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(1)

Hands On Relay School

(2)

Hands On Relay School

Transformer Protection Open Lecture

Class Outline

Transformer protection overview

Review transformer connections

Discuss challenges and methods of current 

differential Protection

Discuss other protective elements used in 

transformer protection

Scott Cooper Eastern Regional Manager Manta Test Systems [email protected] (727)415-5843 204 37th Avenue North #281 Saint Petersburg, FL 33704

(3)

Transformer Protection Overview 

Transformer Protection Zones

(4)

Types of Protection

Mechanical Protection

Analysis of Accumulated Gases

– Looks for arcing by‐products

Sudden Pressure Relays

– Orifice allows for normal thermal expansion/contraction.  Arcing  causing pressure waves in oil or gas space overwhelming the orifice  and actuating the relay.

Thermal

– Caused by overload, over excitation, harmonics and geo magnetically  induced currents • Hot spot temperature • Top Oil • LTC Overheating

(5)

Types of Protection

Relay Protection

Internal Short Circuit

Phase:  87HS, 87T

Ground:  87HS, 87T, 87GD

System Short Circuit Back Up Protection

Phase and Ground Faults

• Buses:  50, 50N, 51, 51N, 46 • Lines:  50, 50N, 51, 51N, 46

(6)

Types of Protection

Relay Protection

Abnormal Operating Conditions

Open Circuits: 46

Overexcitation: 24

Undervoltage: 27

Abnormal Frequency:  81U

Breaker Failure:  50BF, 50BF‐N

(7)

Phase Differential

Overview

• What goes into a “unit” comes out of  a “unit” • Kirchoff’s Law: The sum of the  currents entering and leaving a  junction is (should be) zero • Straight forward concept, but not  that simple in practice with  transformers UNIT I1 I2 I3 I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

(8)

Phase Differential

Overview

A host of issues presents itself to decrease security and reliability of transformer  differential protection • CT ratio caused current mismatchTransformation ratio caused current mismatch (fixed taps)LTC induced current mismatch

Delta‐wye transformation of currents

– Vector group and current derivation issues

Zero‐sequence current elimination for external ground faults on wye windings

Inrush phenomena and its resultant current mismatchHarmonic content availability during inrush period due to point‐on‐wave  switching (especially with newer transformers) • Over‐excitation phenomena and its resultant current mismatchInternal ground fault sensitivity concernsSwitch onto fault concernsCT saturation, remnance and tolerance

(9)

Compensation (2)

Change in CT Ratio

1:1, Y-Y

1:1, 3Y 4:1, 3Y

IA, IB, IC Ia, Ib, Ic

IA'*4 = Ia'

IB' * 4 = Ib'

IC' * 4 = Ic'

IA', IB', IC' Ia', Ib', Ic'

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

(10)

Compensation (3)

Transformer Ratio

2:1, Y-Y

1:1, 3Y 1:1, 3Y

IA, IB, IC Ia, Ib, Ic

IA' = Ia' / 2

IB' = Ib' / 2

IC' = Ic' / 2

IA', IB', IC' Ia', Ib', Ic'

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

(11)

Compensation (2)

Change in CT Ratio

IA, IB, IC Ia, Ib, Ic

IA', IB', IC' Ia', Ib', Ic'

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept

(12)

Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

100MVA

IN

100MVA

OUT

(13)

Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

3 ∗ ∗ = − CTR V rVA Transforme WindingTap L L V CTR rVA Transforme WindingTap L L ∗ = −

Tap Calculation with Delta CTs Tap Calculation with Wye CTs

(14)

Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

Each measured current is divided by the winding Tap. The

result is a percent of rating. These percent of ratings can be

compared directly.

(15)

AB connected delta‐wye transformer

Phase Differential

(16)

a

b

c

-b

• Subtracting Vectors: Subtract from reference phase vector the connected non-polarity vector…in our example Ia-Ib

• Can be repeated for B & C, or you can assume –120 and –240 displacement from A for B&C respectively

• Ib – Ic and Ic – Ia would be the vectors

Phase Differential

(17)

AC connected delta‐wye transformer

Ia Ia Ib Ib Ic Ic Ia Ib Ic Ia-Ic Ib-Ia Ic-Ib Ia Ia-Ic Ib Ic Ib-Ia Ic-Ib

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

(18)

• Subtracting vectors: Subtract from reference phase vector the connected non-polarity vector…in our example Ia-Ic

• Can be repeated for B & C, or you can assume –120 and –240 displacement from A for B&C respectively

• Ib – Ia and Ic – Ib would be the vectors

a

b

c

-c

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

(19)

Angular Displacement Conventions:

• ANSI Y‐Y, Δ‐Δ @ 0°; Y‐Δ , Δ‐Y @ X1 lags H1 by 30° – ANSI makes life easy • Euro‐designations use 30° increments of LAG from the X1 bushing to the  H1 bushings – Dy11=X1 lags H1 by 11*30°=330° or, H1 leads X1 by 30° – Think of a clock – each hour is 30 degrees 0 6 3 9 8 7 10 11 1 2 5 4 Dy1 = X1 lags H1 by 1*30 = 30, or H1 leads X1 by 30 (ANSI std.)

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

(20)

US Standard Dy Example:

• H1 (A) leads X1 (a) by 30

• Currents on “H” bushings are delta quantities

a b c A B C Assume 1:1 transformer

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

(21)

Assume 1:1 transformer a b c A B C

Phase Differential

Overview‐Transformer Basics

US Standard Yd Example: •H1 (a) leads X1 (A) by 30

(22)

Phase Differential

Overview

• Applied with variable  percentage slopes to  accommodate CT saturation  and CT ratio errors • Applied with inrush and over  excitation restraints • Set with at least a 20% pick up  to accommodate CT  performance – Class “C” CT; +/‐ 10% at 20X  rated • If unit is LTC, add another +/‐ 10% • May not be sensitive enough  for all faults (low level, ground  faults near neutral)

(23)

• CT ratios and tap settings are selected to  account for: – Transformer ratios – If delta or wye connected CTs are  applied – Delta increases ratio by 1.73 • Delta CTs must be used to filter zero‐ sequence current on all wye transformer  windings • Dy transformer connections compensated  by yd CT connections to make the currents  “apples to apples”.

Phase Differential

E‐M Relay Application 

(24)

Zero‐sequence elimination:  In E‐M relays with wye connected transformers,  delta connected CTs are used to remove the ground current. 

Phase Differential

(25)

Settings compensate for the following: • Transformer ratio • CT ratio • Vector quantities – Which vectors are used – Where the 1.73 factor (√3) is applied • When examining line to line  quantities on delta connected  transformer windings and CT  windings • Zero‐sequence current filtering for  wye windings so the differential  quantities do not occur from  external ground faults

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(26)

Angular displacement (IEC and SEL) • IEC (Euro) practice does not  have a standard like ANSI • Most common connection is  Dy11 (low lead high by 30!) • Obviously observation of  angular displacement is  extremely important when  paralleling transformers! *1 *1 *2 *2 *1 = ANSI std. @ 0° *2 = ANSI std. @ X1 lag H1 by 30°, or “high lead low by 30 ° “

Phase Differential

(27)

Digital Relay Application

(28)

Benefits of Wye CTs

Phase segregated line currents

Individual line current oscillography

Currents may be easily used for overcurrent 

protection and metering

Easier to commission and troubleshoot

Zero sequence elimination performed by 

calculation 

(29)

Zero‐sequence elimination:  In digital relays with wye connected 

transformers and wye connected CTs, ground current must be removed from  the differential calculation. 

•3I

0

= [I

a

+ I

b

+ I

c

]

I0 = 1/3 *[Ia + Ib + Ic]

•Used where filtering is required, such as wye winding with wye CTs

Phase Differential

(30)

Typical Transformer Inrush Waveform 2nd and 4th Harmonics During Inrush

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(31)

Harmonically Restrained Differential Element

Inrush Detection and Restraint

– Inrush occurs on transformer energizing as the core magnetizes – Sympathy inrush occurs from adjacent transformer(s) energizing, fault  removal, allowing the transformer to undergo a low level inrush – Characterized by current into one winding of transformer, and not out  of the other winding(s) – This causes the differential element to pickup – Use inrush restraint to block differential element during inrush period

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(32)

Inrush Detection and Restraint

– 2nd harmonic restraint has been employed for years – “Gap” detection has also been employed – As transformers are designed to closer tolerances, both 2nd harmonic  and low current gaps in waveform have decreased – If 2nd harmonic restraint level is set too low, differential element may  be blocked for internal faults with CT saturation (with associated  harmonics generated)

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(33)

Inrush Detection and Restraint

– 4th harmonic is also generated during inrush

– Odd harmonics are not as prevalent as Even harmonics during inrush

– Odd harmonics more prevalent during CT saturation

– Use 4th harmonic and 2nd harmonic together

– M‐3310/M‐3311 relays use RMS sum of the 2nd and 4th harmonic as 

inrush restraint

– Result:  Improved security while not sacrificing reliability

Phase Differential

(34)

Overexcitation Restraint

Overexcitation occurs when volts per hertz 

level rises (V/Hz)

This typically occurs from load rejection and 

malfunctioning generation AVRs

The voltage rise at nominal frequency causes 

the V/Hz to rise

This causes 5

th

harmonics to be generated in 

the transformer as it begins to go into 

saturation

The current entering the transformer is more 

than the current leaving due to this increase in 

magnetizing current

This causes the differential element to pick‐up

Use 5

th

harmonic level to detect overexcitation

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(35)

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 87T Pick Up 87T Pick Up

with 5th Harmonic Restraint

Slope 1 Slope 2 Slope 2 Breakpoint TRIP RESTRAIN

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(36)

87T Pick Up

– Class C CTs, use 20% – LTC, add 10% – Magnetizing losses, add 1% – 0.3 to 0.4 pu typically setting

Slope 1

– Used for low level currents – Typically set for 25%

Slope 2 “breakpoint”

– Typically set at 2X rated current – This setting assumes that any current over 2X rated is a  through fault or internal fault, and is used to desensitize the  element against unfaithful replication

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(37)

Slope 2

– Typically set at 70%

Inrush Restraint (2

nd

and 4

th

harmonic)

– Typically set from 15‐20% – Employ cross phase averaging blocking for security

Over‐excitation Restraint (5

th

harmonic)

– Typically set at  30% – Raise 87T pick up to 0.60 pu during overexcitation – No cross phase averaging needed, as overexcitation is  symmetric on the phases

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(38)

Unrestrained 87H Pick Up

– Typically set at 8‐10pu rated current – This value should be above maximum possible inrush current  and lower than the CT saturation current – C37.91, section 5.2.3, states 10pu an acceptable value – Can use data captured from energizations to fine tune the  setting

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(39)

CT Issues:

Remnance:  Residual magnetism that causes dc saturation of the 

CTs

Saturation:  Error signal resulting from too high a primary current 

combined with a large burden

Tolerance:  Class “C” CTs are rated +/‐ 10% for currents x20 of 

nominal 

– Thru‐faults and internal faults may reach those levels depending on ratio  selected

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(40)

CT Issues (cont.)

Best defense is to use high “Class C” voltage levels

– C400, C800 – These have superior characteristics against saturation and  relay/wiring  burden

Use low burden relays

– Digital systems are typically 0.020 ohms

Use a variable percentage slope characteristic to desensitize 

the differential element when challenged by high currents that 

may cause replication errors

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(41)

“Point‐on‐Wave” Considerations During Energization

• As most circuit breakers are ganged three‐pole, each phase is closed at a  different angle resulting in less harmonics on one phase and more on the  others • Low levels of harmonics may not provide inrush restraint for affected phase – security risk! • Most modern relays employ some kind of cross‐phase averaging scheme to  compensate for this issue – Provides security if any phase has low harmonic content during inrush or overexcitation – This can occur depending on the voltage point‐on‐wave when the transformer is energized for a  given phase – Cross phase averaging uses the average of harmonics on all three phases to determine level

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(42)

Improved Ground Fault Sensitivity:

87T element is typically set with 20‐40% pick up

This is to accommodate Class “C” CT accuracy 

during a fault plus the effects of LTCs

That leaves 20‐40% of the winding not covered for 

a ground fault

Employ a ground differential element to improve 

sensitivity (87GD)

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(43)

Switch‐onto‐Fault:

Transformer is faulted on energizing

Harmonic restraint on unfaulted phases may work 

against trip decision if cross phase averaging is used

Un‐faulted phase will have no harmonics, other phases 

may have high value

Employ 87HS to protect winding that is being 

energized

Employ 87GD on coupled winding if it is wye

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(44)

Switch‐onto‐Fault (cont): • Employ 87HS to protect winding that is first energized • 87HS is set above inrush current • If fault is near the bushing end of the winding, the current will be higher  than inrush – Typically 9‐12 pu thru current • 87HS does not employ harmonic restraint – Fast tripping on high current faults

Phase Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(45)

Use 87GD

• I

A

+ I

B

+ I

C

= 3I

0

If fault is internal, 

opposite polarity

If fault is external, same 

polarity

IG IA IB IC

Ground Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(46)

IG IA IB IC IG IA IB IC

Internal

External

Ground Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(47)

Restricted Earth Fault Trip Characteristic

• 87GD Pick Up – Element normally uses directional comparison between phase  residual current (3I0) and measured ground current (IG) • No user setting – Pick up only applicable when 3I0current is below 140mA (5A  nom.) • Pick up = 3I0 - IG – If 3I0 greater than 140mA, element uses: • –3I0 * IG * cosθ.  It will trip only when the directions of the  currents is opposite, indicating an internal fault • Using direction comparison mitigates the effects of saturation on  the phase and ground CTs

Ground Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(48)

I

G

I

A

I

B

I

C 3I0 IG Residual current calculated from individual phase currents. Paralleled CTs shown to illustrate principle.

0

90

180

270

I

G

-3I

O

Ground Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(49)

0

90

180

270

I

G

-3I

O

Ground Differential

Digital Relay Application 

(50)

Fuses

– Small transformers ( <10 MVA) – Short circuit protection only

Over current protection

– H‐side • Through fault protection • Differential back‐up protection for high side faults – X‐side • System back up protection • Unbalanced load protection

Other Transformer Protection

Over current Elements

(51)

H‐side over current elements:

Protection against heavy prolonged through faults

Transformer Category by nameplate capacity

– IEEE Std. C57.109‐1985 Curves

Other Transformer Protection

Over current Elements

(52)

Cat. 2 & 3 

Fault Frequency 

(53)

Through Fault 

Category 1

(54)

Through Fault 

Category 2

(55)

Through Fault 

Category 3

(56)

Through Fault 

Category 4

(57)

X‐side Over Current 

Elements

Used to protect 

against un‐cleared 

faults downstream 

of the transformer

May consist of phase 

and ground 

elements

Coordinated with 

line protection off 

the bus

Failed Breaker

51 51

G

Other Transformer Protection

(58)

X‐side Over Current Elements:

Negative sequence over 

current used to protect 

against unbalanced loads & 

open conductors

Easy to coordinate

46

Other Transformer Protection

Over current Elements

(59)

Overexcitation:

Responds to overfluxing; excessive v/Hz

Continuous operational limits

ANSI C37.106 & C57.12

– 1.05 loaded, 1.10 unloaded

Inverse curves typically available for values over the 

continuous allowable maximum

Other Transformer Protection

Over current Elements

(60)

Causes: • Generating Plants – Excitation system runaway  – Sudden loss of load – Operational issues (reduced frequency) • Static starts • Pumped hydro starting • Rotor warming • Transmission Systems – Voltage and Reactive Support Control Failures • Capacitor banks ‘ON’ when they should be ‘OFF’ • Shunt reactors ‘OFF’ when they should be ‘ON’ • Generator unit transformer connected to long line with  no‐load (Ferranti effect) • Runaway LTCs

Other Transformer Protection

Over current Elements

(61)

Overexcitation Curve

(62)

Overexcitation Curve

(63)

References: ‐ANSI / IEEEC37.91, “Guide for Protective Relay Applications for Power Transformers” ‐ANSI/IEEE C57.12,  “Standard General Requirements for Liquid Immersed Distribution,   Power and Regulating Transformers” Protective Relaying:  Principals and applications, Third Edition By J. Lewis Blackburn  and Thomas J. Domin ‐Digital Transformer Protection from Power Plants to Distribution Substations,  CJ  Mozina General Electric “Transformer Connections including Autotransformer Connections”   GET‐2J, Dec, 1970 87 T 50 51 51 G

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