Guide to Food Transport - Fish, Meat and Dairy Products

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(1)OmslagFM. 05/08/99. 9:30. Side 1. FISH, MEAT AND DAIRY PRODUCTS.

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(7) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 3. GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT FISH, MEAT AND DAIRY PRODUCTS.

(8) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 4. © 1990 by Mercantila Publishers as Lay-out and artwork: Mercantila Publishers as, Copenhagen Printed in Denmark by Jydsk Centraltrykkeri A/S ISBN 87 89010 97 3 Distribution by Mercantila Publishers as 18 Upsalagade DK-2100 Copenhagen Denmark Tel: +45 3543 6222 Fax: +45 3543 5151. All rights reserved. No parts of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form, or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopying or other wise, without the prior written permission of Mercantila Publishers as. 4.

(9) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 5. CONTENTS. CONTENTS Preface. 7. CHAPTER 1 General about Foods. 11. 1. Chilling injury. 11. 2. Controlled atmospheres. 12. 3. Relative humidity. 12. 4. Packaging. 16. 5. Refrigeration. 24. 6. Regulations. 25. 7. Temperature monitoring and temperature measurement. 36. CHAPTER 2 Transport conditions. 43. 1. General information on transport. 43. 2. Mechanical refrigeration. 50. 3. ISO intermodal containers. 54. 4. Primary distribution vehicles (trailers). 62. 5. Other types of refrigeration systems. 69. 6. Other types of transport equipment. 70. 7. Code of good transporting practices. 72. 5.

(10) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 6. CONTENTS. CHAPTER 3 Practical storage life (PSL) of foods. 79. 1. Quality influencing processes. 79. 3. TTT-PPP concept. 83. 3. Deep frozen foods. 88. 4. Frozen foods. 111. 5. Chilled foods. 114. CHAPTER 4 1. Liability for carriage of goods. 143. 2. Insurance. 145. 3. Instructions for the carrier. 146. CHAPTER 5 Definitions and explanations. 151. Index. 155. 6.

(11) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 7. PREFACE. PREFACE The GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, Meat, Fish and Dairy products, provides information and guidelines to help assure that perishable foodstuffs reach their intended destination in the best condition possible.. for avoiding such situations and the pursuing cargo loss claims. As such, it will be invaluable to people in all branches of the perishable food transportation industry, i.e. shipowners, carriers, shipping agents, consignors and insurance agents.. In July 1989 we published GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, Fruit and Vegetables. The main part of this book describes one hundred of the most important products in the fruit and vegetable category. It was quickly realized that there was a definite need for a book describing the other perishable foodstuffs, i.e. chilled and frozen meat, fish and dairy products.. In preparing this new book it was decided to put all the different perishable foodstuffs into 16 different product groups. The description of these deep (quick)frozen, frozen or chilled groups is found in sections 3, 4 and 5 in chapter 3. For each product information is given on relevant legislation, minimal requirements for raw materials, processing and packaging, the storage life at different temperatures, recommended or required transport temperatures, and sensitivity to temperature and foreign odours. Section 3 also includes general information about quality influencing factors, storage life, calculation of quality loss etc.. Previous literature on this subject was quite technical, aimed at experts who already possessed some background knowledge. This new book, and its predecessor, is written so that they can be easily understood and used by all. Improper or careless handling of perishable foodstuffs during manufacture, storage and transportation can lead to damaged cargoes (or even food poisoning) and extensive losses. The inadvertent destruction is often due to incorrect temperatures during manufacture and transport. The GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, Meat, Fish and Dairy products, provides suggestions and background information. Chapter 1 summarizes important aspects in connection with foods such as packaging, legislation, temperature measurements etc. Chapter 2 gives a description of transport equipment, mainly trailers and containers. This includes refrigeration units, air circulation, temperature control systems, loading and unloading. Chapter 4 deals with the most important. 7.

(12) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 8. PREFACE. aspects of insurance, including information on the necessary procedures in case of transport damage. Chapter 5 gives definitions and explanations on some of the terms used in the book. Most of the book was compiled from information supplied by Leif Bøgh-Sørensen, Danish Meat Products Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture, who has experience in all aspects of food technology. Mike Cowley (Cowley Industrial Consultants Ltd.) was givin the responsibility of ensuring the correctness of the text. Information on legislation was given by food scientist Linda Jensen, and on fish and fish products by food scientist Helle Emsholm. In-. 8. formation and advice on transport equipment was given by several persons, especially Mogens Eilsø and Hans Chr. Lindhardt. The chapter on insurance is based on material, prepared by Theo Koch & Co, Average agents, Copenhagen. A number of the photographs were supplied by the Danish Meat Research Institute or from Frigoscandia AB. We would like to express our sincere thanks to all contributors who have made the publishing of this book possible.. September 1990 Mercantila Publishers as.

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(15) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 11. GENERAL ABOUT FOODS. GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT FOODS The information contained in this book covers frozen foods and chilled foods. Produce for consumption as fresh fruit or vegetables is not included, as they are dealt with in the book GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, FRUIT AND VEGETABLES. Definitions and explanations of some of the terms used in this book can be found in chapter 5. Chapter 1 comprises the following sections: Section 1 Chilling and freezing injury. Section 2. Controlled atmosphere. Section 3.1 Relative humidity (RH), 3.2 water loss Section 4. Packaging, including 4.1 Inner packaging. 4.2 Outer packaging. Section 5. Refrigeration Section 6 Relevant regulations on transport equipment, including 6.1 The ATP Agreement 6.2 Foodstuffs, especially in the EEC. 6.3 Regulations on packaging materials. 6.4 Irradiation. 6.5 The activities of Codex Alimentarius are outlined. Section 7. Temperature monitoring and temperature measurement including 7.1 Air temperature measurement.. 7.2 Product temperature measurement. 7.3 Temperature recording during transport. 7.4 Temperature measuring instruments. 1. CHILLING INJURY Chilling injury is a very important quality factor for fresh fruit and vegetables. For several commodities, quality and storage life will be reduced considerably when the temperature of the food product is lowered to, or below, a critical temperature. This critical temperature is usually the freezing point of the liquid within the fruit, usually just above 0°C. However for some fruits with a high sugar content, such as citrus fruit, it is above 8°C, for bananas it is above 12°C. For the products dealt with in this book, chilling injury seldom plays a major role. This means that for practically all chilled foods the optimum storage and transport temperature is marginally above the freezing point of the food product. For most raw foods the freezing point is -1.5°C to -2°C , and the ideal temperature for these chilled foods would be -1°C with a minimum of fluctuations, i.e. -1°C +/- 0.5°C.. Freezing injury Freezing injury occurs when the food is exposed to freezing temperatures for more than a short time. For most meat, poultry and fish products, the freezing process makes very little difference in the. 11.

(16) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 12. CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES (CA). eating quality of the foodstuff. There would be no loss of quality if the product temperature was accidentally reduced to below the initial freezing temperature for example during transportation. However, the problem is that freezing during transport will normally be a very slow process, so slow that severe quality degradation could occur. The significance of freezing time and freezing rate is discussed in chapter 3 section 3. 2. CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES (CA) In normal atmospheric air - comprising approximately 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and the rest nitrogen - most quality influencing processes advance readily. In the case of chilled foods most microorganisms demand a certain amount of oxygen to grow. The growth of microorganisms eventually leads to spoilage of the food product, see chapter 3 section 1.1 Microbiology.. A method used to prevent or reduce the rate of microbe growth is to alter the composition of the atmosphere surrounding the food. This is normally done by reducing the oxygen content, or increasing the carbon dioxide content, often both. 2.1 CA-storage Storage in controlled atmosphere, usually referred to as CA-storage is used to a large extent for fresh fruits and vegetables, see GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, FRUIT AND VEGETABLES. For the products dealt with in this book CAstorage is hardly ever used. The use of a controlled atmosphere in packaging of foodstuffs is discussed in section 4. 2.2 Modified Atmosphere (MA) Modified atmosphere as defined in. 12. GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, FRUIT AND VEGETABLES is not relevant to the foods included in this book, as they do not respire and cannot change the composition of the surrounding atmosphere. However, in vacuum packaging, for example fresh meat, the concentration of carbon dioxide will increase considerably, to more than 50%, due to enzyme activity and/or microbiological growth. The term Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) is used , see section 4.1.3 below.. 3. RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) - WATER LOSS. 3.1 Relative humidity (RH) The fact that water is suspended in air is illustrated in our day to day life by mist, early morning dew and our breath condensing in cold air. It is not important to understand the physics of water vapour other than the fact that the relationship between temperature and the amount of water air can hold is non-linear. The psychometric chart, see fig.1.1, is a way of displaying the conditions relating to water in air at a specific atmospheric pressure, usually sea level. The dry bulb temperature, i.e. the temperature measured by a normal thermometer, is shown on the horizontal line, the wet bulb temperatures are those on the lines falling to the right. The relative humidity ( RH ), also referred to as humidity percentages are the lines curved up, and the vertical axis is the humidity ratio, i.e. the content of water in 1 kg of dry air. Relative humidity ( RH ) is a commonly used term to describe humidity of air, but without knowing the corresponding temperature (dry bulb temperature). It has no precise meaning. It is more meaningful to.

(17) 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 13. RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) - WATER LOSS. 025 Sea Level. 25. Dew Point 14°C. 100. °C 20. °C. 50. 18. 28. 80. 25. 60. 15. Bu. lb. We t. 015. Bu. B. 40. 10. 010. 20. 5 -5. 020. We t. lb. C. 0. y. midit. Hu lative. 10. 005. Re. 18 -5. Humidity Ratio (kg/kg). Psychrometric Chart. RH. GuideFish. 0. 5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. °C. We t. Dry Bulb (°C). Bu. lb. Fig 1.1 Psychrometric chart showing humidity and temperature relationship. The RH can be found at the point of intersection between the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature lines, for example:. tain much more water than cold air with a similar RH. For example, air with 90% RH contains 10 g water/kg air at 15°C, and 5 g water/kg air at 5°C, see figure 1.1. From other diagrams or tables it can be found that air at 20°C and 90% RH contains as little as 0.6 g water/kg air. Therefore, a lower air temperature will reduce dehydration of foods.. A dry bulb temperature of 25°C and a wet bulb temperature of 18°C will give a relative humidity of 50% (point A). By extending a line horizontally from point A to the right hand scale (point B), you will be able to read off the humidity ratio, 0.010 kg per kg of dry air, which means that 1 kg dry air contains 10 g of water vapour. In a refrigerated storage room or a transport vehicle the RH is used to indicate the rate of evaporation that the commodities are subjected to. However this is not an accurate method as warm air may con-. In cold storage rooms and transport equipment, the air temperature varies. The air delivered from the refrigeration unit will take up heat from the produce and other sources, so the air returning to the refrigeration unit will be some degrees warmer than the delivery air. The air closest to the evaporator, i.e. the delivery air, will normally have an RH close to 100%, while the circulating air will have a lower RH. This indicates that there may be considerable differences in RH in different locations in the same room.. talk of humidity ratio, that is the ratio of the weight of water in suspension in the air, to the weight of the dry air. This can best be explained by an example and by reference to fig.1.1.. 13.

(18) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 14. RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) - WATER LOSS. If the air at point A was cooled, the horizontal line from point A should be extended to the left, progressively increasing in relative humidity until it reaches 100% at 14°C (point C). Any further cooling would result in water condensing out of the air (dew would form). The dew-point is 14°C. To avoid free water forming on foodstuffs, packagings or inner surfaces of the transport equipment, the air circulating over cold surfaces must not be warmer or have a higher RH than the corresponding point between A and C. The important point to note here is that with perishable foods requiring a temperature near 0°C, and a high RH, the circulating air must be cooled to a sub zero temperature, about -2°C, by means of the evaporator. Unfortunately this will cause water condensation at the surface of the evaporator subsequently lowering the RH. One way of keeping the humidity high is to ventilate the room with warm air from the outside. For example, air from outside with a dry bulb temperature of 25°C and wet bulb temperature of 18°C (point A) entering the vehicle or storage room where the internal temperature is 0°C and RH 95%, will add moisture as the air is cooled to 14°C (point C) when it will loose water and will continue to do so until its temperature reaches 0°C. The moisture content of the newly introduced air dropping from 10 g to 4 g per kg, will add 6 g water for each kg of outside air introduced. The limiting factors to using outside air to raise humidity are power consumption and having the external air in the appropriate condition. 1 kg of atmospheric air has a volume of about 0.8 cubic metres. 3.2 Water loss Water loss (dehydration, desiccation or evaporation) can result in quality deterio-. 14. ration in chilled and frozen foods. Weight loss is normally of far greater importance due to the high monetary value of most chilled and frozen foods. Therefore, an ever increasing number of chilled and frozen foods are protected against dehydration by means of appropriate packaging. Water loss from unwrapped foods can be reduced by maintaining the correct temperature and humidity in the storage room. Evaporation of water from food occurs primarily because of the difference in vapour pressure between the surface of the food and its surrounding atmosphere. As mentioned above, most chilled and frozen foods are packaged for protection against water loss during storage and transport. The air surrounding unwrapped deep frozen foods is -18°C or less and can contain very little water. In practice, very little is done to adjust the RH in unwrapped frozen foods, either in freezer storage rooms, or in transport equipment. Frost formation inside the packaging. Even when a package with a low water vapour permeability is used, dehydration of the frozen product still occurs if the package does not fit tightly around the product. The main reason is that, in practice, the temperatures will never be constant, but always fluctuate. The water removed from the food itself remains inside the package as frost. The mechanism of the interior frost formation in a package which does not fit tightly around the product is as follows: - The layer of air between product and packaging is subject to temperature variations. As the temperature outside the package decreases, the temperature of the inner surface of the packaging will drop below the product surface tempera-.

(19) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 15. RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) - WATER LOSS. ture and ice from the product will form and condense on the inside of the package. - When the outside temperature increases, the process is reversed and the water vapour will condense on the product surface. - As the cooling-heating cycle recurs, the ice crystals on the product surface tend to follow package temperature more closely than the mass of the product, and this results in further sublimation of ice from the product. Frost in packages can amount to 20% or more of product weight. Since the desiccation of the surface layers results in an increased surface area and thus greater access to oxygen, the rate of the quality degradation of the food at the surface may also increase. For retail packed frozen foods such as vegetables, meat balls, etc. the problem is difficult to solve, as it is not possible to pack them so as to remove the air between the particles. Such products are very susceptible to internal frost formation, especially if they are allowed to spend a long time in the outer layers of display cabinets. By using laminates that include a layer of aluminium foil, internal frost formation can be reduced considerably. Freezer burn. Unwrapped frozen foods continue to lose weight through desiccation during storage, but lower storage temperatures result in less weight loss. For packaged frozen foods, damage to the packaging material will cause an increased rate of dehydration. Light (white) spots on the surface of frozen foods are caused by local dehydration and can result in an unacceptable appearance. Light spots normally disappear on thawing and cooking and have no influence on taste or texture.. Severe dehydration leads to “freezer burn”, i.e. formation of greyish zones at the surface due to cavities forming in the superficial layer. Freezer burn causes the lean surfaces of meat to become rancid, discoloured and physically changed. Freezer burn is irreversible, does not disappear on thawing and cooking, and signals undesirable changes in taste and texture. Meat, poultry, fish, game in particular can be severely affected by freezer burn. Temperature fluctuations. The effects of temperature fluctuations depend on the average storage temperature. The higher the storage temperatures the more effect the temperature fluctuations will have on ice sublimation pressure and the growth of ice. Minimum desiccation is achieved at colder storage temperatures, i.e. -18°C or colder, with a minimum of fluctuations. As mentioned above, evaporation of water from the food surface depends on the difference in water vapour pressure. The water vapour pressure, as well as the water content in the air decreases with temperature, see fig. 1.1. Therefore, rapid cooling of food products, especially unwrapped food products, to their required storage temperature is very important. The colder the food surface, the smaller the evaporation effect, hence a smaller weight loss. When cooling either in the chilling process or the freezing process the food surface temperature will drop faster than the internal temperature. This is an advantage when it comes to weight loss, as evaporation depends on the product surface temperature. An ultra rapid chilling process results in minimal weight loss, and is an advantage in relation to microbiology. The faster the temperature is. 15.

(20) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 16. PACKAGING. lowered, the faster the growth of microorganisms is retarded. As discussed in chapter 3 section 5.0, a very rapid chilling process may result in problems in quality such as toughening of meat due to cold shortening.. 4. PACKAGING Packaging for foodstuffs is divided into two categories, inner and outer packaging. The inner packaging is in direct contact with the food product. It can be a package intended for the final consumer; common terms are consumer pack, sales packaging, retail packaging, or primary packaging. This includes packaging intended for catering and larger consumers such as canteens, hospitals,etc. Inner packaging is also used for packaging of food intended for further processing. Outer packaging normally contains a number of inner packagings. Common terms are outer cases, transport packaging, transport carton, shipping container, secondary packaging, etc.. 4.1 Inner packaging Packing of products in consumer packs has disadvantages as well as advantages. Advantages: Protects against contamination - Reduces or prevents dehydration Facilitates sales distribution - Necessary for hygiene purposes for foods to be sold in self-service shops, such as supermarkets - Necessary to attach information prescribed in labelling directives etc. and convenient to attach consumer information and instructions Disadvantages: Cost - May slow down the chilling process if the food has not achieved the correct temperature prior to the packing process.. 16. Choice of packaging should be based primarily on the requirements of the individual product. The nature of the food, product composition, the temperatures it is likely to experience, the expected storage life should be taken into consideration. Some important aspects of packaging such as sales appeal, colour and “marketing” issues are not considered in this book. A wide range of materials and packaging forms are available. The most predominant form of consumer packs are plastic bags or “foodtainers” a tray made of wood-pulp or plastic, overwrapped with a plastic film. 4.1.1 Important properties of packaging materials. The most important properties of packaging materials to be used for food products are: Water Vapour Permeability - Permeability to water vapour, called Water Vapour Transmission Rate (WVTR). For almost all the products dealt with here, WVTR of the packaging material, and of the packaging itself, should be low or very low. Plastic laminates containing an aluminium foil layer have such a low WVTR that there is hardly any water vapour penetration. Gas Permeability -Permeability to gases, especially oxygen and carbon dioxide. For a number of frozen or deep frozen products it is necessary to use a packaging material with low oxygen permeability in order to prevent or reduce the development of rancidity. Rancidity is an oxidative process, hence there must be oxygen present to allow it to start, see chapter 3 section 1.2..

(21) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 17. PACKAGING. When vacuum-packaging is used, it is necessary to use a packaging material with an oxygen permeability less than 7090 ml/m2/day x bar, measured at room temperature. For foods requiring extra protection against oxygen, packaging materials with an oxygen permeability of 10 ml/m2/day x bar or lower are used. For packaging materials to be used for MAP,the permeability to oxygen and carbon dioxide must be equal to or lower than the permeability of plastic materials used for vacuum packaging. Physical properties These comprise several different characteristics such as burst strength, tensile strength, elongation, elasticity, etc. The packaging material used must be able to withstand the conditions it experiences in the cold chain, such as drops, shocks, vibrations, etc. At present, internationally recognized and standardized methods are not available, therefore it is normally necessary, and always advisable, to carry out transport tests in order to ensure that the inner packaging has sufficient strength. For deep frozen goods the material must be able to withstand temperatures as cold as -40°C without becoming brittle. In some cases, liquid nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide is used as a refrigerant, and the packaging material must withstand temperatures as low as -50°C or even lower. The trend towards ready-to-eat dishes means that an increasing amount of packaging material as well as withstanding extremely cold temperatures must also be able to tolerate high temperatures, e.g. 100°C for “Boil-in-the-bag” pouches, 200°C or even higher for oven cooked consumer packs. Hot fillings are used for some foods. This. means that the food (usually liquid or semi-liquid ) is put into the package while still hot, often over 90°C. Obviously, the packaging material must be able to withstand this process. Machinability The term “machinability” is difficult to define, but as packaging machinery is often very expensive, it is an important factor in the choice of a potential new plastic that it can run on the existing packaging machinery at least the same speed and with lesser failures than the material it is to replace. Migration. As stated in section 6.3, several countries have legislation on packaging, including maximum permissible limits for migration of additives from the packaging material into the foodstuff. 4.1.2 Packaging materials. For chilled and frozen foods the most commonly used plastic materials are: Polyethylene(PE) The low density form (LDPE) has a relatively low WVTR, but a high permeability to oxygen. The heat sealability is excellent, and PE is comparatively inexpensive. It is frequently used in laminates as the inner layer in contact with the foodstuff. Polyamide(PA) or Nylon This plastic material has good strength and moulding properties, and relatively low permeability. It is used in many laminates, e.g. for use in vacuum-packaging or deep-drawn articles. Polyester(PET) This film withstands high temperatures, some types up to about 240°C. PET may be used for double cooked consumer. 17.

(22) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 18. PACKAGING. packs. It has very good mechanical properties, but is rather expensive.. well be one of the layers. Paper is also used as a layer in some laminates.. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This film has good mechanical properties, good optical properties,and is rather inexpensive. Soft PVC, i.e. PVC where a certain amount of plasticiser are incorporated, has high permeability. Plasticised PVC is used for retail packaging of several foods, e.g. meat, poultry, fruits. Other types of plasticized PVC are used for rigid or semi-rigid containers, often thermoformed.. The different layers may be held together by means of adhesives, or they can be produced as a co-extrusion. By using laminates it is possible to combine the desirable characteristics of different plastic materials at a reasonable cost. Today it is possible to manufacture packaging materials with the desired permeability properties. Beside these plastic materials, there are some other packaging materials used for chilled and frozen foods.. Aluminium foil. The use in laminates is mentioned above, but aluminium foil, in the form of trays, is used for a range of foods, for example for ready-to-eat meals to be heated in a conventional oven and for meat products such as pate. Paper. Paper Is used as a layer in some laminates, for example in composite cans, used for frozen concentrated juice etc. As greaseproof paper is it used for dairy products such as butter and margarine, and for animal fats such as lard. Barrier-layers. The two best known barrier materials are PVDC and EVOH. Both plastic materials have very low oxygen-permeability and are used as barrier-layers in laminates intended for products where the oxygen diffusion must be minimal, for example in plastic materials intended for use in vacuum-packagings of oxygen sensitive foods, or for use in MAP. Laminates. A laminate comprises several layers, normally of different materials. In most cases all layers will be plastic materials, but aluminium foil (or a metallizing sheet) could. 18. Cartons. Consumer packed frozen foods and ice cream, milk etc. are often packed in cartons which are coated with plastic (normally PE). The paperboard used is described in section 4.2.3 below. Metal cans. Metal cans are used for some perishable products that should be kept at 5°C or below, for example “keep refrigerated” cured meat products which have been pasteurized (a centre temperature of about 72°C), resulting in a practical storage life (PSL) of 6 months or more at 5°C or below. Plastic packaging has replaced cans for many of these products. 4.1.3 Packaging forms Consumer packs of frozen and chilled foods are found in various forms. Basic package forms may be grouped in three major categories: rigid, semirigid, and flexible. Rigid packages are formed into a definite shape from sufficiently strong materials, so that they retain their shape when filled. The materials normally used are metal and glass. Semirigid packages are formed into a definite shape but are made from weaker.

(23) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 19. PACKAGING. materials, so they can be distorted by the application of moderate force. Semirigid packages are made of metal, such as aluminium foil, plastics and paperboard. Flexible packages are made from flexible materials such as plastic, paper, thin metal sheet etc., and generally their shape conforms to the shape of the product. They may be distorted with ease. Rigid materials become more and more flexible when fabricated to thinner and thinner sections, and the distinction between rigid and semirigid and between semirigid and flexible packaging forms is often hard to determine. There is some overlap in the naming of certain packaging.. material, but combinations are being used in an increasing amounts. A number of chilled and frozen foods require protection against dehydration but do not need a special barrier against oxygen. For such foods a pouch made of PE, for example, would be sufficient to secure the expected storage life. Several frozen as well as chilled products belong to this category. Plastic bags and pouches are often heat sealed. The package is closed by means of heat and pressure in such a way that it is completly sealed so micro-organisms cannot penetrate the package. A heat seal of this type is sometimes referred to as hermetically sealed.. Wrappers The simplest type of flexible package is the wrap, where a sheet material is used to enclose a quantity of product. Greaseproof paper is very useful as a wrap for butter and margarine. When meat, fish and many other foods must be transported in bulk over long distances, wrappers are seldom used.. Vacuum-packaging When the package has been filled with foodstuff, the air is drawn out, and the package is sealed (usually heat sealed). With a flexible package, the plastic material will be pulled against the foodstuff. As mentioned above, a packaging material with a low oxygen permeability must be used. In this way, the food is protected against oxygen in the atmosphere, and the quality degrading processes should proceed at a reduced rate, resulting in an increased storage life.. Overwrapped trays In supermarkets, fresh meat and poultry is traditionally displayed in trays made of wood pulp or a rigid plastic, some times called a “foodtainer”. The foodtainer and the meat is then overwrapped with a plastic film with high permeability to oxygen. Fresh fruit and vegetables are also marketed in this way. In some countries it is a legal requirement that foodtainers used for fresh meat shall be transparent. In these places foodtainers are made of a transparent plastic. Bags, pouches. Plastic bags and pouches are the most widely used consumer pack. They may be manufactured from a single plastic. It is recommended that at least 95% of the air should be removed from the package during the vacuum process. The small amount of air remaining inside the package will have it’s oxygen consumed by enzymes and micro-organisms with a byproduct of carbon dioxide. For foods such as fresh meat the concentration of carbon dioxide in the small amount of air remaining in the package is often well above 50%. This contributes to the long storage life of vacuum-packed beef. Plastic bags and pouches are often evacuated in this way as are most other packaging forms.. 19.

(24) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 20. PACKAGING. VSP (Vacuum Skin Packaging) A special type of vacuum-packaging is used for some foods. A barrier plastic material with a low melting point is softened by heating before applying a vacuum and sealing the package. During this operation, the soft film moulds itself to the shape of the foodstuff to give a skin-tight package. This can give the food product an attractive appearance and better protection as no oxygen remains inside the package. VSP is used for some meat products and for fresh fish in some countries. MAP After having evacuated the air from the package, a modified atmosphere can be introduced before heat sealing the container. Thus, the packaged food will be surrounded by a gas mixture differing from the normal atmosphere. This is some times called gas flushing. The usual modified atmosphere is one without oxygen, simply because oxygen is involved in many quality degrading processes, see chapter 3 section 1. A number of combinations of nitrogen and carbon dioxide are used, for example 50% nitrogen and 50% carbon dioxide; the oxygen content must always be low, for some foods the oxygen content should be maintained below 0.5%. As plastic materials are not impermeable to gases, the composition of the gas mixture inside the package will change, albeit very slowly provided the packaging material has a very low permeability to oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the foods are stored at low temperatures. Therefore, this type of package should more correctly be called MAP (Modified Atmosphere Packaging) and not CAP (Controlled Atmosphere Packaging) as it is sometimes erroneously called . As mentioned in chapter 3 section 5.1 MAP with a rather higher oxygen content is sometimes used.. 20. It is comparatively easy to determine “leakers” in vacuum-packages (leakers are packages with a puncture or holes, so they can not maintain the “vacuum”) because the packaging material will no longer fit tightly around or be pressed against the foodstuff. When using MAP, it is much more difficult to detect “leakers” as the package will usually look the same whether it is intact or not. The only way to check is to analyze the composition of the atmosphere inside the package. This can be done by using a comparatively cheap and simple instrument. From records of the initial composition of the gas mixture, it can be calculated or judged whether the package in question has a sufficient degree of tightness. Masterpacks A special system, called Masterpack, is sometimes used, especially in the meat industry. The basic idea is that several consumer packs in conventional packages, such as overwrapped foodtainers, are placed in a large bag, which may be vacuumized or filled with a modified atmosphere. The bag is not opened until the retailer wants to display the consumer packs. If there is no oxygen in the master pack the meat inside the masterpack will change colour, but the normal bright red colour will reappear some minutes after exposure to normal atmosphere. CAPTECH This system was developed in New Zealand to help in transporting meat over long distances. The meat is packed in an “alufoil” laminate with a permeability to oxygen and carbon dioxide approaching zero. The air in the package is replaced by carbon dioxide, and the oxygen content in the package must be nil, or very low, throughout the life of the package. When the temperature in storage and transport is maintained at about -1.5°C.

(25) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 21. PACKAGING. with a minimum of fluctuations, the storage life of lamb could be 20 weeks or more. The package can contain whole animals, wholesale cuts, or consumer packs. The system has been developed for container transport of chilled lamb from New Zealand to Europe, but could presumably be used for other types of meat. Thermoforming-Deep drawing Plastic materials become plastic when heated, and this is utilized in the manufacture of plastic packages. Thermoforming. Thick thermoplastic sheets or films can be formed into shaped containers by thermoforming. PS (Polystyrene), PVC and PA (nylon) are particularly amenable to this process. The plastic material is brought to plasticizing temperature by heating and the material is vacuum drawn or blown into the cavities of a mould. The sheet is thinned by this process and its permeability (barrier properties) may be reduced in inverse proportion to the square of the area increase. Thermoforming is used to produce semi rigid packages, e.g. trays for MAP meat. Deep drawing. Deep drawing is in principle the same as thermoforming, but deep drawing is carried out at the food producers packhouse. The packaging material is normally delivered in rolls. The food product is placed into the package immediately after the deep drawing process. The formed containers (trays) are lidded with a layer of packaging material from a second roll. The vacuum or MAP treatment can be performed at the same time as the heat sealing process. Deep drawing is used for many chilled and frozen products, especially in the meat industry. Many plastic materials used for deep. drawing will contain PA, as this material has good elasticity properties. PE will very often form the inner layer. Form-Fill-and-Seal Plastic pouches are often formed simultaneously with packaging the product. Preformed pouches are used, but most pouches are formed from plastic materials in rolls on two types of equipment: vertical and horizontal form, fill and seal machines. The packaging material may be a single layer of plastic, but often has a more complex structure, i.e. a laminate. Injection moulding Many rigid and semi rigid plastic packages (trays,boxes,etc.) are made by injection moulding. Blow moulding Plastic bottles and jars are normally made by blow moulding.. 4.2 Outer packaging For most chilled and frozen food wrapped in inner packaging, an outer package is also used. As mentioned above, outer packaging is also called outer case, transport carton, transport packaging, etc. Proper transport packaging is essential to maintain product quality and to minimizing product losses during transportation and marketing. In addition, outer packaging serves to enclose the product and provides a means of handling. Poor quality packaging will lead to damage, lowering prices, or outright rejection of the often high value food products. The transport packaging must withstand: • Rough handling during loading and unloading.. 21.

(26) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 22. PACKAGING. Rough handling may occur in all parts of the chill/freezer chain, at the producing plant, in different storage rooms, during transport, and at its destination. The outer packaging must have sufficient strength to withstand these influences. • Compression from the overhead weight of other cartons Compression from outer packages stacked above can be severe in storage rooms, where stacking heights of up to 89 meters are sometimes used. However, outer packagings are normally not stacked so high, as racks etc. are used. During transport the maximum stacking height is about 2 meters. • Impact and vibration during transportation Impact and vibration during transport depends on the mode of transportation, for example road, rail or sea transport. • High humidity High humidity may be found in cooling down rooms, in most storage rooms, in transport equipment or during loading and unloading (if carried out unprotected from the weather). Many outer packagings are made of untreated paperboard, and the compression strength of such packagings can be reduced to less than half in conditions of 90% RH.. Outer packagings used include: • Paperboard cartons,boxes ( glued, interlocking, stapled ). • Plastic trays, boxes, film wraps, etc. • Foam boxes, trays • Wood bins, trays, crates,etc.. 4.2.1 Paperboard Paperboard is the most widely used material for outer packagings. As mentioned above, the compression strength of un-. 22. treated paperboard is reduced very much when water is taken up. Water take-up can be caused by condensation, for example when cartons containing deep frozen foods are placed in warm and humid surroundings for more than a short time. For outer cases where exposure to high humidity and/or water may occur, the paperboard must be wax-impregnated or coated with water resistant material, for example plastic. Glued cartons should be made using a water resistant adhesive. Paperboard is divided into several categories: • Containerboard. Containerboard is a general term used to include a variety of paperboards. Generally, it refers to solid fibreboard or corrugated board used in the manufacture of outer packaging and related products and their component materials, e.g. linerboard and corrugating medium (fluting). • Fibreboard. The term describes a material made primarily from wood fibres. It may be solid or corrugated and is used to make cartons and drums.. In most countries, solid fibreboard should have a minimum density of 1000 g/m2, while the board is between 250 and 1000 g/m2, and paper is up to 250 g/m2. 4.2.2 Corrugated board. Corrugated fibreboard, generally referred to as simply corrugated board, consists of a corrugated sheet of paper called the corrugating or fluting medium, faced on both sides with flat paper, called the linerboard or liner, see fig. 1.2. -Linerboard is a general term, often prefixed by a “quality” or grade description,.

(27) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 23. PACKAGING. such as kraft liner (short for kraft linerboard), jute liner, test liner. Types of flutes. Several types of flutes have become standard: • A-flute is the thickest (4.6 mm), with the least number of flutes ( 110-120 per m ), and the greatest cushioning and shock absorbing properties.. properties. It offers greater stiffness, rigidity and crush resistance in the direction of its fibres, and an improved print reception surface for graphic design and point-of-sale impact. E-flute is widely used for liquor cartons, and for fragile foods that require both protection in transit and display/presentation provision. Normally, outer packaging is made with the flutes running vertically. In this direction they provide the greatest top-tobottom stacking strength.. • B-flute is 2.6 mm thick and has 160-170 flutes per m. • C-flute falls between A- and B-flute. • E-flute is 1.15-1.50 thick and has 250300 flutes per m. It has the highest flat crush and the least shock absorbing. Corrugated board construction. There are several forms of corrugated board. The name given to them varies from country to country and sometimes from region to region. Some important types are:. double-faced corrugated board; double lined; single wall; single flute corrugated board.. Double-double faced corrugated board; treble-lined; double wall; twin flute corrugated board.... Fig. 1.2 The two forms of corrugated board most commonly used for transport cartons.. In double-wall or triple-wall boards the flutes can be found in any combinations of the four flutes mentioned above.. weight per unit area. The weight of the most used material for packaging of foods is 250-400 g/m2. 4.2.3 Boxboard Boxboard is a general term for grades of paperboard used for fabricating boxes. A measure and definition of grade is the. Folding boxboard is a paperboard made from a large variety of raw materials, suitable for the manufacture of folding cartons. The board must possess. 23.

(28) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 24. REFRIGERATION. strength qualities that allow creasing, folding, etc., and surface characteristics suitable for printing, etc. Special food boards are also a type of folding boxboards. This group generally comprises solid bleached cellulose boards. Food boards are frequently coated, with PE for example and after printing may be waxed. Examples are: frozen foods, ice cream and milk cartons. Frozen foods are sometimes wrapped in thin plastic before being placed in a carton. However, some frozen foods are marketed in a folding carton with no extra protection, but in these cases the foodstuff should not be susceptible to dehydration or oxidation. Some breaded products are packed in this way. 4.2.4 Types of cartons There are a number of different types of paperboard cartons, for example onepiece cartons, two-piece cartons with cover, two-piece carton with a full telescoping cover, self-locking trays, etc. Outer packaging for fresh fruit and vegetables should allow adequate air flow so that the commodities inside will maintain the desired temperature, see GUIDE TO FOOD TRANSPORT, FRUIT AND VEGETABLES. This is not necessary for the foods dealt with in this book, as these foods are “dead”, and therefore do not respire so do not produce heat as do fresh fruits and vegetables. However, for a few products the type of outer packaging with holes in the walls is used because the cooling takes place after the inner packages are placed in the outer package. The normal procedure for most perishable foods is that only products having the correct temperature are placed in outer cartons. In the retail trade, outer packaging will often be used for display purposes. Here,. 24. a paperboard carton (perhaps after being opened to for a better display) or a paperboard flat with consumer packs overwrapped with plastic film is placed directly in the self-service shop.. 5. REFRIGERATION During transportation, chilled and frozen foods preserve their quality if their optimum temperatures are maintained. This implies that the foodstuffs must be cooled to this temperature before being loaded into the transport vehicle, as refrigeration systems usually only have the capacity to cope with minor chilling tasks and to maintain product temperature. As mentioned later, this does not mean that the product temperature must be uniform throughout each piece of food. When the average (or equilibrium) temperature of the foods has been brought to the desired level, the transport can begin without quality problems, as the temperature will equalize without any need of further refrigeration.. If the commodities are highly perishable and, for some reason, have too high a temperature at the time of loading, they should be cooled as quickly as possible to avoid deterioration. When it is necessary to cool the food products during transport, the cargo must be stowed to allow the passage of air to all parts of the cargo. In all cases cooling by means of the refrigeration system in the transport vehicle will be a rather slow process which will reduce the quality and remaining storage life of the foodstuffs involved. The significance of refrigeration to a number of food groups is depicted in the relevant PSL diagram, see chapter 3 section 3,4 and 5. Here, the ideal and prescribed temperatures for each group of foodstuffs are also given..

(29) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 25. REGULATIONS. 6. REGULATIONS In many countries, much legislation, with many regulations, directives etc. has been issued on foodstuffs, including the refrigerated transport of chilled and frozen foods. Specific regulations (legislation, standards, international agreements) on transport vehicles have been prepared, see section 6.1. For several chilled and frozen foods, and especially for meat and meat products, most countries have specific regulations on slaughtering, hygiene, temperatures, permitted additives, labelling, etc. The European Economic Community (EEC) now slowly evolving into a political union, so more correctly named the European Community (EC) have set up a number of regulations and directives concerning all aspects of the trade in foodstuffs. Some of the existing EEC-legislation today only applies for products marketed between the Member States and not for products marketed in the domestic market. Harmonization of the food law of the member states is still a matter of discussion and has not been obtained in all fields. For example the use of food additives, directive 89/107/EEC of 21. December 1988 on the approximation of the law of the Member States concerning food additives approved for the use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption, only contains a framework, but more specific regulations on permitted additives and the acceptable amounts are still to come. The EEC-legislation in the above mentioned areas is summarized in section 6.2, as is the legislation in a few selected countries. In section 6.3 the situation regarding legislation in the area of packaging materials is reviewed. Only a few countries have set up requirements for the materials used for packaging foodstuffs. The EEC has made a framework directive on. materials intended to come into contact with foods as well as a more specific directive relating to plastic materials. Irradiation of foodstuffs in order to reduce the number of micro-organisms and prolong the storage life is a matter of great international interest. Until now no international regulation applies, but both the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations, the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the EEC are preparing guidelines/regulations in this area. A few specific countries have national legislation including the kind of foodstuffs to be irradiated and the acceptable doses. The situation regarding the use of irradiation is reviewed in section 6.4. With the intention of protecting the health of the consumer and to ensure fair practices in food trade, an international food standards programme has been established by the FAO and WHO. A short description of the work of the Codex Alimentarius Commission can be found in section 6.5. 6.1 Transport equipment Transport equipment should be built in compliance with relevant international standards, and tested to ensure that they conform. Transport equipment is classified on the basis of results obtained from these tests. Equipment for the carriage of perishable foodstuffs comprises wagons, lorries, trailers, semi-trailers, containers, and other similar equipment. International regulations have been established by the Economic Commission for Europe of the United Nations (ECE), the International Organization for Standardisation (ISO), and International Rail Union (UIC). ATP-Agreement The ECE Agreement on the International. 25.

(30) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 26. REGULATIONS. Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs and on the Special Equipment to be used for such carriage (ATP) has been ratified by 24 countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United Kingdom, United States of America, Yugoslavia. The ATP Agreement is the most important set of standards and regulations for the construction and use of insulated and refrigerated equipment. It occupies a place in road transport similar to that applicable to marine containers by the ISO regulations. The purpose of the agreement is to facilitate international traffic in certain perishable foodstuffs by setting common and centrally recognized standards. These standards should ensure that equipment is capable of maintaining the required product temperatures. ATP defines standards of insulation and refrigeration machinery as well as defining maximum temperatures for deep (quick) frozen, frozen and chilled foodstuffs, although it does not include fresh fruits and vegetables. The agreement requires the listed foodstuffs to be carried in equipment which has been certified by ATP, except where ambient temperatures render such equipment unnecessary. ATP does not apply to air transport, nor to sea voyages exceeding 150 km. Certificates of conformity to ATP are issued by officially designated test stations; today there are 18 test stations, most of them situated in Europe. These stations measure the K-value of the vehicle, and the performance of the refrigeration system.. 26. K-coefficient. The K-coefficient (U-coefficient in some countries) or K-factor or K-value of the insulated body is a measure of the effectiveness of the insulation of the equipment. The K-coefficient (W/m2°C) is the overall coefficient of heat transfer, i.e. the heat transferred through the surface of the equipment. The International Institute of Refrigeration defines the K-coefficient as the heat transferred, in steady conditions, through unit area of surface, in unit time for unit temperature difference. The lower the K-coefficient, the better the insulation. The transport vehicle must have a Kvalue equal to or less than 0.4 W/m2°C to be classified as heavily insulated (IR), and a K-value equal to or less than 0.6 W/m2°C to be classified as normally insulated equipment (IN). A K-value of 0.2 W/m2°C or even lower is recommended in order to reduce the refrigeration load and reduce ageing of the insulation material. On average the Kvalue will increase by about 5% per year, due to water uptake and due to diffusion of freon from the insulation material into the atmosphere. Refrigeration system. The refrigeration system must be able to lower, and to maintain internal air temperatures according to the class of vehicle:20°C or below (classes C and F), -10°C or below (classes B and E), 0°C or below (classes A and D). ATP certificates. After inspection and measurement, the transport vehicle may be classified in one of the some 20 categories. A Type Approval Certificate is normally issued with a six-year validity. For other vehicles the certificate is normally valid for three.

(31) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 27. REGULATIONS. years, after which a new inspection and/or new measurement must take place. Transport temperatures. The ATP-agreement, Annex 2, gives maximum permissible product temperatures during transport of frozen or deep frozen foods. Here it is stated that during certain operations, such as defrosting the evaporator of mechanically refrigerated equipment, a brief rise of the temperature of the surface of the foodstuffs of not more than 3°C in a part of the load, e.g. near the evaporator, above the appropriate temperature may be permitted. Annex 3 gives maximum product temperatures during transport of chilled foods (which does not include fresh fruits and vegetables). The temperatures given in annex 2 and annex 3 are included in this book, see the different groups of foodstuffs in chapter 3 section 3, 4 and 5. The ISO standard is a recommendation for performance and test of refrigerated containers. UIC is based upon ATP, and applies to railway wagons. There is very little difference between ATP and ISO or UIC. 6.2 EEC, and a few specific countries. Introduction. In order to obtain an Internal Market without barriers to trade within the Community, several directives have been issued to establish a common set of rules relating to the production, marketing and distribution of foods which would apply in all Member States. The EEC has sought to establish both horizontal measures which apply to a wide range of foods, for instance the directives on food labelling, and on materials in contact with foods-. and vertical measures which apply to specific food items, for instance directives on fresh meat, fresh poultry, minced meat, and meat products. It is recognized that it is impossible to make detailed technical standards for every foodstuff, and the future legislation is limited to consideration of public health, consumer information and fair trading. The following summarizes some of the above mentioned directives. However, many of the directives are being reviewed in 1990 and changes can be foreseen. No general international standards have been developed for the microbiological requirements for chilled or frozen meat products. This section includes a summary of the national requirements in this area in France, USA and Japan. Quick frozen food directive. In December 1988, a Council directive on quick-frozen (deep frozen) foods was issued (89/108/EEC). Quick-frozen foodstuffs are defined as foodstuffs which have undergone a suitable freezing process, whereby the resulting temperature of the food product (after thermal stabilization) is maintained at -18°C or colder at all points. Also, the foodstuffs must be marketed in such a way as to indicate that they possess this characteristic. Article 5 states that the temperature of quick-frozen foodstuffs must be -18°C or lower, with possible brief upward fluctuations to -15°C during transport. However, tolerances in the product temperature in accordance with good storage and distribution practice shall be permitted, up to -15°C during local distribution (in some. 27.

(32) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 28. REGULATIONS. EEC countries the limit may be -12°C until 1994), and up to -12°C in retail cabinets. For retail cabinets, some countries may prescribe colder maximum product temperatures. Article 11 states that a directive on sampling procedures for quick-frozen foodstuffs and the procedures for monitoring their temperature must be issued in 1990. In this directive it will probably be prescribed that the means of storage, warehousing and transport must be fitted with suitable recording devices to automatically and constantly monitor the air temperatures to which quick-frozen foodstuffs are subjected. The temperature recordings obtained in this manner must be dated and stored for a certain period. For retail display cabinets and for local distribution, temperature recording devices will not be mandatory. Here the temperature must be monitored by at least one thermometer. Food labelling directive. EEC directive 79/112/EEC on labelling, presentation and advertising of foodstuffs has been developed in order to provide the consumers in the EEC with relevant information on the foodstuffs concerned. By the latest amendments of this directive (89/395/EEC), the application field is prepackaged food products for sale to the ultimate consumer and for catering purposes. The labelling must include the following information: The name under which the product is sold, • the list of ingredients, • the net quantity, • the date of minimum durability, or - for foodstuffs which are microbiologically highly perishable -. 28. • a “use by” date, • any special storage conditions or conditions of use, • the name or business name and address of the manufacturer or packager or of a seller established within the Community.. Furthermore, the directive includes specifications on how the above mentioned information should be presented on the label. It is stated that it is prohibited to provide information on the label or in the presentation and advertising of the foodstuff which could mislead or confuse the consumer. The directive on food labelling is supplemented by a directive on indications or marks identifying the lot to which a foodstuff belongs (89/396/EEC). This identification should be preceeded by the letter “L” and could be excluded if the date of minimum durability or the “use by” date is given in the label and at least includes a statement of day and month. Fresh meat directive The trade in fresh meat within the EEC shall comply with the regulations in the Directive 64/433/EEC relating to health problems affecting intra-Community trade in fresh meat (with further amendments). Fresh meat must have undergone a thorough veterinary health inspection outlined in the directive and shall be stamped with a health mark before being dispatched. The meat shall be followed by a health certificate. The directive includes the conditions for the approval of slaughterhouses and cutting plants, and detailed requirements for the hygiene of slaughter and cutting as well as for the persons engaged in the handling of the meat. Also mentioned are certain requirements for the storage and transportation of the fresh meat..

(33) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 29. REGULATIONS. Without undue delay, the meat must be chilled to an internal temperature of 7°C or colder for carcases, half carcases, half carcases cut into three wholesale cuts, and quarter carcases, and 3°C or colder for offal. The meat should be kept constantly at or below that temperature. Fresh meat intended for freezing must be frozen by a rapid method and be stored at -12°C or colder. These temperatures should be kept throughout the period of transportation. Poultry meat directive The trade in fresh poultry and poultry meat within the EEC must be in accordance with the Directive 71/118/EEC relating to health problems affecting trade in fresh poultry meat (with further amendments). The directive lays down detailed requirements to the slaughterhouses and the veterinary health inspection as well as provisions for health marking. The internal temperature of the fresh poultry should be 4°C or below, and this temperature should be kept during transportation. For poultry marketed within the Community, a Commission Regulation (EEC) No. 2967/76 lays down common standards for the water content of frozen and deep frozen chickens, hens and cocks. Poultry can only be marketed if the water content does not exceed the technically unavoidable minimum absorbed from the chilling processes stated in the Regulation as determined by further specified methods of analysis. If the amount of water absorbed is greater than the specified level, an appropriate description should be attached before the poultry is marketed. Minced meat directive EEC Directive 88/657/EEC on minced meat and pieces of meat less than 100 g. establishes requirements for the production and trade in the EEC of the type of meats. If the meat is sold chilled in retail packages, it must be prepared at latest 6 days after slaughter of the animal. The temperature should be below 2°C. If the processing of the meat takes a maximum of 1 hour, the temperature in the centre of the meat must not exceed 7°C, and the temperature in the production rooms should be 12°C or colder. If the processing takes more than 1 hour, the centre temperature of the meat must be a maximum 4°C before processing. Immediately after processing, the meat must be hygienically packaged and stored at 2°C or colder in the case of chilled meat, at -18°C or colder in the case of deep frozen meat and at -12°C or colder in the case of frozen meat. Deep frozen minced meat or packages of pieces of meat less than 100 g should reach a temperature in the centre of the product of -18°C or colder within 4 hours. Frozen products should reach a temperature of -12°C in the centre within 12 hours. However, the latter products must not be retail packaged. Intra-community trade of minced poultry meat, minced meat containing mechanically recovered meat or offal or minced meat from hoofed mammals is accepted only into Member States which on their own territory allow production and sale thereof. If spices are added to the minced meat, the acceptable amount of spices is 3% of the finished product when the spices are dry if mixed with the meat, and 10% when mixed in any other condition. Meat preparations made from minced meat mixed with other ingredients, e.g. spices, additives and flour, can be dispatched only on the condition that they are frozen at a freezing speed of at least one cm/hour.. 29.

(34) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 30. REGULATIONS. These meat preparations must be marketed within 6 months of production. The directive sets up compositional stan-. dards for different types of minced meat regarding the fat content and the collagen/meat protein ratio:. Fat Content. Collagen: Meat Protein Ratio. Lean minced meat. ≤7%. ≤12%. Minced pure beef. ≤20%. ≤15%. Minced meat containing pig meat. ≤30%. ≤18%. Minced meat of other species. ≤25%. ≤15%. The products must comply with the following microbiological standards: M. m. Aerobic mesophile bacteria n=5; c=2. 3x106/g. 5x105/g. Escherichia coli n=5; c=2. 5x102/g. 50/g. 102/g. 10/g. 5x102/g. 50/g. Sulphite-reducing anaerobes n=5; c=1 Staphylococci n=5; c=1 Salmonella n=5; c=0. absence in 25g. M = acceptability threshold, above which results are no longer considered satisfactory m = threshold below which all results are considered satisfactory n = number of units making up the sample c = number of units in the sample giving value between m and M. The directive includes specified interpretations of the results of the microbiological analyses.. 30. Meat products directive. The EEC directive 88/658/EEC of 14.December 1988, amending directive.

(35) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 31. REGULATIONS. 77/99/EEC on health problems affecting intra-Community trade in meat products harmonized the regulation in this area. This directive defines meat products as products prepared from or with meat which has undergone a treatment such that the cut surface shows that the product no longer has the characteristics of fresh meat. Processed poultry products are included in this directive. Excluded from the field of application are meat extracts, meat consomme’ and stock, meat sauces, and a number of by-products e.g. animal gelatin and blood plasma. The treatments can be heating, salting, curing or drying, or a combination of these processes.. permissible percentages from a technological viewpoint should be taken before 1 January 1991. Several of the Member States have their own regulation on meat products, not only for the incorporation of the above mentioned substances but also requirements to the minimum meat content, maximum water content etc. Until further notice these regulations still apply for the products marketed in the domestic market. A crucial principle of the EEC is that products legally produced in one Member State shall be allowed free entrance to any other Member State provided that they do not constitute any health hazard.. The directive includes conditions for the approval of establishments and for hygiene. The production must be supervised by competent authorities, the products must carry a health mark and must be accompanied by a health certificate. For meat products in general, neither compositional nor microbiological standards have been set up in the Community. Article 15 states however, that a decision on the incorporation into meat products of starch or proteins of animal or vegetable origin and on the maximum. Other Standards for Meat and Meat Products For chilled or frozen meat and meat products in general, no general international microbiological standard apply. However, several countries have set up national standards for these products. In France, detailed requirements for the microbiological standard of meat products are set up. The acceptable number of micro-organisms per gram for selected types of meat can be seen in the following table.. Aerobic Coliform, Coliform, micro30°C faecal organisms Carcasses, frozen or chilled. 5x102. Minced meat. 5x105. Cooked meat products. 3x103. Poultry, whole, frozen or chilled. Staph. aureus. Anaerobic, Salmosulphitenella reducing 2. 102. 102. 102. 30. absent. 10. 102. 30. absent. absent in 25g breast muscle. 31.

(36) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 32. REGULATIONS. The US Meat and Poultry Inspection Regulations imposes requirements for meat inspection as well as standards of composition for a number of meat products. The minimum meat content for some of the products are specified and the use of certain ingredients is restricted. Japan has set up standards for the manufacture of meat products but does not have specified compositional standards. Sugar, starch and seasoning used in manufacture must have not more than 1000 heat resistant bacteria (spore forming count) per g. Products must be sterilized to a centre temperature of 63°C for 30 min. (or equal) unless they are dried. Dried and smoked cured meat must be prepared at temperatures below 20°C or above 50°C, and the product must obtain a water activiy less than 0.94. Meat products not being sterilized in airtight packages must be stored at a temperature below 10°C (frozen products must be stored at -15°C or colder). 6.3 Packaging regulations. In many countries, the legislation on packaging materials (and especially on plastic materials) is not very comprehensive. Several countries have realized that the area of plastic packaging is changing so rapidly, that it is very difficult for the legislators to remain up to date. However, some countries have had detailed regulations on packaging materials (and other materials intended to come into contact with foodstuffs) for many years. In this section, the regulations in USA, West Germany and EEC will be summarized. USA. Packaging was brought into the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act by an amendment issued in 1958. The use of plastics and other packaging materials in contact with. 32. food is under the direct jurisdiction of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) who issues detailed positive lists for permitted plastics and additives. The FDA regulations are held in great respect throughout the world. Many countries tend to follow them, often in a simplified form. The Governmental Regulations cover all chemical components of the food supply in the USA, whether these components enter the food by direct addition or by indirect means, for example, by virtue of migration from a food packaging material. Thus, there is a great deal of work in bringing under control, by scientific evaluation, the many thousands of substances involved in foods and in food packaging materials. All packaging materials and the additives used must comply with the FDA regulations, which in a number of sections include positive lists for food packaging materials, i.e. lists of approved plastics and additives with maximum concentrations, all others being banned. The user of packaging materials has to obtain assurance from a particular supplier that the material in question actually meets with provisions of a specific regulation. Migration. Migration of additives from the packaging material into the foodstuff is one of the areas where comprehensive tests are run. Migration tests normally utilize a range of solvent solutions capable of simulating food extraction, for example distilled water, 3% water, 3% aqueous acetic acid, and vegetable oil. USDA. The Department of Agriculture issues reg-.

(37) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 33. REGULATIONS. ulations on packaging, especially concerning the packaging of meat and poultry products. In order to import such products to the USA, it is necessary to obtain a written concession, which includes the packaging material that is to be used. West Germany The Ministry of Health (Bundes Gesundheits Amt) has issued comprehensive guidelines for packaging materials, the so-called BGA-rules. This is not legislation, but if a packaging material does not conform to the BGA guidelines, the guidelines are treated as if they were legislation, and the company (or person) can be prosecuted. BGA guidelines include positive lists, i.e. lists including the components permitted in the manufacture of food packages, and the allowed maximum amount of each of these components. The guidelines also contain limits for the permissible migration from the packaging material, and from the packages in contact with food. EEC. Some years ago, the EEC Council issued a framework directive on materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Based on this, some directives have been issued, for example a Directive on PVC, which limits the quantity of vinyl chloride (VCM=Vinyl Chloride Monomer) present in plastic materials prepared with VCM, and for the quantity of VCM released by these materials, i.e. a specific migration limit for VCM. The compilation of positive lists for plastic materials has been in preparation for several years, as it was a difficult task to harmonize the existing legislation in. the 12 Member States. However, Directive 90/128/EEC relating to plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with foodstuffs was issued in February 1990. The Member States must bring into force the laws, regulations and administrative provisions necessary not later than 31 December 1990, and prohibit trade in and use of plastic materials which do not comply with this Directive before 1 January 1993. Only those monomers and other starting substances listed in Annex II of this directive may be used for the manufacture of plastic materials and articles. The directive also limits the overall migration from plastic materials into foodstuffs: The overall migration limit is 10 milligram per square decimeter of surface area of plastic material (mg/dm2), or 60 mg per kilogram of foodstuff (mg/kg). The positive lists in Annex II includes specific migration limits (in mg/kg foodstuff) for several substances. Earlier EEC Directives have laid down the basic rules (time, temperature, etc.) for testing migration of the constituents of plastic materials, and have established the list of simulants to be used in the migration tests. The simulants prescribed are approximately the same as in the USA regulations, see above. As mentioned in the introduction, several countries do not have detailed legislation on food packaging. A few countries have recommendations, while some countries simply refer to the legislation in other countries. This means that the authorities in several countries simply demand certificates that the packaging materials comply with the legislation in West Germany (BGA), or USA (FDA) or the Netherlands. The regulations on packaging materials to be used for foodstuffs is an important. 33.

(38) GuideFish. 04/08/99. 14:42. Side 34. REGULATIONS. area as the authorities in several countries demand certification that imported foods are packed in suitable and safe packagings. 6.4 Irradiation The use of ionizing radiation of foods is a topic of great interest world-wide. There is no international legislation in this field, but FAO/WHO have drawn up a proposal for international standards. A FAO/WHO expert group has concluded that irradiation of foodstuffs is a completely safe method, when the dose absorbed by the foodstuff is below a certain limit, 10 kGy (1 Mrad). Several countries have appointed expert groups with the task to study irradiation of foodstuffs, but all of them have supported this conclusion. Irradiation may be used for several purposes: • to retard sprouting of potatoes and onions. This demands a dose of about 0.2 kGy • to kill insects in for example wheat. This demands about 0.7 kGy • to kill bacteria and micro-organisms, in order to prolong storage life of for example fresh (chilled) strawberries, or to significantly reduce (eliminate) the number of food poisoning micro-organisms, such as Salmonella and Campylobacter, see chapter 3 section 1.1. The dose normally is 3 to 7 kGy. • to kill micro-organisms in spices and herbs in order to increase the safety and storage life of the foods to which these spices and herbs are added. The necessary dose is 10 kGy. • in order to produce ambient stable food. 34. products, i.e. food products stable for some months at room temperature (20°C) it would be necessary to use a dose of about 45 kGy. As this is above the maximum permitted dose of 10 kGy, shelf stable irradiated foods will not be seen in the trade.. This implies that even when irradiation becomes a permitted method the irradiated food products would still need cooling and temperature controlled transport. The temperature requirements and the monitoring of product temperatures during transport (and during storage and display) would probably be intensified for irradiated foods. There is no advantage for the food industry in using as high a dose as allowed in legislation, because irradiation may cause pronounced changes, especially in flavour and taste. The maximum dose to be used in practice will differ, from about 10 Kgy for killing most micro-organisms in spices, to 3-6 kGy for killing of pathogenic microorganisms (Salmonella, Campylobacter), down to 0.1-0.2 for potatoes. In several foods, for example in many dairy products, significant flavour changes occur when the dose exceeds 0.5 kGy, meaning that irradiation can not be used commercially for such foods. However, although (or perhaps because) practically all experts agree that irradiation could be a very useful preservation method for some foods, most consumer organizations and media persons seem to be convinced that irradiation is a very dangerous, or at least unwanted or unnecessary method. In the EEC, a draft Directive on irradiation is being discussed in 1990. The draft includes a list of food groups with the proposed maximum allowable dose for each group. Irradiation of foodstuff, especially of.

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