9780415487009-Wilson.indd i
9780415487009-Wilson.indd ii
A programme for developing thinking
in 7 to 12 year olds
Jeni Wilson & Lesley Wing Jan
9780415487009-Wilson.indd iii
First published 2008 by Curriculum Corporation PO Box 177 Carlton South Vic 3050 Australia This version published 2009
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2009 Jeni Wilson and Lesley Wing Jan
Typeset in Plantin and Franklin Gothic by Keyword Group Ltd Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Wilson, Jeni.
Smart thinking : a programme for developing thinking skills in 7 to 12 year olds / Jeni Wilson and Lesley Wing Jan. p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Thought and thinking—Study and teaching (Elementary) I. Wing Jan, Lesley. II. Title. LB1590.3.W548 2009 370.15'2—dc22 2008040046 ISBN 10: 0-415-48700-5 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-415-48700-9 (pbk) 9780415487009-Wilson.indd iv 9780415487009-Wilson.indd iv 12/10/08 5:45:40 PM12/10/08 5:45:40 PM
Contents
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Introduction
Planning guide
CHAPTER
1
Laying the groundwork
School cultural issues
Providing a classroom environment that supports the teaching of thinking
1
6
8
8 1215
CHAPTER
2
Planning for thinking
Planning for the long, medium and short term 15
17 24 27 3 1 32
33
Planning at the whole-school, team, class and individual levels
SAMPLE SESSION Reading and thinking
Thinking about thinking and thinkers SAMPLE SESSION
Planning using thinking tools Planning for assessment
CHAPTER
3
Questioning
Creative questions and creative thinking Philosophical questions
Targeted and timely teacher questions Helping pupils to ask effective questions Self-questioning and self-talk
Teacher self-questioning
Smart ideas – Activities
Knowledge in action – Proformas 47
4 1 40 39 37 37 36 36
1
2
vi Smart Thinking
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CHAPTER
4
Making connections
What does making connections involve? Building independence
Planning to help pupils make connections Inquiry units
SAMPLE SESSION Making ethical decisions
Making connections between aspects of learning
Smart ideas – Activities
Knowledge in action – Proformas
CHAPTER
5
Self-assessment
Teachers and self-assessment Helping pupils to self-assess
Smart ideas – Activities Knowledge in action – Proformas
CHAPTER
6
Goal setting
What does goal setting involve? Helping pupils to set goals Teachers and goal setting
Smart ideas – Activities Knowledge in action – Proformas
Appendix
– Additional proformas for reflection and metacognitionGlossary
References and further reading
127
126
117
110 106 104 97 9696
86 8 1 77 7575
66 60 59 58 55 5453
53 54Since the fi rst time we started to write together we have had fi ve additions to our families. To my little one, Ethan, who continually challenges my ideas and has taught me a lot about thinking differently; and to my teenage son, Madi, for whom I wanted to change the title – but it wouldn’t get past the censors! Jeni.
To my little, smart thinkers: Victoria, Olivia, Alexander, Jake and Georgia. Lesley.
Dedication
9780415487009-Wilson.indd vii
We would like to duly acknowledge the unnamed authors who gave us inspiration and ideas that we have internalised and adapted, without being able to always identify the original source.
For their contributions to the development of this book, we sincerely thank Kath Murdoch and Sally Godinho, as well as the many pupils with whom we have shared ideas, and the teachers with whom we have engaged in professional dialogue including Meagan Callander and Gay McSweeney (Braybrook Primary School), Kathy Winton, Lauren Barge,
Kate Wynack and Lisa Challis (Sunshine Primary School), and Cheryl Adamson (Carey Grammar Junior School).
Acknowledgements
9780415487009-Wilson.indd viii
1 Curriculum reform is focusing on ways to structure learning experiences so that pupils will be able to better manage themselves and their interpersonal relationships, to develop effective thinking skills, to form deeper understandings about how the world works and to be motivated to take personal and/or social action.
We believe that deep thinking and independent learning are more likely to occur when effective learning and thinking strategies are explicitly discussed and employed by the teacher and pupils. Refl ection and metacognition are key skills used in this process. Pupils who employ refl ection and metacognition know how to approach learning, and are aware of, and able to evaluate and regulate their own thinking. These skills are transferable to a range of contexts and purposes, and benefi t learners of all ages including pupils identifi ed as ‘at risk’ or ‘gifted’ and teachers.
The purpose of this book is to provide information and practical support for teachers as they work toward developing their pupils’ capacities to be refl ective and metacognitive in a range of environments. The connection to other thinking skills, dispositions, understandings and learning is inevitable.
Some of the areas for refl ection covered in this book are: • abilities • actions • attitudes • behaviours • consequences • experiences • feelings • key ideas • new information • observations • outcomes/results • personal needs • perspectives • plans • predictions • prior knowledge • progress • questions • specifi c content • strategies • work habits.
Introduction
Introduction 9780415487009-Wilson.indd 1 9780415487009-Wilson.indd 1 12/10/08 5:45:43 PM12/10/08 5:45:43 PM2 Smart Thinking
Some aspects of metacognition discussed in this book are: • reviewing and clarify thinking and learning
• focusing and deepening thinking and subsequent understandings • reasoning and critically analysing thoughts and information • understanding various aspects of feelings, thoughts and learning • monitoring changes in thinking
• modifying thinking
• exploring relationships and perspectives • making connections with learning.
Chapter 1 discusses a framework to support the teaching of thinking, focusing on issues of school culture, and the beliefs and understandings that underpin the teaching of thinking at a whole-school level. Chapter 2 looks at aspects of planning for the teaching of thinking in the short, medium and long terms, and at the school, team, class, and individual pupil levels.
There are several key aspects of teaching and learning that we can focus on to develop refl ection and metacognition in pupils: questioning, making connections, self-assessment and goal setting. Each of these elements is explored from a theoretical standpoint in Chapters 3–6, and complemented by a range of relevant activities that are discussed in the Smart ideas section of these chapters. These activities are followed by relevant and engaging pupil proformas in the Knowledge in action sections of these chapters. Additional proformas provided in the Appendix are suitable for multiple purposes and contexts that are more broadly related to refl ection and metacognition. The Planning guide on pages 6–7 shows which activities are supported by proformas, and where these can be found throughout the book.
Some of the proformas in this book are ready for use, while others will need some basic preparation. Proformas that fi t into this second category are indicated by the symbol at left. There are also often a number of ways in which these proformas can be prepared and presented by teachers. For example, proformas that have been designed for use as cards to prompt thinking such as A2: Looking at my work (p 118) and A6: Reasoned judgements
(p 122) can be used as worksheets or copied onto coloured paper, or cut out and laminated to be used as stimulus cards for small groups or the whole class. A number of these
proformas can also be enlarged and used as classroom posters.
While most of the proformas have been organised into their corresponding activity-based chapters, they often have many potential applications and outcomes. A number of these are listed below.
• Pupils can randomly select a refl ection starter or prompt, and other pupils in either a small-group or whole-class situation, use the selected prompt to list as many possible endings or responses as they can. Proformas that can be used for this idea include 3.6:
Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions
(p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113) and 6.7: Refl ect and react wheel (p 116).
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 2
3 • In groups of two, pupils tell their partner the response to a refl ection cue.
The following proformas are suitable for this activity: 3.6: Questioning using the Six
Thinking Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113), 6.7: Refl ect and react wheel (p 116), A2: Looking at my work (p 118), A4: Lucky dip refl ection cards (p 120), A5: Beginnings and endings (p 121) and
A7: Picture cues (p 123).
• Have small groups work together using the protocol that while one person refl ects orally, everyone else listens – no interruptions.
• Give pupils individual thinking time fi rst, before allowing them to join with one, two or three others to refl ect together.
• Have pupils tell you their refl ections as they leave the classroom at the end of a session or the day, like a ticket of leave.
• Have pupils act out or mime some of their refl ections. Some verbal refl ection may be required if the message is unclear.
• Give pupils choices about how to represent their refl ections, for example: through drawing, constructing, writing, orally, or in a multimodal format such as a collage, poster or PowerPoint presentation.
• Place enlarged cues in different parts of the room, for example: everyone who has chosen ‘I can ...’ goes to where the cue is situated and tells the others, who have also chosen this cue, their refl ections. See proformas 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking
Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113), 6.7: Refl ect and react wheel (p 116), A4: Lucky dip refl ection cards (p 120)
and A8: Traffi c light refl ections (p 124). Responses can be recorded and compared. • To create refl ections for the whole group to record, use cues such as those contained
in 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113), 6.7: Refl ect and react wheel
(p 116) and A5: Beginnings and endings (p 121). Pupils can be asked to select particular
refl ections to share with another group or the whole class at a later time.
For example, they may be asked to choose a refl ection that was completely different from theirs, is similar in meaning but said quite differently, surprised them, or that they think is worth sharing with everyone.
• Make refl ection books or keep a class journal which includes pupils’ responses to their thinking and learning. See, for example: proformas 4.6: Amazing thinking (p 71), 5.5: Self-assessment data chart (p 90), 5.6: Six hats for self-assessment (p 91),
A2: Looking at my work (p 118) and A3: Pass the remote (p 119).
• When pupils complete individual proformas such as 3.1: Questions and answers (p 47), 3.2: Predict, probe and ponder (p 48), 4.2: The fi ve Ps (p 67), 5.7: The what, when and how about my thinking (p 92), 5.8: Self-assessing my learning and thinking (p 93),
6.3: My learning goals action plan (p 112), A1: Metacognition matters (p 117) and A6: Reasoned judgements (p 122), give them time to think, discuss their ideas with a
partner and record them. Graphic organisers can be used to help pupils prepare for these more challenging refl ections.
Introduction
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 3
4 Smart Thinking
• Conduct quick refl ections in a whole-class circle or smaller circles so that everyone has a turn. See proformas 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52),
4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards
(p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113) and 6.7: Refl ect and react wheel (p 116). A number of proformas in the Appendix such as proforma A7: Picture cues (p 123) can be enlarged and laminated as cards to be used for this purpose. Place picture cues in the middle of the circle and have pupils select one to use to begin their refl ection.
Defi ning key terms
We have attempted to defi ne a number of the key terms used in this book, to ensure that their defi nitions are understood and properly differentiated, that teachers have a shared understanding of what they mean, and so that we can discuss these concepts confi dently with our pupils.
A number of the terms associated with the teaching of thinking are used with imprecision by teachers. The two central concepts in this book – refl ection and metacognition – are regularly misused, or used interchangeably in educational conversation. While refl ection is required for metacognition, the reverse does not apply. Refer to the glossary (p 126) for defi nitions of other key terms.
Refl ection
Refl ection is a more general term than metacognition. It is much more than ‘one-off ’ thinking during which the thinker casts their mind back to an event, situation, person or topic, or thinks about anything. In refl ecting, the learner engages in active, persistent and careful consideration of ideas to seek a deeper understanding and a broader and more reasoned point of view. Dewey (1933), whose defi nition is often referred to, describes refl ection as systematic and rigorous thinking used to resolve states of doubt,
a question, or a perplexity. Put simply, refl ection involves: • looking back
• pulling apart ideas
• addressing omissions and ambiguities • drawing conclusions
• unravelling questions
• considering alternate perspectives • making connections
• reasoning and making judgements • and can lead to goal setting.
Metacognition
Flavell (1976) divides metacognition into knowledge of ‘person variables’, ‘task variables’ and ‘strategy variables’. For example, when thinking about their learning or ability to do something, the metacognitive thinker might ask themselves: ‘What aspects relate to me, and to the task, and how might my selection of strategies assist or hinder my ability to complete the task?’
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 4
5 Metacognition refers to individuals’ awareness, evaluation and regulation of their own thinking (Wilson, 2001). In this context:
Awareness relates to the pupils’ consideration of where they are in the learning/problem-solving
process and what has and could be done in order to successfully complete the task
Evaluation refers to judgements pupils make about their own thinking processes, capacities
and limitations
Regulation occurs when pupils draw upon their own knowledge and skills: for example, about
themselves and their strategies, to direct their knowledge and thinking in pursuits such as planning, self-correcting and setting goals.
The thinker’s abilities, confi dence, preferred ways of learning, values, dispositions and volition may facilitate or hinder metacognitive activity, or even provide its focus. For example, one pupil may evaluate their own performance as unsatisfactory, identify a need to change the way they are working and then go on to successfully complete the task. While another pupil in the same situation may lose confi dence and motivation and give up.
Introduction
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 5
Overview of Smart ideas activities and Knowledge in action proformas
Smart ideas activities Knowledge in action proformas
CHAPTER 3 – QUESTIONING
Question prompts (41) 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (88),
A2: Looking at my work (118), A4: Lucky dip refl ection cards (120), A7: Picture cues (123)
Questions and answers (41) 3.1: Questions and answers (47)
Predict, probe and ponder (41) 3.2: Predict, probe and ponder (48)
The fi ve whys (42) 3.3: The fi ve whys (49), 3.4: What, where and who (50)
Q Matrix (42) 3.4: What, where and who (50), 3.5: Q Matrix (51)
Thinking hat questions (42) 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (52)
Stop, think and question (43), Take your stance (44), Get into someone else’s head (44),
Impossible questions (44), Small-group fi shbowl (45), Questions for assessment (45), Think back (45), The answer is … What is the question? (46) CHAPTER 4 – MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking ideas (60), The Reverse Key (60),
Imagery and visualisation with musical accompaniment (60), Bundling and bunching (61), Lines of communication (61), Observation logs (61), Secret envelopes (62),
More true than false, or more false than true? (62)
Found out and made me think (63) 4.1: Found out and made me think (66)
The fi ve Ps (63) 4.2: The fi ve Ps (67)
Putting people in the picture (63) 4.3: Putting people in the picture (68), 4.9: Ethical decision-making perspectives (74)
Learning journey (64) 4.4: Learning journey (69), 4.5: Detective work (70), 4.6: Amazing thinking (71), A3: Pass the remote (130)
SMS (64) 4.7: SMS (72)
The right tool (64) 4.8: The right tool for the right job (73)
Planning guide
6 Smart Thinking
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Planning guide 7
Smart ideas activities Knowledge in action proformas
CHAPTER 5 – SELF-ASSESSMENT
Know and think, learn and think (KTLT) (81), POWW (Predictions, observations, wows and woes) (81), POWWER (Predictions, observations, wows, woes, evaluation and refl ection) (82), I used to … but now I … (82)
5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (86), 5.8: Self-assessing my learning and thinking (93)
Thinking circles (82) 5.2: Thinking role cards (87)
Die refl ection roll (82)
Thinking prompts and questions (83) 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (88)
Think, pair, share (83), Rapid refl ection (83)
Self-assessment medals (84) 5.4: Self-assessment medals (89), 5.5: Self-assessment data chart (90)
Plotting my progress (84) 5.5: Self-assessment data chart (90), 5.6: Six hats for self-assessment (91)
Here’s the proof (84) 5.7: The what, when and how about my thinking (92)
Ranking and rating (85) 5.8: Self-assessing my learning and thinking (93), 5.9: Thinking about my thinking and learning (94)
Plotting my learning and thinking (85) 5.10: Plotting my learning and thinking (95)
CHAPTER 6 – GOAL SETTING
6.1: My learning goals (110), 6.2: Thinking about my goals (111), 6.3: My learning goals action plan (112)
Head, heart and hands (106) 6.4: Head, heart and hands (113)
From here to there and how (107) 6.5: From here to there and how (114)
One step at a time (108) 6.6: One step at a time (115)
Refl ect and react wheel (109) 6.7: Refl ect and react wheel (116)
APPENDIX – ADDITIONAL PROFORMAS FOR REFLECTION AND METACOGNITION
A1: Metacognition matters (117), A2: Looking at my work (118), A3: Pass the remote (119),
A4: Lucky dip refl ection cards (120), A5: Beginnings and endings (121), A6: Reasoned judgements (122), A7: Picture cues (123), A8: Traffi c light refl ections (124), A9: Plotting thinking (125)
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 7
Laying
the
groundwork
If schools are to develop and implement effective teaching of how to think, withinpupil-centred, constructivist classrooms, across and within all areas of the curriculum, it is advisable that teachers acknowledge, discuss and act upon four aspects relating to school culture: beliefs and understandings, teaching choices that promote refl ective practice, a shared language, and assessment.
School cultural issues
Beliefs and understandings
It is important that all teaching practices are based on a pedagogy that supports effective teaching and learning. If teachers are not clear about the reasons for, and evidence that supports advocated teaching practices, quality programs may be compromised. One obstacle for implementing a curriculum that enhances pupils’ thinking is that teachers may underestimate the value of teaching thinking or may not believe that thinking can be taught and optimised. The argument of content versus process will no doubt be raised, but this is an unnecessary dichotomy. Covering both content and thinking in the classroom should not be seen as oppositional or competing for valuable time.
We believe that refl ection and metacognition should be integrated into the learning process, and frequently demonstrated, practised and recognised across teaching programs, not treated separately in some. When this happens learning is thorough and deep, rather than superfi cial, and transferable rather than context-specifi c.
Where it is necessary to conduct explicit teaching sessions on a thinking type, skill, strategy or activity, it is recommended that the lessons focus on subject matter that is familiar to the pupils. Such a session structure should offer opportunities for the pupils to practise and apply the thinking, and refl ect on what they have learnt, their thinking processes and conclusions.
If we want pupils to employ metacognition and refl ective, broad and deep thinking, it is important that teachers demonstrate and model it effectively in the classroom. An analogy might be useful here: no one would assume they could teach mathematics without a deep understanding of its elements and how these are related to each other, and a range of strategies to teach and assess it, yet few people could claim that they have such a grasp on the teaching of metacognition. Without these basics, a curriculum enriched with metacognitive experiences seems impossible.
Making teaching choices that promote refl ective practice
Developing appropriate curriculum and thoughtful classrooms means fl exibility and responsiveness to pupils, shifting the focus onto them as lifelong learners and independent thinkers who are refl ective, critical and creative. Teacher support and timely and thoughtful intervention and application are also important.8 Smart Thinking
CHAPTER
1
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 8
CHAPTER 1: Laying the groundwork 9 When planning for refl ective teaching and learning we need to make strategic choices about activities, grouping and assessment. Development of thinking may be inhibited within traditional classroom cultures and by tasks that require low levels of thinking and little or no metacognitive activity, such as recall or automatic response. While the knowledge demands of the tasks should fall within pupils’ capabilities, metacognition is unavoidable when tasks are appropriately challenging and engaging and require higher-order thinking or sustained problem solving. At the same time, such tasks are more likely to stimulate refl ection and metacognition.
Problem solving, decision making, collaborative group work, authentic assessment and higher-order thinking are integral to and should be integrated into the teaching and learning of thinking. Inquiry-based curriculum and problem solving are two approaches that refl ect these elements. A curriculum that promotes thinking is more than a bunch of disjointed activities. In addition, no activity or practice – such as the use of graphic organisers – can, in itself, guarantee deep thinking or better understanding.
Refl ective activities promote: action planning
analysis and evaluation of learning decision making
goal setting
hypothesising, considering/generating alternatives linking experiences to past/current and predicted events making connections between ideas
questioning and self-questioning
refl ection on pupils’/teachers’ thinking and learning self-assessment.
A shared language
Teachers need to understand their own thinking, as well as thinking and learning in general, if they are to teach about and for thinking. They need a shared language for discussing, modelling, assessing and interacting with pupils about thinking in order to enhance it. When teachers are explicit about the teaching and learning of thinking, for example: citing purposes, skills, strategies etc, pupils are more likely to make connections between ideas and to independently apply these ideas, strategies and skills. Classroom conversations that include references to thinking processes are useful for increasing pupils’ control over their own learning, and for teacher assessment. Table 1.1 provides questions and cues to stimulate thinking and discussion about metacognitive awareness, evaluation and regulation. The use of such questions and cues could assist both teachers and pupils to monitor metacognition, and pupils might be encouraged to use them to refl ect on their own
metacognitive activity. For example: ‘I thought about what I did last time we had a problem like this and decided to draw a diagram to see if that would help’.The questions and cues are transferable across curriculum areas and could stimulate pupils’ metacognitive behaviour in a variety of other problem-solving and complex learning situations. It is hoped that teachers might use the questions and cues as a matter of course, and that pupils would eventually internalise this approach.
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 9
10 Smart Thinking
Assessment
Some teachers may fi nd the assessment of thinking and learning daunting because it is not readily observable and thus diffi cult to measure, especially through traditional tests. Yet traditional assessment measures do not meet the demands of progressive curriculum ends. Oral and performance activities, and work samples are useful for assessing thinking, and self-assessment is particularly advocated (See Chapter 5). One simple way that teachers can document their pupils’ learning and development is to record the ways they embody certain thinking behaviours.
Table 1.2 provides example behaviours which could form the basis of such a document. This table may also be useful for pupil self-assessment purposes. It is also essential to recognise that, regardless of the focus of assessment, its content needs to be clear. In other words, it is impossible to assess anything unless the teacher understands what is being assessed. Understanding refl ection and metacognition is therefore crucial.
TABLE 1.1 Metacognitive functions, cues and questions
QUESTIONS CUES
FUNCTION: Awareness
What do I already know that would be useful? I thought about what I already know that would be useful.
Have I had ever done a problem like this before? I tried to remember if I had ever done a problem like this before.
What have I done at another time that could be helpful? I thought about something I had done another time that had been helpful.
Do I know what to do? I thought, ‘I know what to do’.
What sort of problem is this? I thought, ‘I know this sort of problem’. FUNCTION: Evaluation
How am I going? I thought about how I was going.
Is what I am doing working? I thought about whether what I was doing was working. I wonder if I should check my work? I checked my work.
Is this right or wrong? I thought, ‘Is this right or wrong?’ I’m not feeling confi dent. Can I do this? I thought, ‘I can’t do it’.
FUNCTION: Regulation
What plan can I make to tackle this problem? I made a plan to work it out.
What other approach can I use to solve the problem? I thought about a different way to solve the problem. What can I do next? I thought about what I would do next.
How can I change my way of working so that I can get this done?
I changed the way I was working.
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 10
11
CHAPTER 1: Laying the groundwork
TABLE 1.2 Effective thinker profi le Behaviours
Probes deeply into factors/thinking.
Understands the need to select appropriate thinking skills and strategies to explain complex questions or issues. Consciously considers why particular views are held and signifi cant.
Monitors and organises thinking and changes in thinking.
Considers different approaches to addressing and representing problems/thinking. Evaluates the impact of their own confi dence and emotions on their thinking. Identifi es what makes thinking easy or diffi cult.
Evaluates strategies to assist their thinking.
Makes connections between ideas, experiences and emotions.
Recognises the impact of their own feelings on their own thinking and decision making, and tries to minimise possible biases and limitations.
Seeks validity and accuracy, and is alert to errors and contradictions. Checks work regularly and as deemed necessary.
Challenges assumptions, tests ideas and looks for evidence and examples. Carefully considers a range of factors and views before generalising. Makes a plan for learning.
Poses questions to others and to themselves, and seeks answers. Looks for alternative viewpoints, ideas and solutions.
Is self-aware.
Uses evaluative capacities to improve their own thinking process and outcomes. Will persevere.
Can be open-minded.
Pupils’ comments
We need to synthesise all the ideas before getting closer to a conclusion. I realised I needed to fi nd out more before I could make a judgement. I think I need to ask more questions about …
I feel like I am just touching the surface of the issue. I had to change my strategy/attitude to get the job done. I had to think about the best way to approach the problem.
I thought I understood, but what I have just read doesn’t make sense. I need to …
Teacher and pupil questions
What do you/I already know that would be helpful? What sort of thinking would be helpful here?
What conclusions can you/I draw from all these ideas? Is there another way to think about this?
When you/I thought more about it you/I realised your/my plan wasn’t going to work. What do you/I need to do now? What are some other ideas?
Can you/I fi nd any evidence for your/my hypothesis?
9780415487009-Wilson.indd 11
12 Smart Thinking
Providing a classroom environment that supports the
teaching of thinking
The role of the pupil
Pupil-centred classrooms require pupils to be active learners who are responsible for their actions and self-directed in their thinking. They are taught and expected to be aware of how they learn, to identify what helps and hinders their learning and to act in ways that facilitate it. They identify what they already know and can do and actively participate in learning experiences that will help them extend and deepen their skills and knowledge. Rather than being passive recipients of knowledge, they are expected to participate in learning experiences and actively construct their own meanings, refi ning and building on their existing knowledge (Piaget, 1970; von Glasersfeld, 1991). The process by which pupils make connections between their prior and new learning, thus constructing their own understandings is referred to as ‘constructive learning’ or ‘constructivism’. It both necessitates and enhances refl ection and metacognition on the part of the learner, though the teacher’s role is still important.
The role of the teacher
In pupil-centred classrooms, teachers believe that each pupil’s needs, abilities and interests must be considered when planning for the development of refl ection and metacognition. Through opportunities to negotiate aspects of program content, delivery and assessment, pupils can develop independent learning habits and a greater knowledge of themselves as learners. The multiple roles and associated characteristics of teachers in the pupil-centred classroom are outlined in Table 1.3.
TABLE 1.3 Teacher roles and characteristics
Assessor Gauge prior knowledge and interest.
Monitor groups and individual progress. Support self-assessment.
Be able to refl ect on their own practice and accept feedback about themselves. Questioner and
challenger
Provide an appropriate and timely level of challenge and specifi c feedback for each individual.
Encourage questions from pupils and make time for them to seek answers. Model and
coach
Demonstrate the processes and strategies they wish to facilitate and make thinking ‘visible’.
Make expectations and assessment requirements clear. Encourage risk taking.
Show enthusiasm for refl ective thinking strategies. Strategic
planner
Strategically implement approaches appropriate for the learning context and purposes. Understand each pupil’s needs, and use this information to make timely choices about tasks and grouping arrangements.
Allow pupils time to practise strategies while learning about meaningful content.
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13
CHAPTER 1: Laying the groundwork
No matter what planning choices we make, to be of value, fl exibility and responsiveness to pupils is important. Thoughtful classrooms have programs and an environment which cater for individual pupil’s needs, and gives them the opportunity to:
• build on what they know and consider how they learn best • be supported as they learn and think
• be actively involved in thinking about their learning and themselves as learners by providing opportunities for them to pose questions and build – not just fi nd – answers • see the relevance and application of their learning to their needs – both within and
beyond school
• take responsibility for their learning and thinking • consider what a given task requires before starting
• reconsider what is required as they progress through the task • identify what to focus on
• make connections between key ideas and their prior learning • challenge themselves, others and ideas
• question the relevance of data and ideas • evaluate their progress
• make strategic decisions, for example: regarding resources and approaches, and modify them as needed
• seek help when they need it
• be active learners who are responsible and self-directed in their thinking
• act in ways and participate in learning experiences that will help them extend and deepen their skills and knowledge
• set their own goals, self-assess and be largely responsible for constructing their own learning
• be aware of how they learn and what helps and hinders it • identify what they already know and can do.
In pupil-centred classrooms, teachers value:
• each pupil understanding their strengths and trusting their ability to monitor their own needs
• higher-order thinking • deep understanding
• pupil ownership of learning • differences among learners
• cooperative group work and independent tasks • respectful relationships.
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14 Smart Thinking
Teachers also need to support pupils as they:
• plan for their own learning by setting and monitoring goals • select, use and monitor appropriate strategies
• identify their own thinking processes and what is required to complete a given task • draw upon their prior knowledge
• make reasoned judgements
• ask powerful questions of themselves, others and the world • generate creative solutions to problems
• carefully observe their own thinking and actions • consider a range of perspectives
• take risks in their thinking and learning • refl ect on their thinking and learning.
Teachers help pupils become more responsible for their thinking and learning by gradually decreasing control of most aspects of the classroom to include more opportunities for pupils’ negotiation, goal setting, and decision making, for example: with regard to what pupils are learning about, how they can present their work, and what and how they will be assessed.
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15 Systematic and purposeful planning is required for effective teaching programs which facilitate refl ection and metacognition. This involves planning for the long, medium and short terms, and at the whole-school, teaching team, classroom, and individual pupil levels.
Pupil-centred teaching and learning requires teachers to plan and teach programs that better cater for individual pupil’s needs – through the selection of appropriate teaching procedures, resources and strategies – and in order to facilitate pupil involvement in decisions about the learning content, process and environment.
Planning for the long, medium and short term
Long-term planning
For the long-term planning of teaching thinking we favour a menu or list of thinking skills, strategies, tools and activities from which purposeful selections can be made, over a prescriptive scope and sequence document. However, we acknowledge that some schools have found scope and sequence documents useful in facilitating teacher discussion and professional development, and providing a form of accountability that ensures thinking skills are taught.
Through the use of specifi c thinking tools and/or explicit teaching procedures, pupils should develop enduring thinking skills that are transferable to a range of contexts and purposes. Menus such as that laid out in Table 2.1 provide teachers with the opportunity to choose thinking tools and teaching procedures based on what is appropriate for the content, context, purpose and the pupils themselves.
These menus – which could draw on whole-school documents – might include statements of what it is the pupils are expected to know and be able to do at the end of the teaching cycle (which, in most cases, is a school year), and can inform planning in the short and medium terms. The menus need to be fl exible enough to allow for changes in direction as a result of further teaching and learning experiences, and pupils’ interests, needs and abilities.
Planning
for
thinking
CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking
CHAPTER
2
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16 Smart Thinking
TABLE 2.1 Menu of thinking skills, activities, structures and graphic organisers
THINKING SKILLS Activities and structures for promoting thinking 1 Graphic organisers to represent thinking 2 Thinking type: Analytical, Critical, Logical, Reasoning Thinking type: Creative, Lateral Thinking type: Refl ective, Metacognitive, Evaluative analysing clarifying ideas/ concepts classifying comparing and contrasting defi ning the key issue/problem* critiquing detecting bias/points of view/prejudices* drawing conclusions* evaluating/judging* inferring/interpreting justifying statements/points of view linking cause and effect ordering organising/ questioning information ranking/sequencing/ prioritising reasoning* summarising adapting ideas challenging assumptions creating exploring options generating new ideas hypothesising identifying problems and possible solutions imagining inventing planning predicting* questioning suggesting alternative ideas/solutions synthesising* action planning considering alternatives/ perspectives* decision making evaluating information and ideas connecting/ examining/ modifying/organising ideas generalising* goal setting hypothesising* identifying other points of view/ ethics* identifying patterns* posing questions* questioning ideas/ self/information recalling prior knowledge refl ecting selecting appropriate strategies self-assessing self-questioning setting timelines 1–3–6 consensus 6–3–1 brainstorming bundling
de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats & DATT tools* debate decision-making/die refl ection/problem-solving/questioning/ self-assessment/ group-based activities discussion fi shbowl goal setting interviews jigsaw journals/learning logs* logos and slogans* moral dilemma philosophy POWW Q Matrix ranking
refl ection prompts similes/metaphors/ analogies* simulations Socratic questioning SWOT The fi ve whys Think, pair, share Thinker’s Keys
cartoon strip cause and effect map/wheel cluster web concept map consequence wheel continua cycle map data chart diamond ranking fi shbone map fl ow chart KWL lotus diagram mind map PMI scales T-chart timeline tri-diagram Venn diagram Y-chart
* Generally applicable across categories.
1. Some performing and visual arts activities can be useful for pupils to express their thinking.
2. Many computer programs can be used to generate and use graphic organisers, such as Kidspiration® and Inspiration®.
Medium-term planning
Medium-term planning needs to concentrate on the teaching and learning focuses for a term or for specifi c units of work including inquiry units. Often this information is documented in integrated and subject-specifi c unit or term planners. One way of documenting these opportunities for teaching refl ection and metacognition when planning would be to highlight the teaching focuses from the unit or term planner, and then attach it to the menu described above that highlights the thinking skills that can be taught. See Figure 2.1.
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17 FIGURE 2.1
Short-term planning
For planning in the shorter term, such as single lessons, teachers can employ plans that are most appropriate for the purposes and content of the session, but also outline the teaching strategies, activities and organisational procedures that best cater for individual and group needs, considering what the pupils already know, can do and are interested in. This process may involve direct input from pupils and will ideally draw on the longer-term menu of thinking skills.
Planning at the whole-school, team, class and individual levels
Whole-school planning
As discussed in Chapter 1, it is important that pupils are fully supported in their growth as effective thinkers and learners through the development of a whole-school culture of teaching for and about thinking. This may require the school community to identify and articulate the school’s beliefs about the teaching and learning of thinking and how it is facilitated across the school.
Figure 2.2 provides an example of a section of a school’s statement of their beliefs about teaching how to think and how these impact on classroom practice. Such a statement may also include the skills, strategies and tools that facilitate this process.
CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking
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18 Smart Thinking
FIGURE 2.2
Team planning
While it may be common practice for teachers to document their preferred teaching approaches and resources, it is also useful if they can develop their classroom programs together on a regular basis. This approach fosters professional dialogue, and the pooling of ideas, resources and skills that provide wider views of teaching and learning. Team planning can provide a powerful context for teacher learning, refl ection, questioning, self-assessment and goal setting.
Teachers can share the load by negotiating roles and responsibilities, for example: one teacher may contribute an appropriate activity to help pupils’ creative thinking, another may devise a set of questions related to the topic or text that require pupils to use higher levels of thinking and comprehension, while yet another might share a great activity that promotes refl ection and metacognition.
During team planning teachers can:
• discuss the needs and interests of pupils
• audit their programs to identify gaps in the teaching of and for thinking • think about ways for pupils to demonstrate their thinking and learning • identify authentic contexts for thinking and learning
• share pupils’ work samples and discuss or assess the thinking involved
• read, summarise and share key ideas about thinking and learning from curriculum documents and other sources.
Classroom planning
Auditing classroom practice
As part of the planning cycle teachers are required to identify what they do or need to do to optimise learning in their own classroom. A recommended starting point is to audit the current classroom practice. This involves teachers in identifying the elements that contribute to a classroom culture that optimises thinking, and examining their practices in light of these. The audit in Table 2.2 is designed to assist teachers in this process, and may also be useful for professional development purposes, peer-assessment or appraisal.
We believe that: This means that we will:
Refl ection and metacognition are central to effective learning.
Model refl ection and metacognitive thinking. Make explicit the purposes and features of refl ection and metacognition.
Provide time for refl ection and metacognition. Teaching of thinking
should be integrated into the regular classroom program.
Plan for thinking in all subjects.
Identify the appropriate contexts for the teaching of thinking and the use of thinking strategies and tools.
Include the assessment of thinking in assessment routines.
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19 Once teachers have audited their classroom practice, they are better able to plan and implement programs that foster refl ection and metacognition. As they plan these programs they think about what it is they want the pupils to know and be able to do, and how they can best provide experiences that will facilitate their pupils’ learning and thinking. TABLE 2.2 Teacher audit for thoughtful classroom practice
The program consistently and effectively
provides this.
I need help to plan and implement a program that provides this.
I need to fi nd out more about this as I do not know what it entails.
Is the program providing appropriate challenges for each individual? Is time provided for pupils to think in depth about meaningful issues? Are pupils involved in negotiating learning and making the most of their own learning decisions? Are pupils involved in goal setting and self-assessment?
Are sustained periods of time available for learning and refl ection? Is there a culture of teacher modelling of the use of higher level questions, thinking and risk taking? Do pupils have opportunities to use their own questions to guide their learning?
Are a range of opinions and types of thinking fostered within the classroom?
Are collaborative classroom activities employed?
Are pupils encouraged to reason, hypothesise, make connections between ideas and generate innovative solutions?
Are thinking dispositions and processes fostered within the classroom culture?
Does the teacher model the language of thinking?
Is pupils’ thinking monitored and assessed in the program?
CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking
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20 Smart Thinking
Planning a unit of work
As teachers plan a unit, it is helpful to think about the phases of planning (See Table 2.3) to ensure purposeful, sequential teaching and learning. Teachers can then identify opportunities to teach and have pupils apply thinking skills. While a range of thinking skills would be planned for, the examples in Table 2.3 focus on the use of refl ective and metacognitive thinking for integrated inquiry or subject-specifi c stand-alone units. The second column contains an example of the sentence stems teachers may use as they think about planning. TABLE 2.3 Planning phases for a unit of work
Planning phase Questions that identify the
purpose of each phase
Implications for teaching practice
Opportunities and actions for refl ective and metacognitive thinking Determining the
purpose and content of the session/unit*
What will the pupils learn about?
Why am I doing this?
For example:
• I want the pupils to learn how to, or about … (skills
and/or knowledge)
• I am doing this so that …
Make explicit to the pupils the purpose of the session/unit.
Make explicit to the pupils what they are expected to learn or do (skills and/or knowledge).
Pupils can:
• make connections with previous learning (prior knowledge).
Determining the intended outcomes
What system/school outcomes or standards are the pupils working toward? What do I want the pupils to know/do/accomplish?
For example:
• At the end of this unit I want the pupils to be able to …
• The pupils will be working toward the standard …
Make the criteria explicit to the pupils.
Pupils can:
• make connections with the purpose of the session and the intended learning outcomes
• set goals after considering the intended outcomes
• ask questions to clarify the purpose and their role in the learning.
Determining the assessment criteria
How will I know the pupils have fulfi lled the purpose?
For example:
• I will use an observation checklist and the results of peer and pupil self-assessment to monitor pupils’ progress.
Make pupils aware of the criteria or jointly create it. Provide opportunities for pupils to demonstrate what they have learnt.
Pupils can:
• self-assess their progress and/or thinking
• set goals for further learning
• make connections with outcomes, criteria and their own learning and thinking.
Determining the teaching and learning routines, procedures and resources
How will I organise the teaching experiences to ensure they do this?
For example:
• I will use an inquiry approach to …
• I think this will be the most effective way …
Negotiate some of the teaching and learning experiences with the pupils.
Pupils can:
• ask questions to clarify what is to be done, to gain further information, and to clarify their ideas and thoughts
• make connections
• assess their progress and thinking.
*Data about what pupils know and want to fi nd out could be used to inform this phase of planning.
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21 Table 2.4 describes the actions and questions both teacher and pupil might use during different phases of a unit of work.
TABLE 2.4 Teacher and pupil questions and actions during a unit of work INTRODUCTION
What the teacher might do
Make explicit to the pupils the purpose of the unit. Through questioning and purposeful demonstrations, he/she helps the pupil make links between their prior and new learning and provides tasks/questions that assist the pupils to make these connections themselves. The learning criteria (either determined by the teacher or negotiated with the pupils) are made explicit.
Questions the teacher might ask the pupils
What would you like to be able to do/learn about? What do you already know about this?
How do you feel about …?
What do you expect to see/do/feel? What are your questions?
Which goals could be worked toward?
How is this like something you have done before?
What the pupils might do
Think about what they already know, feel and can do. Form questions to assist their learning.
Predict what they might see/know/do as a result of the unit. Set goals for their learning (including thinking).
Ask questions about the task or consider strategies that would be useful. Questions
the pupils might ask themselves
What do I know about this? What would I like to know? What can I already do?
What would I like to be able to do? How do I feel? Why?
What am I expected to learn? What are the learning criteria? Have I done anything like this before?
DURING What the teacher might do
Use specifi c teaching procedures to support the pupils as they are introduced to, practise and apply the taught skills, and develop knowledge and deeper understandings (to assist the pupils to develop as independent learners and thinkers).
Provide opportunities for the pupils to use the new learning to extend and enhance their thinking and learning.
Questions the teacher might ask the pupils
What do you fi nd easy/diffi cult? Do you have any questions?
What would you like further help with? How can I now help you?
What do you need to do? What does this connect with? How do you feel about it? Why is this important/useful?
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22 Smart Thinking
What the pupils might do
Think about what they are learning (knowledge, skills, values) and how they feel about it. Make links with prior knowledge.
Pose questions to clarify information and their learning. Monitor their progress through self- and/or peer assessment. Questions
the pupils might ask themselves
How am I going?
How do I feel about my learning/thinking etc? Why? What do I need to fi nd out more about?
What sort of thinking or thinking strategies could be useful? What do I need to do?
What confuses/challenges/interests me? What does this remind me of?
What can I do to help my learning/thinking?
What can I do to help others? What can others do to help me?
CONCLUSION What the teacher might do
Plan activities to help the pupils refl ect on what they have learnt. Review the criteria and make further plans for their learning.
Refl ect on the effectiveness of pupils’ input and the teacher’s own evaluation. Questions
the teacher might ask the pupils
What do you now know/are you able to do as a result of this? What helped/hindered your learning?
What would you do differently next time? What did you fi nd easy/diffi cult? What do you think of your progress?
How have you/has your learning/thinking changed? Why? What are your plans and goals now?
What would you like to improve?
How would you describe yourself as a learner/thinker? What do you think of your work?
What was challenging? What made you really think?
What the pupils might do
Think about what they now know, can do and feel/their thinking/and what helped and hindered their learning.
Assess their progress against the criteria. Set goals.
Make plans for further action. Questions
the pupils might ask themselves
How did I go? What did I do? What did I learn? What am I good at? What do I need help with?
What did I do/feel when things were easy/diffi cult? What helped me to learn?
What would I do differently next time? What do I need to do next?
How will I do this?
How will I help myself work toward this goal? How will I show that I have achieved the goal? What sort of thinking was useful/not useful?
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23
Planning a teaching session
Effective teachers remain focused on what is important for each pupil to know and do and they constantly employ questioning and explicit demonstrations to deepen the pupils’ thinking and learning. Table 2.5 demonstrates what such a session structure might look like. While many different names may be used for each phase of a session, their purpose is to build on and enhance the pupils’ learning and thinking. See the Sample sessions on pages 24–8.
TABLE 2.5 A general session structure
Introduction
May be comprised of:
Orientation in which the teacher explains the focus of the lesson and the intended outcomes based
on what the pupils already know. This may include opportunities for questions from pupils and demonstrations of their learning and thinking.
Demonstration in which the teacher explicitly teaches the new skills or content and helps the pupils make
connections with previous learning. This may be with the whole class or small groups of pupils, and may include opportunities for teacher-modelled, shared or guided teaching and learning contexts. There would be opportunities for pupils to question and think about their learning.
Application
Pupils are supported while they practise, use or apply the new skills or knowledge to specifi c activities and within particular contexts, and develop competency. The teacher may provide individualised activities to extend or enhance certain pupil’s learning and thinking.
Conclusion
Pupils refl ect on what and how they have learnt. The teacher provides opportunities for the pupils to review the session in terms of both the process and product, assess their learning and thinking, share their work and refl ections, and think about their future learning.
Adapted from C Edwards-Groves (2003)
CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking
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24 Smart Thinking
SAMPLE SESSION
1
Reading and thinking
The following session outline describes a structure that can support pupils during a reading session while simultaneously helping them to develop as effective thinkers (and readers).
Before reading
During this orientation phase the teacher explains the purpose of the session and the intended outcomes, for example: ‘We are going to read this text and think about some ways we can make sure we understand it’.
The teacher helps the pupils develop their knowledge of the subject matter, the genre, reading strategies etc, by asking questions that draw on their previous knowledge.
Pupils could also pose any questions that may have been stimulated by the discussion. Teacher questions, such as those exemplifi ed in Table 2.6, can be used to promote, monitor and enhance pupils’ refl ection and metacognition. Although the questions in the table have been divided into two categories, the distinction is somewhat artifi cial because when pupils think about their reading and the reading process they are necessarily using refl ection and metacognition.
TABLE 2.6 Questions to prompt thinking before reading Focus on reading content and process
What do you think this text might be about? Have you read another book by this author? What type of text do you think it might be? How might the text be structured?
What does the blurb/cover/title/table of contents tell us about this text? How is the information set out (paragraph, subheadings etc.)?
Focus on thinking
What do you already know about this topic? What do you expect to see/read in this book? What do you know about reading this sort of book? How do you feel about the issues in this book? Why?
What sort of strategies could you use to remember this information for later? How does this information relate to your life and your thinking?
What sort of thinking were you using when …?
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During reading
This part of the session may be organised in several ways, depending on the teacher’s purposes. For example, the teacher may read to, or with a group of pupils or with individual pupils while others read independently. The smaller the group, the more closely the teacher can monitor, support and challenge each pupil’s knowledge of, and skills in reading
and thinking.
Table 2.7 lists the types of questions teachers may ask to help the pupils’ understanding of the reading content and process, and of themselves as readers and thinkers during this phase of the lesson.
TABLE 2.7 Questions to prompt thinking during reading Focus on reading content and process
What is it about?
Can you tell me what the text is about in just a few sentences? What is/are the main point(s)?
Which words refer to the …?
What function is this word/group of words performing?
Can you show me a part of the text that you have a question about? What important information can you glean from this text?
What might happen next?
How is the information set out (paragraph, subheadings etc.)? What do you think this expression means?
Can you show me a part of the text that confused you?
Focus on thinking
How do these words (or pictures) make you feel?
Can you show me a place in the text where your thinking changed? How did it change? Can you show me a place in the text where you found yourself making an inference? How did you work out what that word meant? What helped you to work it out? What were you thinking as you read this part? Why?
What thinking strategies did you use?
Were there any parts of the text that made you wonder or want to ask questions of the author? What was the trigger?
Do you agree or disagree with that? Why? What was confusing/interesting about it? Do you have some new ideas or information?
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26 Smart Thinking
After reading
The most important activity that can be completed by pupils after reading is one that helps them refl ect on and respond to what they have read. Teachers can develop pupils’ profi ciency as readers by engaging them in discussion that promotes their thinking about, responses to, and deep understanding of the text, and themselves as readers and thinkers. Table 2.8 lists questions that can be used to help pupils focus on these aspects.
TABLE 2.8 Questions to prompt thinking after reading Focus on reading content and process
Why do you think the author wrote this text? What are the main ideas?
What did you notice about the text? How was the text arranged?
How do you know it is a factual explanation/procedure/report etc? What are the language features that tell you this?
What do you think this author wants you to do/believe?’ What would the author have needed to know/do to write this? How would you evaluate your reading of the text?
Focus on thinking
What did you think about as you read? What sort of thinking did you do? What did you do to help you read this?
Which reading strategies did you use that were helpful? What do you think of yourself as a reader? Why? How would you describe yourself as a reader? Why? If you were reading this again what would you do differently?
What do you think is the most important thing to remember about this text? Why?
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The following session outlines a structure that can support pupils as they learn about thinking and thinkers.
Introduction
During the orientation phase of the session the teacher explains the purpose(s) of the session. In this case it is to identify and examine the types of responses and thinking that occurs when people ask and respond to probing questions.
During the demonstration phase of the lesson, the teacher uses one or more specifi c teaching procedures to support pupils as they learn. In this example, to focus the pupils’ attention on questioning and its role in thinking, the teacher models The fi ve whys activity (See p 42).
Teacher Pupil Teacher Pupil Teacher Pupil Teacher Pupil Teacher Pupil
Why do we need to drink water during the day at school? To make sure that we don’t get thirsty.
Why don’t you want to get thirsty?
Because when we are thirsty we feel tired and can’t concentrate. Why do you need to concentrate?
So that we can take part in the lessons. Why do you need to take part in the lessons? So that we can think properly.
Why do you need to think properly? To make sure that we learn.
The teacher asks questions that help the pupils make connections with their previous
learning, for example: ‘What do you know about questions?’, ‘What do you know about the use of these sorts of questions?’ and ‘What do you know about the different ways of thinking?’ The pupils are then asked to discuss what they noticed about the fi ve responses, the thinking that was involved, and what the purpose might be for asking questions in this way.
Application
During the application phase of the session the pupils are supported as they explore, practise and apply what they have learnt. Pupils divide up into groups of three. The fi rst person is the questioner, the second the answerer, and the third the recorder. Pupils use The fi ve whys activity to think about another simple and familiar question before they focus on a thinking-specifi c question such as ‘Why is it important to think about thinking?’
At the conclusion of the activity each group debriefs and shares what they have discovered. Then all the groups are brought together to share their fi ndings. The teacher makes a class list of the fi nal responses and facilitates discussion about the thinking strategies that were employed by the questioner and answerer.
To extend this lesson, teachers can reorient the pupils to the purpose of the next section of the lesson, demonstrate another thinking activity and then provide time for sharing information and fi ndings. The pupils can practise the demonstrated procedure and debrief at the
conclusion of this application phase.
SAMPLE SESSION
2
Thinking about thinking and thinkers
CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking
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