Air pollution.ppt

(1)

(2)

Core Case Study:

When Is a Lichen Like a Canary?



_{Lichens can warn}

us of bad air

because they

absorb it as a

source of

nourishment.

(3)

Core Case Study:

When Is a Lichen Like a Canary?



Some lichen species are sensitive to specific

_{Some lichen species are sensitive to specific}

air-polluting chemicals.



After Chernobyl, more than 70,000 reindeer

_{After Chernobyl, more than 70,000 reindeer}

had to be killed because they ate highly

radioactive lichens.



Because lichens are widespread, long-lived,

_{Because lichens are widespread, long-lived,}

and anchored in place, they can help track

pollution to its source.

(4)

Layers of the Atmosphere

(5)



_{http://www.montereyinstitute.org/courses/AP}

(6)

Troposphere



_{extends 11 miles}



78% N

₂₂

, 21% O

₂₂

, water vapor, CO

₂₂

, Ar,

other gases

(7)

Stratosphere



_{11-30 miles}



_{Global sunscreen}



Less H

₂₂

O vapor

(8)

Production of Ozone

(9)



_{http://www.montereyinstitute.org/courses/AP}

(10)

Stratospheric Ozone:



_{Allows humans and other life to exist}



_{Protects from sunburn, cancers, and}

damage to immune system



Prevents O

₂₂

from converting to

photochemical O

(11)

Human activities are decreasing

good ozone (stratospheric)

and

increasing bad ozone

(tropospheric)

(12)

Outdoor Air Pollution



Presence of chemicals in atmosphere high

_{Presence of chemicals in atmosphere high}

enough in concentration to affect climate and

harm organisms and materials



8 major classes of outdoor air pollution

_{8 major classes of outdoor air pollution}



Most are natural but are dispersed and

_{Most are natural but are dispersed and}

rarely reach harmful levels



Exceptions are volcanoes and forest fires

_{Exceptions are volcanoes and forest fires}



Example: dust, decay of plants, sea spray,

_{Example: dust, decay of plants, sea spray,}

VOC’s released by plants

(13)

Anthropogenic Sources



_{Burning of fossil fuels in factories and power}

plants (stationary sources)

(14)

8 Major Classes of Air Pollutants

1.

1. Carbon oxides - CO, COCarbon oxides - CO, CO₂₂

2.

2. Sulfur oxides – SOSulfur oxides – SO₂₂, SO, SO₃₃

3.

3. Nitrogen oxides – NO, NNitrogen oxides – NO, N₂₂O, NOO, NO₂₂ (NO (NO_x_x))

4.

4. VOC (volatile organic compounds) – CHVOC (volatile organic compounds) – CH₄₄, CFC’s, CFC’s

5.

5. SPM (suspended particulate matter) – soot, ash, dust, SPM (suspended particulate matter) – soot, ash, dust, asbestos, lead, liquid droplets – H

asbestos, lead, liquid droplets – H₂₂SOSO₄₄, PCB’s, , PCB’s, Dioxins, pesticides

(15)

6.

6. Photochemical oxidants – O

Photochemical oxidants – O

₃₃

, aldehydes,

H

₂₂

O

₂₂

, PANs (peroxyacyl nitrates)

7.

7. Radioactive – radon-222, iodine-131,

Radioactive – radon-222, iodine-131,

plutonium-239

8.

8. HAPS – Hazardous Air Pollutants – cause

HAPS – Hazardous Air Pollutants – cause

cancer, birth defects and nervous system

problems – CCl

₄₄

, chloroform, benzene,

_{, chloroform, benzene,}

formaldehyde, methyl chloride

Good source of info for HAPS is Toxic

Release Inventory

(16)

Major Air Pollutants



_{Carbon oxides}

_:

– Carbon monoxide _{Carbon monoxide}(CO) is a highly toxic gas that (CO) is a highly toxic gas that forms during the incomplete combustion of

forms during the incomplete combustion of

carbon-containing materials.

containing materials.

– 93% of 93% of carbon dioxide carbon dioxide (CO(CO₂₂) in the troposphere ) in the troposphere occurs as a result of the carbon cycle.

occurs as a result of the carbon cycle.

– 7% of CO7% of CO₂₂ in the troposphere occurs as a result of in the troposphere occurs as a result of human activities (mostly burning fossil fuels).

human activities (mostly burning fossil fuels).

 It is not regulated as a pollutant under the U.S. Clean Air _{It is not regulated as a pollutant under the U.S. Clean Air}

Act

(17)

Major Air Pollutants



Nitrogen oxides

_{Nitrogen oxides}

and

nitric acid

:

– Nitrogen monoxide (NO) forms when nitrogen and _{Nitrogen monoxide (NO) forms when nitrogen and}

oxygen gas in air react at the high-combustion

temperatures in automobile engines and

coal-burning plants. NO can also form from lightening

burning plants. NO can also form from lightening

and certain soil bacteria.

 NO reacts with air to form NONO reacts with air to form NO₂₂..

 NONO₂₂reacts with water vapor in the air to form nitric acid reacts with water vapor in the air to form nitric acid (HNO

(HNO₃₃) and nitrate salts (NO) and nitrate salts (NO₃₃--) which are components _{) which are components} of acid deposition.

(18)

Major Air Pollutants



Sulfur dioxide (SO

₂₂

)

and

sulfuric acid

:

– About one-third of SOAbout one-third of SO₂₂ in the troposphere occurs in the troposphere occurs naturally through the sulfur cycle.

naturally through the sulfur cycle.

– Two-thirds come from human sources, mostly _{Two-thirds come from human sources, mostly}

combustion (S+ O

combustion (S+ O₂₂  SO SO₂₂) of sulfur-containing coal ) of sulfur-containing coal and from oil refining and smelting of sulfide ores.

and from oil refining and smelting of sulfide ores. – SOSO₂₂in the atmosphere can be converted to sulfuric in the atmosphere can be converted to sulfuric

acid (H

acid (H₂₂SOSO₄₄) and sulfate salts (SO) and sulfate salts (SO₄₄2-2-) that return to _{) that return to}

earth as a component of acid deposition.

(19)

Major Air Pollutants



Suspended particulate matter (SPM)

_{Suspended particulate matter (SPM)}

:

– Consists of a variety of solid particles and liquid _{Consists of a variety of solid particles and liquid}

droplets small and light enough to remain

suspended in the air.

– _{The most harmful forms of SPM are fine particles}_{The most harmful forms of SPM are fine particles}

(PM-10, with an average diameter < 10

micrometers) and ultrafine particles (PM-2.5).

micrometers) and ultrafine particles (PM-2.5). – According to the EPA, SPM is responsible for _{According to the EPA, SPM is responsible for}

about 60,000 premature deaths a year in the U.S.

(20)

Major Air Pollutants



Ozone (O

₃₃

)

:

– Is a highly reactive gas that is a major _{Is a highly reactive gas that is a major} component of photochemical smog.

component of photochemical smog. – It can _{It can}

 Cause and aggravate respiratory illness._{Cause and aggravate respiratory illness.}  Can aggravate heart disease._{Can aggravate heart disease.}

(21)

Major Air Pollutants



_{Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)}

_:

– Most are hydrocarbons emitted by the leaves of _{Most are hydrocarbons emitted by the leaves of}

many plants and methane.

– About two thirds of global methane emissions _{About two thirds of global methane emissions}

comes from human sources.

– Other VOCs include industrial solvents such as _{Other VOCs include industrial solvents such as}

trichlorethylene (TCE), benzene, and vinyl chloride.

 Long-term exposure to benzene can cause cancer, _{Long-term exposure to benzene can cause cancer,}

blood disorders, and immune system damage.

(22)

Major Air Pollutants



_{Radon (Rn)}

_:

– Is a naturally occurring radioactive gas found in _{Is a naturally occurring radioactive gas found in} some types of soil and rock.

some types of soil and rock.

– It can seep into homes and buildings sitting _{It can seep into homes and buildings sitting} above such deposits.

(23)

Primary and Secondary Pollutants



_{Primary – emitted directly into the}

atmosphere in a harmful form



_{Secondary – primaries react with one}

another or components of air to form new

pollutants

(24)

Urban areas are primarily affected more than rural

Winds can spread pollutants to the countryside

1 of 6 people live in urban areas where outdoor air is

unhealthy

Most live in developing countries where air pollution laws

don’t exist or are not enforced

(25)

Criteria Pollutants (6)



_{US and most developed countries have}

government mandated standards that set

maximum allowable concentrations

(26)

Criteria Pollutants

 NONO₂₂  OO₃₃  SOSO₂₂  CO_CO

 Lead_Lead

 Particulate Matter_{Particulate Matter}

(27)

1. Carbon monoxide

Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels

2C + O

₂₂



2CO

_2CO

Sources

Sources: :

car exhaust, burning fossil fuels, cigarette smoking

Health and Environmental Effects:

Impairs oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin,

can trigger heart attacks, aggravates respiratory

conditions

(28)

2.

2. Sulfur dioxide SO

Sulfur dioxide SO

₂₂

combustion of sulfur containing fuels – coal and oil

S + O

S + O₂₂ SO SO₂₂

In atmosphere can be converted to

H

H₂₂SOSO₄₄- component in acid rain- component in acid rain 2SO

2SO₂₂ + O + O₂₂  2SO 2SO₃₃

SO

(29)

Sources of SO

₂₂

 Coal burning power plants and industry_{Coal burning power plants and industry}

Health and Environ. Effects

 _{Breathing problems for healthy and people with}_{Breathing problems for healthy and people with} asthma and bronchitis

asthma and bronchitis

 Acid deposition – tree, soil, aquatic life damage_{Acid deposition – tree, soil, aquatic life damage}

 Corrodes metals, damages paint, leather, paper_{Corrodes metals, damages paint, leather, paper}

(30)

3. Nitrogen dioxide

irritating reddish-brown gas

can be converted to HNO

can be converted to HNO₃₃ in atmosphere (component in atmosphere (component of acid deposition)

of acid deposition)

(31)

Sources of NO

_x_x

Burning of fossil fuelsBurning of fossil fuels

Health and Environmental Effects

Lung irritation and damage, aggravates chronic lung

disease, increases susceptibility to respiratory

infections

Enviro effects same as SO

(32)

4. SPM

Suspended Particulate Matter

(particles and aerosol)

smoke, dust and haze

(33)

Sources

burning coal, burning diesel and other fuels,

agriculture, unpaved roads, construction

Health and Environmental Effects

Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, bronchitis

Toxic particles (Pb, Cd, PCB’s, and dioxins) –

cancer, reproductive problems.

Acid deposition of sulfuric acid droplets – damage to

trees, soils, aquatic life

Reduces visibility, corrodes metals, discolors

buildings, fabrics, paints

(34)

5. Ozone O

₃₃

highly

highly reactive gas, unpleasant odorreactive gas, unpleasant odor

Forms in the troposphere as major component

of photochemical smog

(35)

Source

Chemical reaction with VOC (emitted by cars,

industries) and NO

industries) and NO_x_x

Health and Environmental Effects

Breathing problems, ENT irritations

Aggravates COPD

Damages plants, trees, reduces visibility

damages rubber, fabrics, paints

(36)

6.

6. Lead Pb

_{Lead Pb}

Toxic metal and its compounds emitted into

atmosphere as particulates

(37)

Source

Paints in old houses, metal refineries, storage batteries,

leaded gasoline

Health and Environmental Effects

Nervous system damage, mental retardation, possible

carcinogen, digestive problems

Harmful to wildlife

(38)

URBAN OUTDOOR AIR

POLLUTION



_{Industrial smog is a mixture of sulfur dioxide,}

droplets of sulfuric acid, and a variety of

suspended solid particles emitted mostly by

burning coal.

– In most developed countries where coal and _{In most developed countries where coal and}

heavy oil is burned, industrial smog is not a

problem due to reasonably good pollution control

or with tall smokestacks that transfer the

pollutant to rural areas.

(39)

Photochemical and Industrial Smog



Formed by a reaction of NO

_x_x

and VOC under

the influence of sunlight

VOC’s + NO

VOC’s + NO_x_x+ heat + sunlight + heat + sunlight  Ground level O Ground level O₃₃+ other + other

secondary pollutants secondary pollutants

 Photochem = any reaction activated by lightPhotochem = any reaction activated by light

 Photochemical smog contains >100 primary and secondary Photochemical smog contains >100 primary and secondary pollutants

(40)



http://www.montereyinstitute.org/courses

(41)

Photochemical Smog Production

 Starts in auto engines at _{Starts in auto engines at}

high temps

 NN₂₂ and O and O₂₂ in air react to in air react to form NO

form NO

N

N₂₂ + O + O₂₂  2NO 2NO

 In atmosphere, some of _{In atmosphere, some of}

NO converts to NO

NO converts to NO₂₂

2NO + O

2NO + O₂₂  2NO 2NO₂₂

 NONO₂₂ can then react as can then react as follows:

(42)

NO

₂₂

reacts with

_{reacts with}

 Hydrocarbons_Hydrocarbons to form peroxyacyl nitrates PANs to form peroxyacyl nitrates PANs

 Water vapor_{Water vapor} to produce nitric acid and nitric oxide to produce nitric acid and nitric oxide 3NO

3NO₂₂ + H + H₂₂O O  2HNO 2HNO₃₃ + NO + NO

 UV radiation_{UV radiation} from sun to form nitric oxide and from sun to form nitric oxide and oxygen atoms

oxygen atoms

NO

NO₂₂+ sunlight + sunlight  O + NO O + NO

 _{Oxygen atoms}_{Oxygen atoms}_{then react with O}_{then react with O}₂₂_{to form O}_{to form O}₃₃  _O_O₂₂_{and O}_{and O}₃₃_{then react with VOC’s to produce}_{then react with VOC’s to produce}

aldehydes

(43)



NO

₂₂

, O

₃₃

, and PANS – photochemical

oxidants because they can react with and

oxidize certain compounds in the

atmosphere or inside your lungs that are

normally not oxidized.



_{Hotter days leads to higher levels of ozone}

and other smog components



_{Common in cities with sunny, warm climates}

and many motor vehicles.

(44)

Industrial Smog

 Mixture of SOMixture of SO₂₂, H, H₂₂SOSO₄₄, , suspended solid

suspended solid

particles emitted by

burning coal and oil

(45)

Industrial Smog

1.

1. Carbon is converted to COCarbon is converted to CO₂₂, CO and soot, CO and soot C + O

C + O₂₂  CO CO₂₂ 2C + O

2C + O₂₂ 2CO 2CO 2.

2. Sulfur compounds in coal also are converted to sulfur Sulfur compounds in coal also are converted to sulfur dioxide, then to sulfur trioxide, then to sulfuric acid.

dioxide, then to sulfur trioxide, then to sulfuric acid.

S + O

S + O₂₂  SO SO₂₂ 2SO

2SO₂₂ + O + O₂₂ 2SO2SO₃₃ SO

SO₃₃ + H + H₂₂O O  H H₂₂SOSO₄₄

Some sulfuric acid droplets react with ammonia in the

atmosphere to form solid ammonium sulfate.

These components give the air a gray color – gray air smog

(46)

Industrial Smog



_{Most developed countries have controls and}

do not have industrial smog problems



_{Developing countries – China- have serious}

problem. In addition to industrial use of

(47)

Case Study:

South Asia’s Massive Brown Cloud



A huge dark brown cloud of industrial smog,

_{A huge dark brown cloud of industrial smog,}

caused by coal-burning in countries such as

China and India, stretches over much of

southeastern Asia.

– In areas beneath the cloud, photosynthesis is _{In areas beneath the cloud, photosynthesis is}

reduced interfering with crop development.

– _{Fine particles and droplets in the cloud appear to}_{Fine particles and droplets in the cloud appear to}

be changing regional climates (including rainfall).

 May have contributed to floods in 2002 and 2005 which _{May have contributed to floods in 2002 and 2005 which}

killed thousands of people.

(48)

Factors that increase photochemical

and industrial smog

1.

1. Urban buildings that slow wind speed – reduce dilution Urban buildings that slow wind speed – reduce dilution and removal of pollutants

and removal of pollutants

2.

2. Hills and mountains reduce flow of air in valleysHills and mountains reduce flow of air in valleys 3.

3. High temperatures increase chemical rxns leading to High temperatures increase chemical rxns leading to photochem. smog

photochem. smog

4.

4. Grasshopper effect – pollutants are transferred from Grasshopper effect – pollutants are transferred from tropical/temperate areas to poles when volatile

tropical/temperate areas to poles when volatile

compounds evaporate and rise into the air and are

carried by atmospheric or ocean currents.

5.

5. Temperature inversions – trap pollutants near ground Temperature inversions – trap pollutants near ground Layer of warm air sits on layer of cool air and prevents

Layer of warm air sits on layer of cool air and prevents

pollutants from rising and dispersing.

(49)

Temperature Inversions

 Cold, cloudy weather in a valley surrounded by mountains can _{Cold, cloudy weather in a valley surrounded by mountains can}

trap air pollutants (left).

 Areas with sunny climate, light winds, mountains on three sides _{Areas with sunny climate, light winds, mountains on three sides}

and an ocean on the other (right) are susceptible to inversions.

(50)

(51)

Factors that decrease photochemical

and industrial smog

1.

1. Rain and snow – cleanse the air of

Rain and snow – cleanse the air of

pollutants

2.

2. Salty sea spray can wash out particulates

Salty sea spray can wash out particulates

and water soluble pollutants

3.

(52)

ACID DEPOSITION



_{Sulfur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, and}

particulates can react in the atmosphere to

produce acidic chemicals that can travel

long distances before returning to the

earth’s surface.

– Tall smokestacks reduce local air pollution but _{Tall smokestacks reduce local air pollution but} can increase regional air pollution.

can increase regional air pollution.

– Substances can remain in atmosphere for 2-14 _{Substances can remain in atmosphere for 2-14} days dependent upon weather patterns

(53)

2 Forms of Acid Deposition

1.

1. Wet deposition – acidic rain snow, fog,

Wet deposition – acidic rain snow, fog,

cloud vapor pH <5.6

2.

(54)

ACID DEPOSITION

 Acid deposition consists of rain, snow, dust, or gas with a _{Acid deposition consists of rain, snow, dust, or gas with a}

pH lower than 5.6.

(55)

ACID DEPOSITION

(56)

(57)

ACID DEPOSITION



_{Acid deposition contributes to chronic}

respiratory disease and can leach toxic

metals (such as lead and mercury) from

soils and rocks into acidic lakes used as

sources for drinking water.

(58)



Air pollution is

_{Air pollution is}

one of several

interacting

stresses that can

damage,

weaken, or kill

trees and pollute

surface and

groundwater.

(59)

Effects on Plants and Soils

 Can deplete soil nutrients and the buffering ability _{Can deplete soil nutrients and the buffering ability}

of soils

 Can dissolve insoluble soil compounds and _{Can dissolve insoluble soil compounds and}

release metals such as Al, Pb, Cd, Hg – toxic to

plants

 Promotes growth of acid-loving mosses that can _{Promotes growth of acid-loving mosses that can}

kill trees

 Weakens trees and plants, making them _{Weakens trees and plants, making them}

susceptible to disease, insects, drought

 Conifers hard hit – NC mtns_{Conifers hard hit – NC mtns}

 Regional problem – downwind from coal-burning _{Regional problem – downwind from coal-burning}

and urban areas with cars

(60)

Buffering of Acid Deposition



Soils with CaCO

₃₃

can buffer or neutralize

acid



_{Sensitive areas without buffering capacity}

include:

areas with thin acidic soils

areas where buffering capacity has been

depleted by decades of acid dep.

(61)

Good News

1990 amendments to Clean Air Act have lead

to reduction in SO

(62)

Solutions

Acid Deposition

Prevention Cleanup

Reduce air pollution by improving

energy efficiency

Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes

Reduce coal use

Add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes Increase natural gas use

Increase use of renewable energy resources

Burn low-sulfur coal

Remove SO₂

particulates & NO_x from smokestack gases

Remove NO_x from motor vehicular exhaust

(63)

INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

 Indoor air pollution usually is a greater threat to _{Indoor air pollution usually is a greater threat to}

human health than outdoor air pollution.

 Sources can be from infiltration of polluted outside _{Sources can be from infiltration of polluted outside}

air or from chemical used or produced inside

buildings

 According to the EPA, the four most dangerous _{According to the EPA, the four most dangerous}

indoor air pollutants in developed countries are:

indoor air pollutants in developed countries are: – Tobacco smoke._{Tobacco smoke.}

– Formaldehyde._{Formaldehyde.}

– Radioactive radon-222 gas._{Radioactive radon-222 gas.}

(64)

Chloroform

Benzo--pyrene Styrene

Radon-222

Methylene Chloride Tobacco

Smoke

Carbon Monoxide Asbestos

Nitrogen Oxides

1, 1,

1-Trichloroethane

Particulates

Formaldehyde Tetrachloroethylene

(65)

Case Study: Radioactive Radon



_{Radon-222, a}

radioactive gas

found in some

soils and rocks,

can seep into

some houses and

increase the risk

of lung cancer.

Sources and paths of entry

for indoor radon-222 gas

(66)

Sick Building Syndrome



_{Newer buildings}



_{Dizziness, headaches, coughing, sneezing,}

SOB, nausea, burning eyes, chronic fatigue,

flu-like symptoms



_{More energy efficient buildings – less air}

exchange and new materials such as

carpeting, furniture

(67)

Indoor Air Pollution



_{Little effort has been devoted to reducing}

indoor air pollution even though it poses a

much greater threat to human health than

outdoor air pollution.



_{Environmental and health scientists call for}

us to focus on preventing air pollution

(especially indoor) in developing countries.

(68)

HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION



_{Your respiratory system can help protect you}

from air pollution, but some air pollutants can

overcome these defenses.

(69)

Respiratory Diseases



_{Asthma – bronchial spasm and SOB}



_{Chronic bronchitis – inflammation and}

damage to cells, coughing and SOB



_Cancer



_{Emphysema – damage to air sacs leading to}

loss of lung elasticity and SOB

(70)

HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Normal human lungs (left) and the lungs of a person

who died of emphysema (right).

(71)

Air Pollution is a Big Killer



_{Each year, air pollution prematurely kills}

about 3 million people, mostly from indoor

air pollution in developing countries.

– _{In the U.S., the EPA estimates that annual}_{In the U.S., the EPA estimates that annual}

deaths related to indoor and outdoor air

pollution range from 150,000 to 350,000.

– According to the EPA, each year more than _{According to the EPA, each year more than}

125,000 Americans get cancer from breathing

diesel fumes.

(72)

 Spatial distribution of premature deaths from air _{Spatial distribution of premature deaths from air}

pollution in the United States.

(73)

Effects of Air Pollution on Materials

 Stone, concrete: erosion, discoloration, soiling_{Stone, concrete: erosion, discoloration, soiling}  Metals: corrosion, tarnishing, loss of strength_{Metals: corrosion, tarnishing, loss of strength}  Ceramics, glass: surface erosion_{Ceramics, glass: surface erosion}

 Paints: surface erosion, discoloration, soiling_{Paints: surface erosion, discoloration, soiling}  Paper: embrittlement, discoloration_{Paper: embrittlement, discoloration}

 Rubber: cracking, loss of strength_{Rubber: cracking, loss of strength}

(74)

PREVENTING AND REDUCING

AIR POLLUTION



_{The Clean Air Acts in the United States}

have greatly reduced outdoor air pollution

from major pollutants:

– Carbon monoxide_{Carbon monoxide} – _{Nitrogen oxides}_{Nitrogen oxides} – _{Sulfur dioxides}_{Sulfur dioxides}

(75)

– Airports are exempt from many air pollution _{Airports are exempt from many air pollution}

regulations.

– The Act does not regulate the greenhouse gas _{The Act does not regulate the greenhouse gas}

CO

CO₂₂..

– The Act has failed to deal seriously with indoor _{The Act has failed to deal seriously with indoor}

air pollution.

– There is a need for better enforcement of the _{There is a need for better enforcement of the}

Clean Air Act.

– Executives claim that correcting these _{Executives claim that correcting these}

deficiencies would cost too much, harm

economic growth and cost jobs

(76)

Using the Marketplace to Reduce

Outdoor Air Pollution

 To help reduce SOTo help reduce SO₂₂ emissions, the Clean Air Act emissions, the Clean Air Act authorized and emission trading (cap-and-trade)

authorized and emission trading (cap-and-trade)

program.

– Enables the 110 most polluting power plants to buy and _{Enables the 110 most polluting power plants to buy and}

sell SO

sell SO₂₂ pollution rights. pollution rights.

– Between 1990-2002, the emission trading system _{Between 1990-2002, the emission trading system}

reduced emissions.

– In 2002, the EPA reported the cap-and-trade system _{In 2002, the EPA reported the cap-and-trade system}

produced less emission reductions than were projected.

(77)

Solutions:

Reducing Outdoor Air Pollution



_{ways to prevent and control air pollution}

from coal-burning facilities.

– Electrostatic precipitator_{Electrostatic precipitator}: are used to attract : are used to attract negatively charged particles in a smokestack negatively charged particles in a smokestack

into a collector. into a collector.

– Wet scrubber_{Wet scrubber}: fine mists of water vapor trap : fine mists of water vapor trap

particulates and convert them to a sludge that is particulates and convert them to a sludge that is

(78)

Fig. 19-17, p. 459 Solutions

Stationary Source Air Pollution

Prevention

Burn low-sulfur coal

Disperse emissions above thermal

inversion layer with tall smokestacks Remove sulfur

from coal

Convert coal to a liquid or gaseous fuel

Remove pollutants after combustion

Shift to less polluting fuels

Tax each unit of pollution produced

(79)

Fig. 19-19, p. 460 Solutions

Motor Vehicle Air Pollution

Prevention Cleanup

Emission control devices Mass transit Bicycles and walking Less polluting engines

Less polluting fuels

Improve fuel efficiency

Car exhaust inspections twice a year

Get older, polluting cars off the road

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Fig. 19-20, p. 461 Solutions

Indoor Air Pollution

Prevention

Cover ceiling tiles & lining of AC ducts to prevent release of mineral fibers

Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces

Increase intake of outside air Ban smoking or limit it to well

ventilated areas

Change air more frequently Set stricter formaldehyde

emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials

Circulate a building’s air

through rooftop green houses

Prevent radon infiltration _{Use exhaust hoods for stoves} and appliances burning

natural gas Use office machines in well

ventilated areas

Use less polluting substitutes for harmful cleaning agents, paints, and other products

Install efficient chimneys for wood-burning stoves

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Fig. 19-21, p. 461

What Can You Do? Indoor Air Pollution

• Test for radon and formaldehyde inside your home and take corrective measures as needed.

• Do not buy furniture and other products containing formaldehyde. • Remove your shoes before entering your house to reduce inputs

of dust, lead, and pesticides.

• Test your house or workplace for asbestos fiber levels and for any crumbling asbestos materials if it was built before 1980. • Don't live in a pre-1980 house without having its indoor air

tested for asbestos and lead.

• Do not store gasoline, solvents, or other volatile hazardous chemicals inside a home or attached garage.

• If you smoke, do it outside or in a closed room vented to the outside. • Make sure that wood-burning stoves, fireplaces, and kerosene-

and gas-burning heaters are properly installed, vented, and maintained.

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Fig. 19-22, p. 462 Solutions

Air Pollution

Outdoor Indoor

Improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel use

Reduce poverty

Rely more on lower-polluting natural gas

Distribute cheap &

efficient cookstoves or solar cookers to poor families in developing countries

Rely more on renewable energy (especially solar cells, wind, &

solar-produced hydrogen) Reduce or ban indoor smoking

Transfer technologies for latest energy efficiency,

renewable energy, & pollution prevention to developing

countries