2nd EDITION
THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND
UQ BUSINESS SCHOOL
Assignment
Writing
Handbook
Kashonia L. Carnegie
PhD, MSc, MA, BA (Hons)First Edition – 1997 Second Edition – 2001
© Kashonia L. Carnegie, 1997; 2001 UQ Business School
The University of Queensland Qld 4072 Brisbane
Australia
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION ... 1
HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK ... 2
1. INTRODUCTION ... 4
2. PREPARATION... 4
2.1. Motivation... 5
2.2. Time Management ... 5
3. REPORT OR ESSAY FORMAT... 7
3.1. Report Format ... 8
3.2. Essay Format ... 8
4. RESEARCHING YOUR ASSIGNMENT... 9
4.1. Analyse the Question ... 10
4.2. Designing a Structure... 13
4.3. Research and the Library ... 35
4.3.1 Research on the Internet ...36
4.4. Critical Reading ... 37
5. STYLE – MECHANICS OF ASSIGNMENT WRITING ... 41
5.1. The Basics... 41
5.2. Tables and Figures ... 50
5.3. Non-Discriminatory Language ... 51
6. DEVELOPING A PERSUASIVE ARGUMENT ... 52
6.1. Critical Analysis ... 53
6.2. The Art of Integration ... 60
6.3. Applying the Theory and Data to a Case Study... 67
6.4. Using Paragraphs as ‘Building Blocks’ ... 68
6.5. SWOT Analysis ... 69
7. REFERENCING... 70
7.1. Plagiarism ... 71
7.2. When and How to Reference ... 71
7.3. Reference List versus Bibliography... 80
7.4. Reference List Format ... 80
8. EDITING YOUR ASSIGNMENT ... 85
9. CONCLUSION ... 91
10. APPENDICES... 93
Appendix 10.1 – Summary of Main Recommendations... 93
Appendix 10.2 – Assignment Chart... 94
Appendix 10.3 – Glossary of Directive Words... 96
Appendix 10.4 – List of Common Mistakes ... 98
Appendix 10.5 – Further Reading... 100
Appendix 10.6 – General Information ... 102
Appendix 10.7 – Acknowledgments... 104
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
The Assignment Writing Handbook is a special project funded by the UQ Business School, at The University of Queensland, to support the academic growth of both undergraduate and postgraduate students. Since the first edition of this handbook was written in 1997, over 10,000 copies have been published.
At the beginning of each semester, the UQ Business School runs an Assignment Writing Seminar at which some of the concepts in the first edition are explained in more detail. The models, templates, and extra information presented in those face-to-face seminars have been integrated into this second edition of the Assignment Writing Handbook.
All UQ Business School students have access to this book. Not all choose to read it, and even fewer follow the guidelines it contains. In speaking with many hundreds of students over the past few years, I believe that one of the reasons that many students don’t take a greater interest in improving their assignment writing skills is that they don’t appreciate the importance of writing well. A student once said to me that they weren’t interested in knowing if their writing style was appropriate, instead they just wanted to know if the content of their work was “right”. At university level, especially in social sciences, it is generally not a matter of having the right or the wrong answers – rarely are there any right or wrong answers. It is all about how well you argue your case for the answers or position that you have chosen to support. The better your writing skills, the more persuasive your argument will be, and in turn, the better your grades.
Having a resource such as this just sitting on your desk is of no value. However, those students who do choose to read and be guided by the contents of this handbook, are generally the students who receive top grades.
Finally, it should be noted that there are many approaches that can be taken when writing academic assignments, and many different styles of presentation. Just as there are no right answers, there is no one method or style that can be considered the right approach for writing assignments. For many different reasons, some lecturers like their students to follow a style of writing or presentation that is different to the suggestions in
this book. Should you encounter such a lecturer, then their wishes should be followed for their particular subject. Where your lecturer expresses no such preferences, the UQ Business School recommends that the contents of this handbook be used as your guide.
HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK
Sometimes students, especially mature age students new to academic study, tend to go into ‘overwhelm’ when they are first introduced to the concepts that are outlined in this book. I have heard comments such as, “I can never learn to do all of this”, or “do you mean we have to know all of this before we even get into the content of the subjects in which we are enrolled?”. Whether you are in that category or not, I can assure you that the handbook has been designed to help you get the most out of your academic journey. And so I suggest you approach the handbook in the following manner.
1. Assuming you have reached this section of the book, don’t read any further – at this stage.
2. If you haven’t already done so, read the “preface to the second edition”, above. 3. Go back to the table of contents and take a minute or so to look at, and reflect on,
the various chapters and sections that the book contains and the order in which they are presented. You will see that the chapters build on each other as they take you step-by-step through the process of writing your assignments.
4. Go through the book page-by-page, just looking quickly at each the page, without stopping to read anything at this stage – just look over each page and then turn to the next one.
5. Having looked right through the book, you will have a pretty good feel for what the book contains. You will have noticed that there are sections of written explanation, there are sections of step-by-step examples, checklists, and so forth.
6. Now that you have seen what the book contains, go to Appendix 10.4 – Common Mistakes, at the end of the book. Here you will see a brief list of the common mistakes that markers continually find in student’s papers, despite them having a
copy of this handbook to guide them. All items in that list thwart the attainment of top grades.
7. Now, if you have time, skim/read through the book. However, if you don’t have time, at least you have an idea of where to go to find things when you need them. 8. Ideally, before semester starts you will make the time to skim through the book.
There is no need to read the book, cover-to-cover in a detailed manner. It is better to just skim/read it a couple of times and then, as you start working on your assignment you can read carefully through the book, one section at a time, to correspond with the various stages of researching and writing your paper. Finally, use the book as an overall checklist to ensure that you have addressed all issues before you submit your assignment.
9. Based on feedback that I have received from many students, I often say in the Assignment Writing Seminars, if you want to get a 4 grade average, skim the book once. If you want a 5 grade, read it two or three times. If you want a 6 grade, read through the book many times. If you want a 7 grade, then continually read through the various sections as they write each paper, and use it as an overall checklist before each submission.
As one former MBA student, who regularly received grades of 7, said to me: “Of all the books I used during my studies, the Assignment Writing Handbook is the most battered and used book of the lot”.
1. INTRODUCTION
Writing a good assignment is a skill. And like any skill, it can be learned. To that end, this handbook will outline the major components required in an academic assignment for both undergraduate and postgraduate students. This handbook has been designed to guide you, progressively, through each stage of your assignment from the preparation, on to your research, and the mechanics of writing your paper, through to developing an argument, referencing, and editing. As much as possible, the book is designed to reflect the guidelines that are discussed throughout. The format of the handbook is loosely based on a compilation of essay and assignment writing guides from various departments and universities (see the acknowledgments in Appendix 10.7 and the reference list). The content too has been drawn from many areas. However, one of the major sources was a reflection on the common mistakes I have found during the marking of assignments.
As this is purely a guide to refer to when writing your assignments, it is recommended that you also attend some of the many assignment writing skills and research skills development courses that are regularly held by different service departments throughout the university. Some of these, and other student support resources and services have been listed in Appendix 10.6. Finally, even though the are many, many different writing styles and formats, which are quite acceptable when writing social science papers, it is recommended that the formats presented in this handbook be used for UQ Business School assignments, unless otherwise instructed.
2. PREPARATION
No matter what task you undertake, the degree of success you finally enjoy will depend greatly on the initial preparation. There are three key issues that need to be considered in the preparation of any assignment, or even an exam: motivation, time management, and analysing the question. Motivation and time management will now be discussed, and analysing the question will be covered in Chapter 4.1.
2.1. Motivation
Generally, the only way you’ll get top grades is to put in the time and the effort. The greater your overall effort, the better the grade. However, the greater your motivation the easier and more enjoyable it is to put in that time and effort. Cloake and Noad (nd:2) suggest that motivation can be helped by working at the times that are best for you; and by keeping aspects of your work that you enjoy for times when you become “tired or jaded”. As an example, in writing this book there were sections that I intuitively thought would be easy, other sections that I thought would be fun to write, and yet other sections again that I knew would require a lot more effort and thought. So I wrote the less enjoyable sections at the beginning of my work sessions when I was fresh. Then, when I began to tire I changed to one of the easier or fun sections and worked on that for a short time before returning to, and completing, the original section. In addition, it is important to take a 5-10 minute break every hour or so.
However, the thing that will motivate you the most is to keep the reason you are doing the course uppermost in your thoughts and the vision of that goal, and your life after you have attained that goal, in your mind’s eye. Therefore, it is recommended that at the beginning of your university studies you write a list of all the reasons that you have for doing a university degree and the benefits that will come to you as a result of you completing your degree. Then throughout your time at university keep adding to the list. As a result, at 4 am, when you are finishing off that paper that has to be in later that same morning; or at 10 o’clock at night when you are still in the library standing at the photocopier after having been at Uni all day, and you ask yourself, “is this all worth it?” just visualise all the benefits that are on your list. If your list is long enough the answer will always be “yes”. The more reasons you can give yourself for doing something, the more compelling that future will become, and consequently, the more motivated you will be to complete the task.
2.2. Time
Management
Whether you are a full-time student or a part-time student involved with other activities, your most valuable resource will be your time. So it is essential to plan your time well at the beginning of each semester.
Normally, by the end of the first week of the new semester you will know how many assignments are required for each subject that you are taking, plus the amount of work involved, and the due date. As soon as that information is available, it is recommended that you prepare an Assignment Chart (see Appendix 10.2) and stick to it. An Assignment Chart is a time management tool to help you plan your semester to ensure that all assignments can be completed on time.
Whilst you may not plan to work on a specific assignment until a couple of weeks prior to the due date, it is essential to decide on the question you will work on as soon as possible. Once this decision has been made, see if you need to do any primary research that involves collecting written information from organisations other than the library or the Internet. If you do require outside information, make the necessary requests to the organisations concerned immediately, so that you will have the information ready and waiting when the date arrives that you have allocated to start on that particular assignment. Admittedly, these days most of the information that was once only obtainable physically from an organisation is now available on their Web site. Nevertheless, there might be other activities, such as interviews, that need to be organised prior to the dates that you have allocated to writing the assignment.
Just one final word of warning. In adhering to your Assignment Chart you will complete several assignments each semester well before their due date. It is recommended that you hold onto the completed assignments until the due date, as quite often lecturers will continue to give added pieces of information on the assignment up to the lecture before the due date. By holding onto the assignment you are able to make an adjustment if necessary. After all, a small adjustment to a couple of papers due in the same week is a lot better than trying to write two or three, or even more, complete assignments from the beginning – and then finding you need to try and get an extension that may not necessarily be granted.
3.
REPORT OR ESSAY FORMAT
A major aspect of the assignment to note on your time management assignment chart is the format. Frequently, at the beginning of semester, you are required to complete a small assignment. This could be anything from a brief literature review, an annotated bibliography, a library exercise where you have to do some library searches and report on your findings, to a substantiated piece of reflective writing. One of the aims of this initial assignment is to get you moving – to get you thinking about the subject. Due to the varied nature of those early assignments, it might not be necessary, or practical, to follow all of the guidelines in the next two chapters. As an example, if you are asked to write an annotated bibliography, your assignment will not have the same components as a report or an essay. And you will not go through the “designing a structure” processes detailed in Chapter 4. You will, however, still need to follow the guidelines in Chapter 4.1 – Analysing the Question; Chapter 5 – Mechanics of Style; Chapter 7 – Referencing; and Chapter 8 – Editing. When writing up those early, oft times unusual, assignments you must use some common sense as to the processes to follow, and as always, when it doubt check it out – ask your lecturer or tutor what, specifically, they want you to do.
The guidelines in this handbook, and especially in the next two chapters, are to guide you when writing your major term paper – the main assignment that you are required to submit for the subject.
The major assignment will usually be in the form of a report or an essay. If the lecturer wants the assignment written in report style, which is the most common style at the UQ Business School, it will be specifically stated. As an example, ‘Write a report on XYZ’. If the format style has not been specifically stated in the assignment details, it can normally be assumed that your assignment is to be written in an essay style. However, always check with the lecturer if there is any doubt as to the format required.
The following sections, 3.1 and 3.2, contain an overview of the components of a report style and essay style format, highlighting the main differences between the two. This is to help you become familiar with the two styles in preparation for Chapter 4. In Chapter 4, each of the sections of the report will be explained in some detail as I take
you through a step-by-step exercise that will demonstrate how to write up these various sections and design a useable structure on which to base your report.
3.1. Report Format
A report follows a very structured format containing the following sections, generally presented in the following order:
• Title Page • Letter of Transmittal • Table of Contents • Executive Summary • Introduction • The Body • Conclusion • Recommendations • Appendices • Reference List
It is sometimes suggested that the Table of Contents should be placed after the Executive Summary, and the Reference List before the Appendices. The reason for the placement of the Table of Contents before the Executive Summary and the Reference List at the very end of the report after the Appendices is explained in Chapter 4.2, under the respective sub-headings, Table of Contents and Reference List.
3.2. Essay
Format
Compared to the report format, an essay is not as formally formatted and is written in more of a flowing style. Therefore, dot points and numbered paragraphs are rarely used in an essay, and if they are used, justification must be given for doing so. The executive summary is called an abstract, or occasionally a synopsis, in an essay and is quite often limited to 150-300 words. Instead of numbered sections and sub-sections, an essay uses headings and sub-headings that are generally not numbered, as information is not as
a letter of transmittal, or recommendations. Otherwise, the various sections of your essay will contain, and be structured, in virtually the same manner as for a report, as discussed in Chapter 4.2, keeping in mind the above exceptions. As such, most of the references and examples throughout this book are of reports, and so if you are required to write an essay instead of a report all you have to do is transpose the information for the relevant report sections into your essay, again, keeping in mind the above differences. In summary, an essay usually contains the following sections.
• Title Page
• Table of Contents (rarely used in short essays)
• Abstract or Synopsis (instead of the term Executive Summary) • Introduction
• Body • Conclusion
• Appendices (if appropriate) • Reference List
Now that you are familiar with these two main formats, it is time to begin the processes necessary to get your assignment together.
4. RESEARCHING
YOUR
ASSIGNMENT
In this chapter, you will be guided through the process of preparing, researching, and structuring your assignment in a step-by-step fashion. I suggest that you take a moment to skim through this entire chapter, then come back and study one section at a time, as you are working on the corresponding section of your assignment.
Normally during the first week of semester, you will receive details of the assignments you are required to submit for your assessment. As soon as you have the details of all the assignments you will have to complete for the semester, set up your Assignment Chart as discussed in Chapter 2.2 and detailed in Appendix 10.2. At the same time as you set up your Assignment Chart, if you have been given a choice of the topic or
question, decide which specific question in each assignment you intend working on and contact any external organisations from which you require information, as discussed in Chapter 2.2. By the time you come to work on your assignment you should be familiar with the topic and the approach you are going to take in answering the question. This familiarity with the topic will come from attending the lectures and tutorials, reading your text book, and general reading and discussion on the topic. Once you have a rough idea of the approach you intend to take, your research really begins. In this section four main research aspects will be explored: analysing the question; designing a structure; research and the library; and critical reading.
4.1. Analyse the Question
When preparing to work on your assignment it is not enough to just read the question. The question, and all the instructions, must be fully studied and analysed. It is surprising how often a student submits an excellent assignment that has not addressed the question asked and; thus, barely rates a passing grade. I cannot stress strongly enough how often this happens and, as a result, how important it is to make sure that you have studied the question – and answered the question asked. If you can’t read an assignment question accurately, how are you going to read a client’s brief, or tender requirements, accurately. Analysing the question involves the following:
• Highlight, with a highlighter pen, all the action oriented directive words in the set assignment piece. These are words such as discuss, examine, review, analyse (see Appendix 10.3 for a list of directive words and their definitions). What do they mean? What specifically are they asking you to do?
• Highlight the content oriented directive words that are linked to the action words. As an example; discuss (action/directive) a particular HRM issue (content/directive). Or review (action/directive) the effectiveness (content/direction) of that HRM issue. Normally I shall just refer to both the action and the content words as directive words.
• Analyse the main points in any general instructions that support the question, such as: ‘you are not required to describe and discuss the theory, however, you must discuss the relevance and application of the theory to your case study’. Both
instruction actually mean?’ ‘What, specifically, am I being asked to do, and not to do?’
• Ask your lecturer what the marking criteria are so you can get an idea of the percentage weighting of the various parts of the question so that you can devote the space and time to each section of the question that is appropriate to the marks it can attract. In addition, your lecturer might provide you with a list of the features that they expect you to include in the assignment. If the lecturer does provide such a list, make sure all features have been included if you want to receive reasonable marks. • Some key questions that need to be answered as part of your question analysis are:
• What do I have to demonstrate to the marker? In other words, if the question is on change management, then you must demonstrate to the marker that you clearly understand what change management is all about and that you have read the literature on change management extensively. You demonstrate extensive reading by discussing many different points of view and, in turn, citing numerous references.
• What kind of task is being set? For instance, are you being asked to draw a relationship between two arguments, differentiate between two concepts, demonstrate an understanding of the theory and apply it to a case study, or something else.
• How many elements or parts are involved in the question?
• Which concepts or distinctions covered in this subject are relevant to the question?
• What are the key concepts needed to answer the question and do I need to define them?
• Which quotations, examples, and/or pieces of theory can I use to show familiarity with the topic and to support my argument?
As with so many of the techniques that you will learn at the UQ Business School, the exercise of analysing an assignment question, as described above, is also of great
benefit to your non-academic activities. I strongly recommend that you use the same process when preparing to reply to a job advertisement, or a business tender, or brief.
NOTE WELL
As a university student, it is vital that you are able to demonstrate; (1) that you have a clear and solid understanding of the topic on which you are writing; and (2) that you fully understand and comply with the ‘brief’. In other words, you must do what you are being asked to do.
Major Research Report, 5000 words, 70%, due Tuesday 2nd June
The assessment item is a report on an organisation in which you work, have worked or can gain access to. The report will identify a particular HRM issue or practice in this organisation, review its effectiveness, and make recommendations about how to improve performance in this area. The report should demonstrate a capacity to identify, read and comprehend the literature on the specific HRM area identified, as well as to apply the theoretical insights gained from the literature to the ‘real life’ operations of the organisation. The report should include the following features:
• Clear identification of the issue or function chosen, and why it was chosen; • A review of the relevant literature;
• Discussion of how you went about gathering information about your chosen organisation;
• An analysis of the information;
• Recommendations, based on your reading, observation, and analysis, on how the organisation could go about improving its performance in the HRM area considered. The report must include a reference list. Standard rules for academic writing and referencing apply.
The assessment items will be discussed in much greater detail during the subject. If you are unsure about any aspect of the assessment please contact me as soon as possible and seek clarification.
You should keep copies of any written work which you submit in case the original is misplaced.
You will lose marks if you do not follow the instructions and answer the question asked. If you are not sure of what is required, ask your lecturer.
When in doubt, check it out!
In the box above, is a copy of an assignment question. Go through it and highlight all of the directive words. The directive words in this question are listed in the next section in the box headed List 2 – Directive Words – Figure 3.
Once you have analysed the question and highlighted all of the directive words, and before you begin your research, you need to decide how your paper will be structured. Based on the question below, I shall now go through a step-by-step structure building exercise for your assignment.
4.2. Designing a Structure
If you have to drive from one side of a strange city to the other for the first time, it is unlikely that you will take the most efficient and effective route without consulting a road map; and a builder would never start work on a house without a blueprint or plan of some sort to follow; so it is with assignment writing. Before you start working on your essay or report you must prepare a plan or structure to follow.
The following steps can be used as a template to help you design a structure for your report or essay that will ensure that you include all of the requirements set down on your assignment question sheet. As you read through this section on structural design, you will note that I have used a number of different fonts and cases in the lists. This is so that when the various lists are combined, you will be able to quickly identify which list they originally came from.
You will recall that at the beginning of Chapter 3.1 – Report Format – there was a list of the sections that are to be included, when appropriate, in your reports. A copy of that list appears below as List 1 – Figure 2.
STEP ONE
The first step in designing a structure for your report is to keep a list of all those components at hand, ready for step two.
STEP TWO
List 1
BASIC COMPONENTS
Title Page Letter of Transmittal Table of Contents Executive Summary Introduction Body Conclusion Recommendations - Implications - Limitations - Implementations Appendices Reference ListFigure 2: List 1 – Basic Components of a Report
STEP TWO
For step two, go back to your assignment question and write a list of all the directive words that you highlighted. Figure 3, below lists all of the directive words contained on the example question above – Figure 1. How many did you find when you went through the assignment sheet?
You will notice on list 2 – Figure 3, below, that I have written the action/directive words in capitals, and beside these are the associated content/directive words. As an example, IDENTIFY. What did you have to identify? An HRM issue and why it was chosen. DEMONSTRATE: What did you have to demonstrate? A capacity or ability to IDENTIFY, READ, and COMPREHEND. What? Literature on the HRM issue including theory, examples, and data. And so your list goes on.
List 2 - DIRECTIVE WORDS
IDENTIFY – HRM Issue// Why Chosen REVIEW – its effectivenessMAKE RECOMMENDATIONS – on how to improve DEMONSTRATE – capacity/ability – IDENTIFY }literature on – READ }HRM issue – COMPREHEND }theory, data examples APPLY (to the Case) – theoretical
insights gained from literature + examples + data
DISCUSS – how information was gathered
ANALYSIS – of all information
The terms examples and data can mean different things to different people. For the purpose of this exercise, and throughout this book, the term data will refer to qualitative and quantitative data that has been collected and recorded. And the term examples, refers to the anecdotal case study examples that are so prevalent throughout management literature.
Figure 3: List 2 – Directive Words
Once you have completed that second list, you can be sure that all the requirements of the assignment will be included in your report. Provided, of course, that you haven’t missed any of the directive words on your question sheet. That is why it is so important to really analyse the question, not just read through it. Now to step three.
STEP THREE
In list 2, you just wrote down the directive words in the order that they appeared on the question sheet. Obviously, you are not going to write about them in that order, yet all the items on list 2 have to go somewhere in your report.
List 1 contains all of the possible places that you can put the items from list 2. So, you have to decide where, on list 1, that you will place the various items from list 2. In step three, you integrate list 2 into list 1 as demonstrated below (Figure 4). You will notice
LISTS 1 & 2 COMBINED
Title Page/Title Letter of Transmittal Table of Contents Executive Summary ---Introduction (See Book) - Set Up
IDENTIFY Issue (1 or 2 sentences) Why Chosen
DISCUSS How Information Was Gathered --- Body
DISCUSS CASE/SITUATION FULLY
REVIEW HRM issue’s effectiveness – pluses & minuses Integrate the following:
LITERATURE REVIEW IDENTIFY }
READ } For & Against COMPREHEND }
APPLY (To Case) – theory + examples + data ANALYSE
--- Conclusions
Recommendations – RECOMENDATIONS
– Implications + Limitations + Implementations Appendices
Reference List
Figure 4: Lists 1 and 2 Combined
that the different font styles reflect the two different lists – the Comic Sans font is list 1 and Times New Roman is copied from list 2.
Notice too that the list 1 items remain unchanged down to Introduction. In the introduction section, the three items from list 2 are inserted, as shown. The balance of the items on list 2 are in the body section of list 1, except for recommendations, which naturally go into the recommendations section at the end. The items from Conclusions down to Reference List are, again, straight out of list 1.
Before moving onto Step Four, I shall include another list by way of explanation of the term Literature Review. As the term implies, a literature review is exactly that – a review of the literature on the topic, whatever topic you happen to be writing on. I shall talk more about the contents of this list at various stages throughout this handbook. At this stage, however, the following list will give you some suggestions as to what you can include in your literature review.
When you do your library searches, or search the data bases, these ‘literature review suggestions’ are the things that you will be searching for to include in your report, or essay.
These categories will also give you the background information that you will need to ensure that you ask the right questions in any field interviews that you might do.
LITERATURE REVIEW
SUGGESTIONS
History/ Background Definition
Characteristics
Arguments for [supported by theory, data, examples – evidence] Arguments against [supported by theory, data, examples – evidence] Overcome the arguments against
Figure 5: Literature Review Suggestions
STEP FOUR
Whilst you can have a section in your report or essay headed “Introduction”, it is not appropriate to have a section headed “The Body”, unless the assignment is on Elle Macpherson. So you will now have to decide how to refine your structure even more, by deciding on appropriate headings and sub-headings for the various sections of the body of your paper. In step four you also decide on a title for your paper. Below is an example of how you can transpose all of the items on the combined lists 1 and 2, onto a third sheet of paper, and by creating appropriate headings and sub-headings, arrive at a completed structure for the assignment question that we’ve been working on.
Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation
Letter of Transmittal
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
1.0. Introduction
IDENTIFY ISSUE (1 or 2 sentences) Why Chosen
DISCUSS How Information Was Gathered
Also include your proposition – what you are going to argue for
2.0. The Learning Organisation Concept
History – Definition – Characteristics (per Literature Review Sheet)
3.0. The Learning Organisation at Smith & Co
3.1. Background to Smith & Co
Tell the reader in one paragraph what section 3 contains – a mini introduction
Who/What is Smith & Co – History – Characteristics 3.2. The Learning Organisation in Action Integrate-Application Of Theory + Examples + Data
DISCUSS THE CASE/SITUATION FULLY
REVIEW LEARNING ORGANISATION EFFECTIVENESS – +/-
Theoretical Arguments for and how/if applies to Smith & Co – data, examples Theoretical Arguments against and how/if applies to Smith & Co – data,
examples
Using the literature, plus data and examples, you must overcome the ‘againsts’ ANALYSE the situation – develop a persuasive argument to support your thesis
statement. This analysis will lead to a conclusion, from which will come some recommendations
4.0. Conclusions
5.0. Recommendations
Recommendations – each stated in one succinct sentence
Rationale that links back to arguments in the body, section 3.2, above; and the conclusion
Implications + Limitations + Implementations
6.0. Appendices
7.0. Reference List
You should be able to recognise where the items from the Combined Lists 1 & 2, have been positioned on the above example of a report structure.
Shortly, I shall go through each of the components in the above assignment structure – line-by-line – and explain the sort of things that you will be expected to write in each section.
Before proceeding, however, I shall briefly explain a little bit about the topic that has been used in the example above. As you will recall, the question asked, in part, that you identify an HRM (human resources management) issue, or topic. The topic I have arbitrarily chosen is that of the so-called learning organisation. Broadly based on systems theory and double-loop learning, the learning organisation is one that encourages staff to learn, especially from feedback, and as a result grow and move to higher and higher levels of competency and creativity. This, in turn, results in the organisation doing the same. The results of an ABI-Inform data base search on the learning organisation will provide you with a greater understanding of the concept.
Just as there is no one ‘right’ way to write an assignment, so too there is no one right way to structure an essay or report. You might be the sort of person who prefers to mind-map your report design. And that is fine. The report structure above is but one form of design structure. However, it is an effective structure and provides a good template if you have no better alternative. Remember however, that whilst the overall framework will probably remain the same, the detailed topic/content of the various sections are likely to change slightly, or even substantially, as you continue to research your topic. But you need to have a starting point. This structure will give you that starting point with which to work.
I shall now go through the components of Figure 6 – the example of the completed structure of the report – piece-by-piece, and explain what the structural components are all about (as per list 1 – Figure 1), and what is required for the content pieces (as per list 2 – Figure 2).
Title Page: Although not highlighted on the above design structure (Figure 6), on list 1 – Figure 1 – the first component of the report is the title page. As the name suggests,
the title page displays the title that has been given to the report, typed in a large font (see the title page of this book). Frequently, it will also state for whom the report has been prepared, who has prepared the report (plus your student number for academic assignments), the date, and a sentence expanding on the title. In an academic assignment that sentence expanding on the title might be a brief adaptation of the question you are answering. In a business report, the title might still be “Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation”; and the sentence expanding on the title might be something like: ‘A report prepared for the Board of Directors of Smith and Company on the HRM division of the Brisbane Office.’ Remember that even though you have included a title page you still need to attach a departmental cover sheet on top of your title page.
Before you can write up your title page, naturally you must think up an appropriate title. In our example, the title I am using is:
Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation
Keep your title simple, straightforward, and a reflection of the content of the paper. If you have an uncontrollable emotional need to use a cutesy title such as “Spinning at Ever Higher Evolutions” or the like, then keep that as a sub-title. The main words in your title should immediately tell the reader what the paper is all about. In the example I have been using, we were asked to write a report on an organisation. The chosen organisation is Smith and Company. We had to write about an HRM issue. The chosen HRM issue is the learning organisation. Hence, “Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation”. Simple, descriptive, and straight to the point.Letter of Transmittal
This letter or memorandum is an official, yet almost personal, letter from the author of the report, or the Chair of the committee who wrote the report, to the person who commissioned or authorised the report. Written in a normal business letter format, it is merely a formality stating that the commissioned report is now complete and attached. The letter would normally contain a brief paragraph highlighting what the report was about. You might acknowledge any significant people or groups of people who helped
commissioner of the report has any questions. Although a good habit to get into, a letter of transmittal is not always a vital inclusion for your academic assignments, unless your lecturer specifically requests that you do so. This is another of those occasions when it would be a good idea to ask your lecturer if they would like you to include a letter of transmittal.
Table of Contents
A table of contents is a very important inclusion. Not only does it facilitate easy access to the various sections of your report, but also, more importantly, it is like a mini abstract or synopsis. It tells the reader exactly what they can expect to find in the report and so helps to familiarise them with the content.
The table of contents lists the sections and sub-sections, all of which should be numbered, complete with the corresponding page number on which the section begins. The section numbers appear against the left-hand margin, and the sub-sections are indented one tab space. Similarly, sub-sub-sections are indented two tab spaces.
Generally, essays, especially short essays, don’t have a table of contents.
The easiest way to create a able of contents is using Word’s Style window to insert Headings, and then go to your Insert Menu, then to Index and Tables, choose the table of contents tab, and within a couple of seconds you will have your table of contents appropriately set out, and complete with accurate page numbers. This can be updated at any time by pressing F9. The very last thing you do before printing is to put your cursor anywhere on the table and press F9 so that you have the very latest update of contents.
Executive Summary
In a report, the abstract or synopsis is called an Executive Summary and contains a brief overview of the entire report, complete with a summary of the key findings and recommendations.
The executive summary is usually not more than about one page in length, it should not contain any sub-headings, or any new, extra, or unnecessary descriptive information. It should simply contain very brief statements of the following:
• The purpose and scope of the report. • The type of analysis conducted. • How that analysis was conducted.
• The most important and significant findings.
• The most important and significant recommendations.
The executive summary is not counted in your word or page count and should be the last thing you write, once you have completed your report and you know what you did and how you did it.
In addition to the sentence or two on the key recommendations in your executive summary, an extra section can be included listing all the recommendations in summary form. This Summary of Recommendations list will appear on a new page following the executive summary and will contain a numbered list (R1; R2; R3 …) of all of the recommendations contained in the report. In this section, the recommendations will be presented in the briefest possible form with no supporting evidence. At the end of each recommendation you should include the page number or section of the report where the recommendation is presented in full. As will be discussed later, this summary of recommendations list can, alternatively, be placed at the end of the report or in the appendix (see an example in Appendix 10.1).
1.0 Introduction
As with essays, all reports should have three major sections: the introduction, in which you tell the reader what you are going to tell them; the body, in which you tell the reader what the report is all about; and the conclusion, in which you tell the reader what you have just told them in the body.
As a general guide, for an average term paper, the introduction should be around 10% of your word limit. So for a 3000 word paper the introduction will be about 300 words and should contain:
• The aim of the report – what you want to achieve by writing the report. This should be stated within the first one or two sentences.
• A brief explanation of how the report is structured and the scope of the report – the topics or issues that the report covers.
• A brief explanation of how you went about your research – where and how you obtained your information, data, examples. Remember that the introduction is just briefly telling the reader what you are about to tell them. A further explanation of what goes into the introduction, from a slightly different perspective, is presented below as I discuss the elements asked for in the example question introduction.
It is important to note that by this stage in your report the reader has been introduced to your material three times, in three different ways: in the table of contents; the executive summary; and now in the introduction – four times if you include the overview in the letter of transmittal. Further, with each introduction the information has been expanded upon or presented from a slightly different perspective, or both. It is because of this progressively expanding introduction to the report and its contents that the Table of Contents is placed before the Executive Summary. As a result, by the time the reader has read the introduction component they are becoming very familiar with what they are about to read and so the body of the report, which is the ultimate expansion of the previous introductions, will be a lot easier to read and comprehend.
The three items below, listed for inclusion in this introduction section, are included because they were specifically asked for on the example assignment question sheet. Nevertheless, they would normally be covered in your introduction in a very brief fashion, even if they hadn’t been specifically asked for, as evidenced by the dot point guidelines above.
• IDENTIFY ISSUE (1 or 2 sentences maximum)
This is straightforward. Initially, you have to decide on the actual topic that you want to write on. In this example, I have selected the HRM issue of the learning organisation.
• Why Chosen
This explanation of why you selected that particular topic need take no more than a couple of sentences.
• DISCUSS How Information Gathered
Again, this need be no more than a sentence or two at the most, giving a brief overview of the processes involved in gathering the information for the report. As an example; ‘The information in this report is based on two interviews, one with the staff and the second with the executives of Smith and Company; an archival search of company records on the Internet; and “real-world” examples and theory obtained from library and data base searches.’ That is all that is required for a term paper report. You are not to go into great detail about how you conducted your library search, or that you took the third book off the fourth shelf, or the like. It happens! If you obtained theoretical information from the library and data bases, then as the example sentence above indicates, you need say no more than ‘theory obtained from library and data base searches.’ Any more than that is too much, unless you have been specifically asked for more detail.
• Also include your proposition – what you are going to argue for
Although not specifically stated in the example question, you should always include in the introduction, in a clear and succinct statement, what it is that you are going to argue for. This is often called your thesis statement. Using this “Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation” example, your thesis statement might be something like: ‘In this report, I shall argue for the benefits of the learning organisation concept, however, I shall demonstrate that this concept is not working effectively in Smith and Company due to their prevailing corporate culture.” Once you have that statement, you have the backbone, or the prevailing theme, for your report. You then know that everything that you write should be arguing for, and supporting, that thesis statement. If it is not, then you have wondered off track and you had better get back on track quickly.
One final word on your thesis statement. It could be that you set out arguing for a certain position, however, your research demonstrates to you that the position is not valid. For a coursework term paper you can then either change your thesis statement, your position, so that it corresponds to your research findings, or explain that you originally held one position, however your research has demonstrated otherwise.
2.0. The Learning Organisation Concept
This is the first heading for the body of your report, and so before examining this specific example, I shall briefly discuss what the body of a report contains from a structural perspective.
The body is where you tell the reader, in full, what it is they have come to find out and so it should be written in a way that the reader will fully understand what you are trying to say and the position you are arguing for. The body should include the following points.
• The body should cover all aspects of the question you are required to address. This might include identifying and analysing the problem – whatever it might be. In other words, what is wrong and why is it a problem?
• It should cover the points required to achieve the aim of the report.
• It will contain sections and sub-sections, all of which have numbered headings.
• Unlike an essay, it is generally acceptable, and sometimes very beneficial to use dot points, at times, in your report. Dot points are commonly used for clarity and brevity where there is a lot of data being presented.
• Apart from that, the body of the report will contain structurally complete and grammatically correct paragraphs. Each paragraph should contain a separate idea and all paragraphs should be logically sequenced.
• The body contains your critical analysis of the situation, as such all ideas and opinions must be supported by theoretical evidence and or your research findings. This will be discussed in a lot more detail in Chapter 5, under the sub-heading “Substantiation” and Chapter 6 on Critical Analysis.
• Never assume that the reader has read all the same literature that you have read. As such, always state why you have included, or excluded, certain information. As a rule of thumb, give your paper to someone to read who does not know the subject and ask them if it makes sense.
Whether you are writing a report or an essay always keep in mind your audience. Who is it that you are writing the paper for, and consequently, how do you have to word the paper so that the reader will fully understand what the paper is all about. In addition, as you write always keep in mind your aim and/or the central argument or point that you are trying to make (your thesis) and continually link your writing back to that aim and cental argument/thesis. As such, newly introduced ideas and concepts, in each section, should be subtly linked back to the aim and thesis. Remember that new ideas and concepts should also provide another piece of the jig-saw that answers the questions associated with the aim. Your aim and central argument is like a thread which should run through your entire paper joining all the sections together in to one coherent whole. Again, this will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 6 on Critical Analysis.
Now back to the Smith and Company design structure example. Just as the overall title of the paper, “Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation” is simple and yet descriptive; the various headings and sub-headings for the body of your paper should also be simple and reflect the content of that particular section. Thus, you shouldn’t have any problems understanding my reasons for using the headings and sub-headings that I have chosen to use.
• History – Definition – Characteristics (of the Learning Organisation Concept) In this section, you are just setting the scene, and explaining to the reader what the concept of the learning organisation is all about. You will recognise that the three areas covered – history, definition, and characteristics – are from the literature review suggestions list. Again, as this will be mainly descriptive, it should also be kept to a minimum.
3.0. The Learning Organisation at Smith and Company
• Tell the reader in one brief paragraph what section 3 contains – a mini introduction – see Chapter 5.1 under the sub-heading ‘Linking and Flagging’ Every new section should begin with a mini introduction ‘flagging’, or giving a very brief overview, of what the section contains. No more than 1 or 2 sentences.
3.1. Background to Smith & Co
• Who/What is Smith & Company – History – Characteristics
Just as you provided the reader with a brief overview of the learning organisation concept in section 2.0 of this design structure example, in this section you need to provide the reader with a very brief overview of the background, history, and characteristics of Smith and Company.
It is at this point that many students fall into a major trap – especially mature age students who are in the work force. Suddenly you are asked to write about something that you know a lot about. Perhaps the organisation is dear to your heart. The result is that there is a tendency to write pages and pages and pages on this one section.
Don’t ! Your marker is not interested.
As with section 2.0 of this structure example – The Learning Organisation Concept – the descriptive information in this section is, again, merely to set the stage. All the marker/reader wants to know are the basic facts about the organisation. No matter how big or small, no matter how unusual or commonplace the organisation is that you are going to write about, for a 3000-5000 word report, if you have taken any more than about a quarter to half a page to write up this section, then you have written too much. You will have an opportunity later on to discuss further aspects of the organisation that are relevant to your topic.
3.2. The Learning Organisation in Action
• Integrate – Application Of Theory + Examples + Data • DISCUSS The Case/Situation Fully
• REVIEW Learning Organisation’s Effectiveness – +/-
• Theoretical Arguments for and how/if applies to Smith & Co – data, examples
• Theoretical Arguments against and how/if applies to Smith & Co – data, examples
• Using the literature, plus data and examples, you must overcome the ‘againsts’
• ANALYSE the situation – develop a persuasive argument to support your thesis statement. This analysis will lead to a conclusion, from which will come some recommendations
This is arguably the most important section of your report. It is the section that will attract the most marks and, in turn, the largest percentage of words will be allocated to this section. This is your opportunity to write about, in this case how the learning organisation is operating at Smith and Company. What is working, and why? What is not working, and why? It is in this section that you will be critically analysing the concept of the learning organisation, or whatever topic you have chosen, and critically analysing the effectiveness of the learning organisation concept at Smith and Company, in preparation for a conclusion that will lead to a series of recommendations. When working on this section of your report it is important that you read Chapter 6, of this handbook, very carefully for a detailed discussion on developing a persuasive argument, integrating theory and practice, and critical analyses.
Due to the volume of work in this sub-section, you might find it appropriate to divide this sub-section into several sub-sub-sections.
4.0. Conclusion
The conclusion is where you tell the reader what you have just told them. The conclusion is a roundup of all you have just written. It pulls together all the sections in the body in to one comprehensive whole to demonstrate to the reader that you have accomplished what you set out to do. In essence, the conclusion must demonstrate that you have answered fully the chosen question. Thus, the conclusion should contain:
• A re-cap of your aim and the outcomes which were stated in the introduction and then tell the reader how you fulfilled your aim and those outcomes. • A very brief paragraph to reinforce, in the reader’s mind, how you fulfilled
all the instructions and directions given in the question.
• An integrated overview of the different sections and how they all lead to your findings.
• And the conclusion should contain a conclusion. Normally, this will be a one or two sentence answer to the original question asked, or your aim. Alternatively, it will be a confirmation or denial of your original thesis or position.
5.0. Recommendations
Recommendations – each stated in one succinct sentence
Rationale that links back to arguments in the body, section 3.2, above; and the conclusion
Implications + Limitations + Implementations
The recommendations flow out of the conclusion and tell the reader what actions need to be taken. There are several ways in which the recommendations can be presented in a report.
1. In a short report, especially if the report is focussing on only one topic, such as staff training, or innovation, or product promotion, or whatever, the recommendations are usually placed in a single section after the conclusion.
2. In longer, or more complex, reports each section of the report might have its own conclusion. In this case, based on that conclusion and the supporting evidence presented in the discussion in that section, the recommendations can be listed at the end of each section.
3. A third method, of integrating your recommendations into the body of your report, will be discussed shortly.
But first, whatever method is used the following points must be noted. • Recommendations must logically follow on from the conclusion.
• They must be clearly and succinctly stated in one sentence in which the words are used “it is recommended that …”. Or if your report has been written using 1st person, “I (we) recommend that …”. There is no point is making recommendations which begin with things like: “I suggest you do…” ; or “You could possibly try …”. Presenting firm recommendations in those weak ways indicates that, either it is not necessarily important, or that you are not very confident in the action you are recommending. And if you are not confident about your own recommendation, why should anyone else have confidence in the recommendations. If you don’t believe that your recommendation is sound, then don’t make that recommendation.
• Recommendations must be accompanied by a rationale – a reason that you are making the recommendation. In other words, you must sell to the reader of the report the benefit of taking the recommended action.
• To have credibility, all recommendations must be supported by evidence that you have argued for in the body of your report. Generally, this evidence is to be in the form of theory from the literature, or data collected, or ideally both. Without credible supporting evidence your recommendations are no more than an intuitive wish list.
• The recommendation, rationale, and the supporting evidence must clearly link back to discussions in the body of your report or related section, otherwise there has been no point in your previous discussions. The whole point of the body of your report, or section just completed, is to argue a case for the recommendation you are about to present.
• As a result, whether your recommendations have been placed at the end of a section, or the end of the entire report, the logical sequence is as follows:
1. in the body discuss the situation;
2. argue your case, supported by evidence based on theory, data, and examples which will lead to;
3. a conclusion, which will lead to; 4. the recommendations.
5. Each recommendation is stated clearly and succinctly in a single sentence.
6. Another sentence contains the rationale which is linked back to the evidence argued for in the body of the report.
Remember, recommendations not supported by a rationale and evidence are merely a wish list and are of no academic or business merit.
The third way of presenting recommendations, as mentioned above, is to sprinkle them throughout a section after each specific point is argued for. However, if
recommendations are presented in that manner there are a few extra guidelines that must be remembered.
• All the points listed above still apply, and must be adhered to.
• The specific recommendation must be clearly stated and be visually obvious. Something that blends, both verbally and visually, into a sea of writing is of no value at all. To ensure that that does not occur, and that there is no confusion as to what is, or is not, a recommendation:
It is recommended that the recommendation be typed in bold type, and, if appropriate, written on its own as a self-contained, single sentence paragraph which contain the key identifying words “It is recommended that …” or “Therefore, it is recommended that …”.
Whenever this method is used, a separate recommendation summary section must be included in the report. This Summary of Recommendations can be placed after the Executive Summary, as previously mentioned, or it can go after the conclusion or in an appendix. It should contain a numbered list of the recommendations only, just as they were presented throughout the report, without any supporting evidence. At the end of the recommendation insert the page number or section where the recommendation appeared so that the reader can have a look at the supporting evidence in the body when the recommendation was originally presented. See an example summary list of recommendations in Appendix 10.1.
The credibility of your recommendations will be significantly enhanced if three final features are included. They are the implications, limitations, and implementation of your recommendations.
Implications: Discussing the implications will demonstrate that you have fully considered the ramification of your recommendations, both if they are implemented and also if the recommendations are not implemented. Keeping in mind the interdependent nature of an organisation, the implications sub-section will answer questions such as: how will the implementation of your recommendations affect the other sections in the organisation that may not be directly involved? What may occur if the recommendations are not implemented, and so on?
MODEL FOR WRITING RECOMMENDATIONS
The following model will help you with your recommendations. It is adapted from what is known as the 4Mat system. The 4 Mat System is based on research from many fields including, right and left brain dominance theory, creativity, management, and the learning style model of David Kolb (McCarthy, 1980). The system was developed by educationalist, Bernice McCarthy, who explains it fully in her book, The 4Mat System: Teaching to Learning Styles with Right/Left Mode Techniques (McCarthy, 1980). McCarthy claims that there are four main styles of learning, and people generally have a preference for one of these four methods. Whether writing a book, giving a talk, or designing a training program, to accommodate the entire audience, all four learning styles need to be included. This is done by ensuring that the questions, why, what, how, and what else/what if are answered. These same questions need to be addressed when we are attempting to demonstrate the credibility of our recommendations. In other words, these four questions need to be addressed when we are writing recommendations.
First of all, state the recommendation up front, clearly and succinctly in one sentence. Then answer the four questions, why, what, how, and what else/what if. As an example:
• Why do they need to do this? Give the rationale behind your recommendation, linking it to the analysis, arguments, evidence, and discussion in the body of your report.
• What do the experts say about this recommendation? This is where you demonstrate your understanding of the relevant theory. This is where you present the theory justifying, or supporting, your recommendation. Ideally, present the theory for and against, comparing and contrasting. See the section on critical analysis – Chapter 6.1.
• How does it work, how do they do it? How is this recommendation to be implemented? Explain exactly how the organisation will go about doing what it is that you are recommending that they do – the physical processes and activities involved; the details of what is required to fulfil the recommendation’s requirements; the time-line for completing the recommendations; and so forth. • What else, what if –
• What else can they do with these new skills, these new learnings, this new process or way of doing things? What else do I need to add – for example, what are the broader implications of implementing this recommendation. What else might occur, in the way of added benefits, other than those already linked to the discussion in the body? Sell the added benefits of
adopting the recommendation.
• What if "X" happens. What are the limitations of the proposed recommendation? What if the
Limitations: In a similar vein to the implications, the limitation sub-section demonstrates that you have thoroughly considered the reality of implementing your recommendations. In the limitations section examine the barriers to the implementation of your recommendations. No matter how sound, according to the theory, your recommendations might be, if they cannot be applied in a ‘real life’ situation then the best theory in the world means nothing. As such, in this section consider what would prevent the organisation from implementing your recommendations? And what recommendations would you make to overcome those obstacles, or would you have to change your original recommendations?
A very brief and simplistic example might be that, based on the theoretical evidence, you want to recommend that the organisation introduce a flatter structure and a more open form of communication. However, if the organisation currently has a very hierarchical structure, and conservative and inflexible form of corporate culture, it would be highly unlikely that your recommendations would be realistic. Accordingly, you might first have to recommend some major attitudinal intervention that would result in a change in the corporate culture and a long term change management program which would eventually lead to the introduction of the flatter structure and more open communication.
Implementation: A final sub-section that can follow the limitations or be included in the appendix is a brief overview of how your recommendations will be implemented. In this section, issues such as who will do what, and how, and when it will be done, are explored.
The model in the box above (Figure 7), should help you to write comprehensive recommendations that incorporate the most important aspects discussed above.
6.0. Appendices
Appendices contain information that might be of interest to the reader, which expands upon the information that has already been discussed in the body of the report or essay. Unless otherwise stated, appendices do not count in the word or page count. There are a few points that are important to note regarding appendices.
• Appendices are usually used for information such as charts, maps, tables, extracts, questionnaires, and details of responses that have been summarised in the body of the report.
• Never introduce new material in the appendix, unless it can be linked to some reference in the body of the report.
• The same rules for referencing that apply to the body of the report apply to the appendix.
• Each new appendix should start on a new page and have its own heading. • Use a separate appendix for each major piece of information.
• Within reason, there is no limit to the number of appendices that you can include. However, keep in mind that appendices are rarely read.
7.0. Reference List
Reference lists can either be placed between the conclusion and the appendices or at the end of the paper, after the appendices, as the very last section. However, there are two main reasons for recommending that the reference list be located in the latter position, at the very end of the paper. The first is that the reference list is one of the first things the reader should skim through prior to reading the paper, and is often referred to during the reading of the paper. Hence, it is a lot quicker and easier to find if it is placed at the very end of the paper instead of the reader having to continually rummage through appendices to find the reference list. The other reason is that normally the appendices will contain references that have to be included in the reference list and so it is more logical to have the reference list follow all reference citations than to follow some and come before others.
All further details, including examples, of Referencing and the Reference List and Bibliographies are contained in Chapter 7.
