feelings, and motor skills. It is probably the most common measurement technique employed by teachers in the classroom.
Types of Evaluation
Teachers need continuous feedback in order to plan, monitor, and evaluate their instruction. Obtaining this feedback may take any of the following types: diagnostic, formative, and summative.
Diagnostic evaluation is normally undertaken before instruction, in order to assess students’ prior knowledge of a particular topic or lesson. Its purpose is to anticipate potential learning problems and group / place students in the proper course or unit of study. Placement of some elementary school children in special reading programs based on a reading comprehension test is an example of this type of evaluation. Requiring entering college freshmen to enroll in Math Plus based on the results of their entrance test in Mathematics is another example.
Diagnostic evaluation can also be called pre – assessment, since it is designed to check the ability levels of the students in some areas so that instructional starting points can be established. Through this type of evaluation, teachers can be provided with the valuable information concerning students’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills when they begin studying a subject and can be employed as basis for remediation or special instruction. Diagnostic evaluation can be based on teacher – made tests, standardized tests or observational techniques.
Formative evaluation is usually administered during the instructional process to provide feedback to students and teachers and how well the former are learning the lesson being taught. Results of this type of evaluation permit teachers modify instruction as needed. Remedial work is normally done to remedy deficiencies noted and bring the slow learners to the level of their classmates or peers. Basically, formative evaluation asks, ”how are my students doing?” It uses pretests, homework, seatwork, and classroom questions. Results of formative evaluation are neither recorded, nor graded but are used for modifying or adjusting instruction.
Summative evaluation is undertaken to determine students’ achievement for grading purposes. Grades provide the teachers the rationale for passing or failing students, based on a wide range of accumulated behaviors, skills, and knowledge. Through this type of evaluation, students’ accomplishments during a particularly marking term are summarized or summed up. It is frequently based on cognitive knowledge, as expressed through test scores and written outputs.
Examples of summative evaluation are chapter tests, homework grades, completed project grades, periodical tests, unit test and achievement tests.
This type of evaluation answers the question, “how did my students
fare?” Results of summative evaluation can be utilized not only for judging
student achievement but also for judging the effectiveness of the teacher and the curriculum.
Approaches to Evaluation
According to Escarilla and Gonzales (1990), there are two approaches to evaluation, namely: norm – referenced and criterion – referenced.
Non – referenced evaluation is one wherein the performance of a student in a test is compared with the performance of the other students who took the same examination. The following are examples of norm – referenced evaluation:
1. Karl’s score in the periodical examination is below the mean. 2. Cynthia ranked fifth in the unit test in Physics.
Criterion – referenced evaluation on the other hand, is an approach to evaluation wherein a student’s performance is compared against a predetermined or agreed upon standard. Examples of this approach are as follows:
1. Sid can construct a pie graph with 75% accuracy. 2. Yves scored 7 out of 10 in the spelling test.
3. Lito can encode an article with no more than 5 errors in spelling.
REFERENCES
Airisian, P.W. (1994). Classroom Assessment, 2nd Ed. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.
Bloom, B.S. (1970). The Evaluation of Instruction: Issues and Problems. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Clark, J. & I. Starr (1977). Secondary School Teaching Methods. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Escarilla, E. R. & E. A. Gonzales (1990). Measurement and Evaluation in
Secondary Schools. Makati: Fund for Assistance to Private
Education (FAPE).
Jaeger, R. M. (1997). Educational Assessment: Trends and Practices. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Kellough, R. D., et al (1993). Middle School Teaching Methods and
Resources, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Payne, D. A. (2003). Measuring and evaluating Educational Outcomes. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
CHAPTER
2
Test and Their Uses in Educational Assessment
The most common important aspect of student evaluation in most classrooms involves the tests teachers make and administer to their students (Grondlund & Linn, 1990). Teachers, therefore, need to understand the different types of tests and their uses in the assessment and evaluation of the students’ learning. This chapter orients prospective teachers on tests and their uses in education.
Test Defined
A test is a systematic procedure for measuring an individual’s behavior (Brown, 1991). This definition implies that it has to be developed following specific guidelines. It is a formal and systematic way of gathering information about the learners’ behavior, usually through paper – and – pencil procedure (Airisian, 1989).
Through testing, teachers can measure students’ acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values in any learning area in the curriculum. While testing is the most common measurement technique teachers use in the classroom, there are certain limitations in their use. As pointed out by Moore (1992), tests cannot measure student motivation, physical
limitations and even environmental factors. The foregoing indicates that testing is only one of students’ learning and achievement.
Uses of Tests
Tests serve a lot of functions for school administrators, supervisors, teachers, and parents, as well (Arends, 1994; Escarilla & Gonzales, 1990).
School administrators utilize test results for making decisions regarding the promotion or retention of students; improvement or enrichment of the curriculum; and conduct of staff development programs for teachers. Through test results, school administrators can also have a clear picture of the extent to which the objectives of the school’s instructional program is achieved.
Supervisors use test results in discovering learning areas needing special attention and identifying teachers’ weaknesses and learning competencies not mastered by the students. Test results can also provide supervisors baseline data on curriculum revision.
Teachers, on the other hand, utilize tests for numerous purposes. Through testing, teachers are able to – gather information about the effectiveness of instruction; give feedback to students about their progress; and assign grades.
Parents, too, derive benefits from tests administered to their children. Through test scores, they are able to determine how well their sons and daughters are faring in school and how well the school is doing its share in educating their children.
Types of Tests
Numerous types of tests are used in school. There are different ways of categorizing tests, namely: ease of quantification of response , mode of preparation, mode of administration, test constructor, mode of interpreting results, and nature of response (Manarang & Manarang, 1983; Louisell & Descamps, 1992).
As to mode of response, test can be oral, written or performance. 1. Oral Test – It is a test wherein the test taker gives his answer
orally.
2. Written Test – It is a test where answers to questions are written by the test taker.
3. Performance Test – It is one in which the test taker creates an answer or a product that demonstrates his knowledge or skill, as in cooking and baking.
As to ease quantification of response, tests can either be objective or subjective.
1. Objective Test – It is a paper and pencil test wherein students’ answers can be compared and quantified to yield a numerical score. This is because it requires convergent or specific response.
2. Subjective Test – It is a paper – and – pencil test which is not easily quantified as students are given the freedom to write their answer to a question, such as an essay test. Thus, the answer to this type of test is divergent.
As to mode of administration, tests can either be individual or group.
1. Individual Test – It is a test administered to one student at a time.
2. Group Test – It is one administered to a group of students simultaneously.
As to test constructor, tests can be classified into standardized and unstandardized.
1. Standardized Test – It is a test prepared by an expert or specialist. This type of test samples behavior under uniform procedures. Questions are administered to students with the same directions and time limits. Results in this kind of test are scored following a detailed procedure based on its manual and interpreted based on specified norms or standards.
2. Unstandardized Test – It is one prepared by teachers for use in the classroom, with no established norms of scoring and interpretation of results. it is constructed by a classroom teacher to meet a particular need.
As to the mode of interpreting results, tests can either be norm – referenced or criterion – referenced.
1. Norm – referenced Test – It is a test that evaluates a student’s performance by comparing it to the performance of a group of students on the same test.
2. Criterion – referenced Test – It is a test that measures a student’s performance against an agreed upon or pre – established level of performance.
As to the nature of the answer, tests can be categorized into the following types: personality, intelligence, aptitude, achievement, summative, diagnostic, formative, socio – metric, and trade.
1. Personality Test – It is a test designed for assessing some aspects of an individual’s personality. Some areas tested in this kind of test include the following: emotional and social adjustment; dominance and submission; value orientation; disposition; emotional stability; frustration level; and degree of introversion or extroversion.
2. Intelligence Test – It is a test that measures the mental ability of an individual.
3. Aptitude Test – it is a test designed for the purpose of predicting the likelihood of an individual’s success in a learning area or field of endeavor.
4. Achievement Test – It is a test given to students to determine what a student has learned from formal instruction in school.
5. Summative Test – It is a test given at the end of instruction to determine students’ learning and assign grades.
6. Diagnostic Test – It is a test administered to students to identify their specific strengths and weaknesses in past and present learning.
7. Formative Test – It is a test given to improve teaching and learning while it is going on. A test given after teaching the lesson for the day is an example of this type of test.
8. Socio – metric Test – It is a test used in discovering learners’ likes and dislikes, preferences, and their social acceptance, as well as social relationships existing in a group.
9. Trade Test – It is a test designed to measure an individual’s skill or competence in an occupation or vocation.
CHAPTER
3
Assessment of Learning in the Cognitive Domain
Learning and achievement in the cognitive domain are usually measured in school through the use of paper – and – pencil tests (Oliva, 1988). Teachers have to measure students’ achievement in all the levels of the cognitive domain. Thus, they need to cognizant with the procedures in the development of the different types of paper – and – pencil tests. This chapter is focused on acquainting prospective teachers with methods and techniques of measuring learning in the cognitive domain.
Behaviors Measured and Assessed in the Cognitive Domain
There are three domains of behavior measured and assessed in schools. The most commonly assessed, however, is the cognitive domain. The cognitive domain deals with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the development into six hierarchical levels, namely: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
1. Knowledge Level: behaviors related to recognizing and
remembering facts, concepts, and other important data on any topic or subject.
2. Comprehension Level: behaviors associated with the
clarification and articulation of the main idea of what students are learning.
3. Application Level: behaviors that have something to do with
problem – solving and expression, which require students to apply what they have learned to other situations or cases in their lives.
4. Analysis Level: behaviors that require students to think
critically, such as looking for motives, assumptions, cause – effect relationship, differences and similarities, hypotheses, and conclusions.
5. Synthesis Level: behaviors that call for creative thinking,
such as combining elements in new ways, planning original experiments, creating original solutions to a problem and building models.
6. Evaluation Level: behaviors that necessitate judging the
value or worth of a person, object, or idea or giving opinion on an issue.
Preparing for Assessment of Cognitive Learning
Prior to the construction of paper – and – pencil test to be use in the measurement of cognitive learning, teachers have to answer the following questions (Airisian, 1994): What should be tested; what emphasis to give to the various objectives taught; whether to administer a paper and pencil test or observe each student directly; how long the test should take; and how best to prepare students for testing.
What Should Be Tested. Identification of the information, skills, and
behaviors to be tested is the first important decision that a teacher has to take. Knowledge of what shall be tested will enable a teacher to develop an appropriate test for the purpose. The basic rule to remember, however, is that testing emphasis should parallel teaching emphasis.
How to Gather Information About What to Test. A teacher has to
decide whether he should give a paper and pencil test or simply gather information through observation. Should he decide to use a paper – and – pencil test, if he decides to use observation of students’ performance of the targeted skill, then he has to develop appropriate devices to use in recording his observations. Decisions on how to gather information about what to test depends on the objective or the nature or behavior to be tested.
How Long the Test Should Be. The answer to the aforementioned
question depends on the following factors: age and attention span of the students; and type of questions to be used.
How Best to Prepare Students for Testing. To prepare students
for teaching, Airisian (1994) recommends the following measures; (1) providing learners with good instruction; (2) reviewing students before testing; (3) familiarizing students with question formats; (4) scheduling the test; and (5) providing students information about the test.
Assessing Cognitive Learning
Teacher use two types of tests in assessing student learning in the cognitive domain: objective test and essay test (Reyes, 2000). An objective test is a kind of test wherein there is only one answer to each item. On the other hand, an essay test is one wherein the test taker has the freedom to respond to a question based on how he feels it should be answered.
Types of Objective Tests
There are generally two types of objective tests: supply type and selection type (Carey, 1995). In the supply type, the student constructs his / her own answer to each question. Conversely, the student chooses the right answer to each item in the selection type of objective test.
Supply types of Objective Tests: The following types of tests fall under the supply type of test: completion drawing type, completion statement type, correction type, identification type, simple recall type, and short explanation type (Ebel & Frisbie, 1998).
• Completion Drawing Type – an incomplete drawing is presented which the student has to complete.
Example: In the following food web, draw arrow lines
indicating which organisms are consumers and which are producers.
• Completion Statement Type – an incomplete sentence is presented and the student has to complete it by filling in the blank.
Example: The capital city of the Philippines is
• Correction Type – a sentence with underlined word or phrase is presented, which the student has to replace to make it right.
Example: Change the underlined word / phrase to make
each of the following statements correct. Write your answer on the space before each number.
__________ 1. The theory of evolution was popularized by Gregor Mendel.
__________ 2. Hydrography is the study of oceans and ocean currents.
• Identification Type – a brief description is presented and the student has to identify what it is.
Example: To what does each of the following refer? Write
your answer on the blank before each number.
__________ 1. A flat representation of all curved surfaces of the earth.
__________ 2. The transmission of parents’ characteristics and traits to their offsprings.
• Simple Recall Type – a direct question is presented for the student to answer using a word or phrase.
Example: What is the product of two negative numbers? Who is the national hero in the Philippines?
• Short Explanation Type – similar to an essay test but requires a short answer.
Example: Explain in a complete sentence why the
Philippines was not really discovered by Magellan.
Selection Types of Objective Test. Included in the category of
selection type, grouping type, matching type, multiple choice type, alternate response type, key list test, and interpreting exercise.
• Arrangement Type – Terms or objects are to be arranged by the students in a specified order.
Example 1: Arrange the following events chronologically by writing the letters A, B, C, D, E on the spaces provided.
_______ Glorious Revolution _______ Russian Revolution
_______ American Revolution _______ French Revolution
_______ Puritan Revolution
Example 2: Arrange the following planets according to their nearness to the sun, by using numbers, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5.
_______ Pluto _______Jupiter _______ Saturn
• Matching Type – A list of numbered items are related to a list of lettered choices.
Example: Match the country in Column 1 with its capital city in Column 2. Write letters only.
Column 1 Column 2
________ 1. Philippines a. Washington D. C.
________ 2. Japan b. Jeddah
________ 3. United States c. Jerusalem ________ 4. Great Britain d. Manila
________ 5. Israel e. London
f. Tokyo g. New York
• Multiple Choice Type – this type contains a question, problem or unfinished sentence followed by several responses.
Example: The study of value is (a) axiology (c) epistemology (b) logic (d) metaphysics.
• Alternative Response Type – A test wherein there are only two possible answers to the question. The true – false format is a form of alternative response type. Variations on the true – false include yes – no, agree – disagree, and right – wrong.
Example: Write True, if the statement is true; False, if it is false.
_________ 1. Lapulapu was the first Asian to repulse European colonizers in Asia.
_________ 2. Magellan’s expedition of the Philippines led to the first circumnavigation of the globe.
_________ 3. The early Filipinos were uncivilized before the Spanish conquest of the archipelago.
_________ 4. The Arabs introduced Islam in Southern Philippines.
• Key List Test – A test wherein the student has to examine paired concepts based on a specified set of criteria (Olivia, 1998).
Example: Examine the paired items in Column 1 and Column 2. On the blank before each number, write:
A = If the item in column 1 is an example of the item in column 2; B = If the item in column 1 is a synonym of the item in column 2; C = If the item in column 2 is opposite of the item in column 1; and D = If the item in Columns 1 and 2 are not related in any way.
Column 1 Column 2
_____ 1. capitalism economic system
_____ 2. labor intensive capital intensive _____ 3. Planned economy command economy _____ 4. opportunity cost demand and supply
_____ 5. free goods economic goods
• Interpretive Exercise – It is a form of a multiple choice type of test that can assess higher cognitive behaviors. According to Airisian (1994) and Mitchell (1992), interpretive exercise provides students some information or data followed by a series of questions on that information. In responding to the questions in an interpretive exercise, the students have to analyze, interpret,
or apply the material provided, like a map, excerpt of a story, passage of a poem, data matrix, table or cartoon.
Example: Examine the data on child labor in Europe during the period immediately after the Industrial Revolution in the continent. Answer the questions given below encircling the letter of your choice.
TABLE 1
Child Labor in the Years Right After the Industrial
Revolution in Europe
1. The employment of child labor was greatly used in ____________.
a. 1750 c. 1770
b. 1760 d. 1780
2. As industrialization became rapid, what year indicated a sudden increase in the number of child laborers?
a. 1760 c. 1780
b. 1770 d. 1790
3. Labor unions and government policies were responsible in addressing the problems of child labor. In what year this evident?
a. 1780 c. 1800
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1800
1820
1800
3000
5000
3400
1200
600
150
Number of Child Laborers
Year
b. 1790 d. 1820
Essay Test
This type of test presents a problem or question and the student is to compose a response in paragraph form, using his or her own words, and ideas. There are two forms of the essay test: brief or restricted; and extended.
• Brief or Restricted Essay Test – This form of the essay test requires a limited amount of writing or requires that a given problem be solved in a few sentences.
Example: Why did early Filipino revolts fail? Cite and explain 2 reasons.
• Extended Essay Test – This form of the essay test requires a student to present his answer in several paragraphs or pages of writing. It gives students more freedom to express ideas and opinions and use synthesizing skills to change knowledge into a creative idea.
Example: Explain your position on the issue of charter change in the Philippines.
According to Reyes (2000) and Gay (1985), the essay test is appropriate to use when learning outcomes cannot be adequately measured by objective test items. Nevertheless, all levels of cognitive behaviors can be measured with the use of the essay test as shown below.
• Knowledge Level – Explain hoe Siddharta Guatama became
Buddha.
• Comprehension Level – What does it mean when a person
had crossed the Rubicon?
• Application Level – Cite three instances showing the
application of the Law of Supply and Demand.
• Analysis Level – Analyze the annual budget of your college
as to categories of funds, sources of funds, major expenditures; and needs of your college.
• Synthesis Level – Discuss the significance of the People’s
Power Revolution in the restoration of democracy in the Philippines.
• Evaluation Level – Are you in favor of the political platform of
the People’s Reform Party? Justify your answer.
Choosing the type of test depends on the teacher’s purpose and the amount of time to be spent for the test. As a general rule, teachers must create specific tests that will allow students to demonstrate targeted learning competencies.
CHAPTER
4
An Introduction to the Assessment of Learning in the
Psychomotor and Affective Domains
As pointed out in the previous chapter, there are three domains of learning objectives that teachers have to assess. While it is true that achievement in the cognitive domain is the one teachers’ measure frequently, students’ growth in non – cognitive domains of learning should also be given equal emphasis. This chapter expounds different ways by which learning in the psychomotor and affective domains can be assessed and evaluated.
Levels of Learning in the Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain of learning is focused on processes and skills involving the mind and the body (Eby & Kujawa, 1994). It is the domain of learning which classifies objectives dealing with physical movement and coordination (Arends, 1994; Simpson, 1966). Thus, objectives in the psychomotor domain require significant motor performance. Playing a musical instrument, singing a song, drawing, dancing, putting a puzzle together, reading a poem and presenting a
speech are examples of skills developed in the aforementioned domain of learning.
There are three levels of psychomotor learning: imitation, manipulation and precision (Gronlund, 1970).
• Imitation is the ability to carry out a basic rudiments of a skill when given directions and under supervision. At this level the total act is not performed skillfully. Timing and coordination of the act are not yet refined.
• Manipulation is the ability to perform a skill independently. The entire skill can be performed in sequence. Conscious effort is no longer needed to perform the skill, but complete accuracy has not been achieved yet.
• Precision is the ability to perform an act accurate, efficiently, and harmoniously. Complete coordination of the skill has been acquired. The skill has been internalized to such extent that it can be performed unconsciously.
Based on the foregoing list of objectives, it can be noted that these objectives range from simple reflex reactions to complex actions, which communicate ideas or emotions to others. Moreover, these objectives serve as a reminder to every teacher that students under his charge have
to learn a variety of skills and be able to think and act in simple and complex ways.
Measuring the Acquisition of Motor and oral Skills
There are two approaches that teachers can use in measuring the acquisition of motor and oral skills in the classroom: observation of student performance and evaluation of student projects (Gay 1990).
Observation of Student Performance is an assessment approach in which the learner does the desired skill in the presence of the teacher. For instance, in physical Education class, the teacher can directly observe how male students dribble and shoot the basketball. In this approach, the teacher observes the performance of a student, gives feedback, and keeps a record of his performance, if appropriate.
Observation of student performance can either be holistic or
atomistic (Louisell & Descamps, 1992). Holistic observation is employed
when the teacher gives a score or feedback based on pre – established prototypes of how an outstanding, average, or deficient performance looks. Prior to the observation, the teacher describes the different levels of performance.
A teacher, for example, who required his students to make an oral report on a research they undertook, describes the factors which go into an ideal presentation. What the teacher may consider in grading the report, include the following: knowledge of the topic; organization of the presentation of the report; enunciation; voice projection; and enthusiasm. The ideal present has to be described and the teacher has to comment on each of these factors. A student whose presentation closely matches the ideal described by the teacher would receive a perfect mark.
The second type of observation that can be utilized is atomistic or analytic. This type of observation requires that a task analysis be conducted in order to identify the major subtasks involved in the student performance. For example, in dribbling the ball, the teacher has to identify movements necessary to perform the task. Then, he has to develop pa checklist which enumerates the movements necessary to the performance of the task. These positions are demonstrated by the teacher. As students perform the dribbling of the ball, the teacher assigns checkmarks for each of the various subtasks. After the students’ has performed the specified action, all checkmarks are considered and an assessment of the performance is made.
Evaluation of Student Products is another approach that teachers can use in the assessment of students’ mastery of skills. For example, projects in different learning areas may be utilized in assessing students’ progress. Student products include drawings, models, construction paper products, etc.
The same principles involved in holistic and atomistic observations apply to the evaluation of projects. The teacher has to identify prototypes representing different levels of performance for a project or do a task analysis and assign scores by subtasks. In either case, the student has to inform of the criteria and procedures to be used in the assessment of their work.
Assessing Performance through Student Portfolios
Portfolio assessment is a new form of assessing students’ performance (Mitchell, 1992). A portfolio is but a collection of the students’ work (Airisian, 1994). It is used in the classroom to gather a series of students’ performances or products that show their accomplishment and / or improvement over time. It consists of carefully selected samples of the students’ work indicating their growth and development in some curricular goals. The following can be included in a student’s portfolio: representative pieces of his / her writing; solved math problems; projects and puzzles completed; artistic creations; videotapes of performance; and even tape recordings.
Wolf (1989) says that portfolios can be used for the following purposes:
• Providing examples of student performance to parents; • Showing student improvement over time;
• Providing a record of students’ typical performances to pass on to the next year’s teacher;
• Identifying areas of the curriculum that need improvement;
• Encouraging students to think about what constitutes good performance in a learning area; and
According to Airisian (1994), there are four steps to consider in making use of this type of performance assessment. (1) establishing a clear purpose; (2) setting performance criteria; (3) creating an appropriate setting; and (4) forming scoring criteria or predetermined rating.
Purpose is very important in carrying out portfolio assessment. Thus, there is a need to determine beforehand the objective of the assessment and the guidelines for student products that will be included in the portfolio prior to compilation.
While teachers need to collaborate with their colleagues in setting a common criterion, it is crucial they involve their students in setting standards or performance. This will enable the latter to claim ownership over their performance.
Portfolio assessment also needs to consider the setting in which students’ performance will be gathered. Shall it be a written portfolio? Shall it be a portfolio of oral or physical performances, science experiments, artistic productions and the like? Setting has to be looked into since arrangements have to be made on how desired performance can be properly collected.
Lastly, scoring methods and judging students’ performance are required in portfolio assessment. Scoring students’ portfolio, however, is time consuming as a series of documents and performances has to be scrutinized and summarized. Rating scales, anecdotal records, and checklists can be used in scoring students’ portfolios. The content of a portfolio, however, can be reported in the form of a narrative.
Tools for Measuring Acquisition of Skills
As pointed out previously, observation of student performance and evaluation of student products are ways by which teachers can measure the students’ acquisition of motor and oral skills. To overcome the problem relating to validity and reliability, teachers can use rating scales, checklists or other written guides to help them come up with unbiased or objective observations of student performance.
Rating scale is nothing but a series of categories that is arranged in orders of quality. It can be helpful in judging skills, products, and procedures. According to Reyes (2000), there are three steps to follow in constructing a rating scale.
• Identify qualities of the product to be assessed. Create a scale for each quality or performance aspect.
• Arrange the scales either from positive or negative or vice – versa.
• Write directions for accomplishing the rating scale.
Following is an example of a rating scale for judging a student teacher presentation of a lesson.
Rating Scale for Lesson Presentation
Student Teacher ___________________________ Date ______________ Subject _____________________________________________________
Rate the student teacher on each of the skill areas specified below. Use the following code: 5 = Outstanding; 4 = Very satisfactory; 3 = Satisfactory; 2 = Fair; 1 = Needs improvement. Encircle the number corresponding to your rating.
5 4 3 2 1 Audience contact
5 4 3 2 1 Enthusiasm
5 4 3 2 1 Speech quality and delivery
5 4 3 2 1 Involvement of the audience
5 4 3 2 1 Use of questions
5 4 3 2 1 Directions and refocusing
5 4 3 2 1 Use of reinforcement
5 4 3 2 1 Use of teaching aids and instructional materials
A checklist differs from a rating scale as it indicates the presence or absence of specified characteristics. It is basically a list of criteria upon which a student’s performance or end product is to be judged. The checklist is used by simply checking off the criteria items that have been met.
Response on a checklist varies. It can be a simple check mark indicating that an action took place. For instance, a checklist for observing student participation in the conduct of a group experiment may appear like this:
1. Displays interest in the experiment. 2. Helps in setting up the experiment.
3. Participates in the actual conduct of the experiment. 4. Makes worthwhile suggestions.
The rater would simply check the items occurred during the conduct of the group experiment.
Another type of checklist requires a yes or no response. The yes is checked when the action is done satisfactorily; the no is checked when the action is done unsatisfactorily. Below is an example of this type of checklist.
Performance Checklist for a Speech Class
Name ___________________________________ Date ______________
Click Yes or No as to whether the specified criterion is met.
Did the student: YES ON
1. Use correct grammar? _______________ ______________ 2. Make clear presentation? _______________ ______________ 3. Stimulate interest? _______________ ______________ 4. Use clear direction? _______________ ______________ 5. Demonstrate poise? _______________ ______________ 6. Manifest enthusiasm? _______________ ______________ 7. Use appropriate _______________ ______________
Levels of Learning in the Affective Domain
Objectives in the affective domain are concerned with emotional development. Thus, affective domain deals with attitudes, feelings, and emotions. Learning intent in this domain of learning is organized according to the degree of internalization. Kratwhol and his colleagues (1964) identified four levels of learning in the affective domain.
• Receiving involves being aware of and being willing to freely attend to a stimulus.
• Responding involves active participation. It involves not only freely attending to a stimulus but also voluntarily reacting to it in some way. It requires physical, active behavior.
• Valuing refers to voluntarily giving worth to an object, phenomenon or stimulus. Behaviors at this level reflect a belief, appreciation, or attitude.
• Commitment involves building an internally consistent value system and freely living by it. A set of criteria is established and applied in making choices.
Evaluating Affective Learning
Learning in the affective domain is difficult and sometimes impossible to assess. Attitudes, values and feelings can be intentionally concealed. This is because learners have the right not to show their personal feelings and beliefs, if they choose to do. Although the achievement of objectives in the affective domain are important in the educational system, they cannot be measured or observed like objectives in the cognitive and psychomotor domains.
Teachers attempt evaluating affective outcomes when they encourage students to express feelings, attitudes, and values about topics discussed in class. They can observe students and may find evidence of some affective learning.
Although, it is difficult to assess learning in the affective domain, there are some tools that teachers can use in assessing learning in this area. Some of these tools are the following: attitude scale; questionnaire;
simple projective techniques; and self – expression techniques (Escarilla &
Gonzales, 1990; Ahmann & Glock, 1991).
Attitude Scale is a form of rating scale containing statements designed to gauge students’ feelings on an attitude or behavior. An example of an attitude scale is shown below.
An Attitude Scale for Determining Interest in Mathematics
Name __________________________________ Date _______________Each of the statements below expresses a feeling toward mathematics. Rate each statement on the extent to which you agree. Use the following response code: SA = Strongly Agree; U = Uncertain; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree.
1. I enjoy my assignments in Mathematics.
2. The book we are using in the subject is interesting.
3. The lessons and activities in the subject challenge me to give my best.
4. I do not find exercises during our lesson boring.
5. Mathematical problems encourage me to think critically. 6. I feel at ease during recitation and board work.
7. My grade in the subject is commensurate to the effort I exert.
8. My teacher makes the lesson easy to understand 9. I would like to spend more time in this subject.
10. I like the way our teacher presents the steps in solving mathematical problems.
Response to the items is based on the response code provided in the attitude scale. A value ranging from 1 to 5 is assigned to the options provided. The value of of 5 is usually assigned to the option “strongly agree” and 1 to the option “strongly disagree.” When a statement is negative, however, the assigned values are usually reversed. The composite score is determined by adding the scale values and dividing it by the number of statements or items.
Questionnaire can also be used in evaluating attitudes, feelings, and opinions. It requires students to examine themselves and react to a series of statements about their attitudes, feelings, and opinions. The response style for a questionnaire can take any of the following forms:
The Checklist type of response provides the students a list of adjectives for describing or evaluating something and requires them to check those that apply. For example, a checklist questionnaire on students’ attitudes in a science class may include the following:
• This class is ________________ boring. ________________ exciting. ________________ interesting. ________________ unpleasant.
________________ highly informative. • I find Science ________________ fun.
________________ interesting. ________________ very tiring. ________________ difficult. ________________ easy.
The scoring of this type of test is simple. Subtract the number of negative statements checked from the number of positive statements checked.
Semantic differential is another type of response on a questionnaire. It is usually a five – point scale showing polar or opposite objectives. It is designed so that attitudes, feelings, and opinions can be measured by degrees from very favorable to very unfavorable. Given below is an example of a questionnaire employing the aforementioned response type.
Working with my group members is:
Interesting _____ : _____ : _____ : _____ : _____ Boring Challenging _____ : _____ : _____ : _____ : _____ Difficult Fulfilling _____ : _____ : _____ : _____ : _____ Frustrating
The composite score on the total questionnaire is determined by averaging the scale values given to the items included in the questionnaire.
Likert scale is one of the frequently used styles of response in attitude measurement. It is oftentimes a five – point scale links the options “strongly agree” and “strongly disagree”. An example of this kind of response is shown below.
A Likert Scale for Assessing Students’ Attitude Towards
Leadership Qualities of Student Leaders
Name ____________________________________ Date _____________
Read each statement carefully. Decide whether you agree or disagree with each of them. Use the following response code: 5 = Strongly disagree; 4 = Agree; 3 = Undecided; 2 = Disagree; 1 = Strongly Disagree. Write your response on the blank before each item.
Student leaders:
1. Have to work for the benefit of the students.
2. Should set example of good behavior to the members of the organization.
3. Need to help the school in implementing campus rules and regulations.
4. Have to project a good image of the school in the community.
5. Must speak constructively of the school’s teacher and administrators.
Scoring of a Likert scale is simlar to the scoring of an attitude scale earlier presented in this chapter.
Simple projective techniques are usually used when a teacher wants to probe deeper into the student’s feelings and attitudes. Escarilla and Gonzales (1990) say that there are three types of simple projective techniques that can 1be used in the classroom, namely: word association,
unfinished sentences, and unfinished story.
In word association, the student is given a word and asked to mention what comes to his / her mind upon hearing it. For example, what comes to your mind upon hearing the word corruption?
In an unfinished sentence, the students are presented partial sentences and are asked to complete them with words that best express their feeling, for instance:
Given the chance to choose, I _____________________________. I am happy when _______________________________________. My greatest failure in life was ______________________________.
In an unfinished story, a story with no ending is deliberately presented to the students, which they have to finish or complete. Through this technique, the teacher will be able to sense students’ worries, problems, and concerns.
Another way by which affective learning can be assessed is through the use of self – expression techniques. Through these techniques, students are provided the opportunity to express their emotions and views about issues, themselves, and others. Self – expression techniques may take any of the following forms: log book of daily routines or activities, diaries, essays and other written compositions or themes, and autobiographies.
CHAPTER REVIEW
1. What is meant by psychomotor learning? What are the levels of learning under the psychomotor domain? Explain each.
2. What are the two general approaches in measuring the acquisition of motor and oral skills? Differentiate each.
3. What are the guidelines to observe in undertaking atomistic and holistic observation?
4. What is portfolio assessment? What are the advantages of using this type of assessment in evaluating student performance and student products?
5. What are the guidelines to observe in using portfolio assessment in the classroom?
6. What are the tools teachers can use in measuring students’ acquisition of motor and oral skills? Briefly define each.
7. What do we mean by affective learning? What are the different levels of affective learning? Describe each briefly.
8. What are the techniques teachers can employ in evaluating affective learning? Discuss each very briefly.
CHAPTER
5
Constructing Objective Paper – and – Pencil Tests
Constructing paper – and – pencil test is a professional skill. Becoming proficient at it takes study, and practice. Owing to the recognized importance of a testing program, a prospective teacher has to assume this task seriously and responsibly. He / She needs to be familiar with the different types of test items and how best to write them. This chapter seeks to equip prospective teachers with the skill in constructing objective paper – and – pencil tests.
General Principles of Testing
Ebel and Frisbie (1999) listed five basic principles that should guide teachers in measuring learning and in constructing their own test. These principles are discussed below.
• Measure all instructional objectives. The test a teacher writes should be congruent with all the learning objectives focused in class. • Cover all learning tasks. A good test is not focused only on one
type of objective. It must be truly representative of all targeted learning outcomes.
• Use appropriate test items. Test items utilized by a teacher have to be in consonance with the learning objectives to be measured.
• Make test valid and reliable. Teachers have to see to it that the test they construct measures what it purports to measure. Moreover, they need to ensure that the test will yield consistent results for the students taking it for the second time.
• Use test to improve learning. Test scores obtained by the students can serve as springboards for the teachers to re-teach concepts and skills that the former have not mastered.
Attributes of a Good Test as an Assessment Tool
A good test must possess the following attributes or qualities: validity; reliability; objectivity; scorability; administrability; relevance; balance; efficiency; diffculty; discrimination; and fairness (Sparzo, 1990; Reyes 2000; Manarang and Manarang, 1993; Medina; 2002).
• Validity – It is the degree to which a test measures what it seeks to measure. To determine whether a test a teacher constructed is valid or not, he / she has to answer the following questions:
1. Does the test adequately sample the intended content?
2. Does it test the behaviors / skills important to the content being tested?
3. Does it test all the instructional objectives of the content take up in class?
• Reliability – It is the accuracy with which a test consistently measures that which it does measure. A test, therefore, is reliable if it produces similar results when used repeatedly. A test may be reliable but not necessarily valid. On the other hand, a valid test is always a reliable one.
