Bell Work
•
What motivates you to succeed at a
task?
Introduction to
Motivation
Instinct Theory
Drive-Reduction
Theory
Arousal Theory
Motivation
Motivation is a need or desire that
energizes behavior and directs it
towards a goal.
Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his
arm to free himself
Instincts & Evolutionary
Psychology
Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed action patterns throughout species
and unlearned (Tinbergen, 1951).
© A rie l S ke lle y/ M T on y B ra nd en bu rg / B ru ce C ole m
Drive-Reduction Theory
When the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by drive-reduction
theory. Physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that
Drive Reduction
Food ReductionDrive
Physiological aim of drive reduction is
homeostasis – maintenance of steady internal state, e.g., maintenance of steady
body temperature.
Incentive Theory
Where our needs (drives) push, incentives
(positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives.
A food-deprived person who smells baking bread (incentive) feels strong hunger drive.
Incentives can also be negative, we may behave in a certain way in order to avoid an
unpleasant outcome
Cognitive Theory
• Motivation results from individuals
attempting to maintain order or balance and an understanding of the world.
– Believes that individual behavior is influenced by the way people perceive themselves and their
environment.
– People seek to maintain order and understanding.
Optimum levels of Arousal
Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of
arousal
We each have our own sense of appropriate arousal and we act in ways to remain at a comfortable level.
Yerkes-Dodson Law predicts that there is a relationship between the difficulty of a task, our level of arousal, and the eventual
Bell Work
•
Are you able to recognize when the
stress level in your life is too high to
be productive?
•
What level in the hierarchy of needs
Hierarchy of Motives
Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested some needs have priority over others.
Physiological needs like breathing, thirst
and hunger come before psychological
needs like
self-Hierarchy of Needs
Hunger
Physiology of hunger
Parts of the
Hunger
When are we hungry? When do we eat?
When there is no food in our stomach. When we are hungry.
How do we know when our stomach is empty?
The Physiology of Hunger
Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of
Glucose: C
6H
12O
6Glucose level in the blood is maintained. Insulin decreases glucose in blood making
Glucose & Brain
Levels of glucose in the blood are
monitored by
receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, intestines, they send signals to
the hypothalamus in the brain.
Hypothalamic Centers
Lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger
(stimulation). Destroy it and the animal has no interest in eating. Reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in LH which leads to ravenous
eating in rats.
Hypothalamic Centers
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
depresses hunger (stimulation).
Destroy it and the animal eats excessively.
Hypothalamus & Hormones
Hormone Tissue Response
Orexin increase Hypothalamus Increases hunger
Ghrelin
increase Stomach Increases hunger
Insulin increase Pancreas Increases hunger
Leptin increase Fat cells Decreases hunger
Set-Point Theory
Manipulating lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight
thermostat.”
The Psychology of Hunger
Memory plays an important role in hunger.
Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently, if given food
(Rozin et al., 1998).
Bell Work
•
What is the best way to lose weight?
•
How do you know if the weight loss
Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by a normal-weight person (usually adolescent women) losing weight continuously and yet
Eating Disorders
Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of
high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive
Reasons for Eating Disorders
1. Sexual Abuse: Childhood sexual abuse does
not cause eating disorders.
2. Family: Younger generations develop eating
disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern.
3. Genetics: Twin studies show that eating
disorders are more likely to occur in
Obesity and Weight Control
Fat is an ideal form of stored energy and is
readily available. In times of famine, an overweight body was
Obesity
h tt p :// w w w .c y b er d ie t.cA disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases the risk for health
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Obesity in children increases their risk of
diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, and certain types of cancer, thus shortening their
Obesity and Mortality
Social Effects of Obesity
When women applicants were made to look overweight, subjects were less willing to hire
Physiology of Obesity
Fat Cells: There are 30-40 billion fat cells in the body. These cells can increase in size (2-3 times their normal size) and number (75 billion) in an
Set Point and Metabolism
When reduced from 3,500 calories to 450 calories, weight loss was a minimal 6% and the metabolic
The Genetic Factor
Identical twin studies reveal that body weight has a genetic basis.
C ou rte sy o f J oh n S olt
is, T
Activity
Lack of exercise is a major contributor to obesity. Just watching TV for two hours resulted in a 23%
Food Consumption
Over the past 40 years, average weight gain has increased. Health professionals are pleading with
Losing Weight
Plan to Lose Weight
When you are motivated to lose weight, begin a weight-loss program, minimize your exposure to tempting foods, exercise, and forgive yourself for
Assignment
•
Read and complete the “Mindless
Motivation & Sex
•
What
motivates
sexual activity
?
– Evolutionary – Biological
– Psychological – Social-Cultural
•
What is the
sexual response cycle
?
Motivation & Sex
•
What types of things do you think we
will
discuss
about
human
sexuality
?
– Sexual Response Cycle – Sexual Problems
– Hormones
Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species
The Physiology of Sex
Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response cycle as consisting of four phases:
Phase Physiological Response
Excitement Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.
Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure.
Sexual Problems
Men generally suffer from two kinds of sexual problems: premature ejaculation and erectile
disorder. Women may suffer from orgasmic
disorders.
Hormones and Sexual Behavior
Sex hormones effect the development of sexual
characteristics and (especially in animals)
activate sexual behavior.
Male Testes
Testosterone
(Small amounts of estrogen)
Female Ovaries
Adrenals
Estrogen
Estrogen
Female animals “in heat” express peak levels of estrogen. Female receptivity may be heightened
with estrogen injections.
Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than on animals. Women are more likely to have sex when
Testosterone
Levels of testosterone remain relatively constant in males, so it is difficult to manipulate and
activate sexual behavior. Castration, which reduces testosterone levels, lowers sexual
The Psychology of Sex
Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In that sense, sex is not a need because if we
External Stimuli
It is common knowledge that men become
Imagined Stimuli
Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still
feel sexual desire.
Adolescent Sexuality
When individuals reach adolescence, their sexual behavior develops. However, there are
cultural differences.
Contraception
1. Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have the right ideas about birth control methods.
2. Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of contraceptives.
3. Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel uncomfortable discussing contraceptives.
4. Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use contraceptives.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
1. High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence are likely to delay sex.
2. Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reserve sex for a marital commitment.
3. Father Presence: A father’s absence from home can contribute to higher teen sexual activity.
4. Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or
either sex.
Sexual Orientation Statistics
In Europe and America, based on many national surveys, homosexuality in men is 3-4% and in
women is 1-2%.
Origins of Sexual Orientation
Homosexuality is more likely based on
biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather
than environmental factors.
Animal Homosexuality
A number of animal species are devoted to
same-sex partners, suggesting that
homosexuality exists in the animal world.
Genes & Sexual Orientation
A number of reasons suggest that
homosexuality may be due to genetic factors.
1. Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families.
2. Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins. However, there are mixed results.
Sex and Human Values
“Promiscuous recreational sex poses certain psychological, social, health, and moral problems that must be faced realistically”
Motivation at Work
The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filled by love and work.
Attitudes Towards Work
1. Job: Necessary way to make money.
2. Career: Opportunity to advance from one position to another.
3. Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity.
Flow & Rewards
Flow is experience between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into
one’s work.
Work and Satisfaction
Industrial-Organizational (I/O)
Psychology
Applies psychological principles to workplace.
1. Personnel Psychology: Principles of selecting and evaluating workers.
2. Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles
Harnessing Strengths
Identifying people’s strengths (analytical, disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and
Organizational Psychology:
Motivating Achievement
Achievement motivation is defined as desire for significant accomplishment.
Satisfaction & Engagement
Harter et al., (2002) observed that
employee engagement meant that the worker knows:
1. What is expected of him.
2. Feels the need to work.
3. Feels fulfilled at work. 4. Gets opportunities to
do the best.
5. Thinks himself to be a
part of something Engaged workers are more productivethan non-engaged at different stores
AP Info
• Drive-reduction theory (give an example) • Which part of the hypothalamus does
what?
• Know your hormones (where does the
More AP info…
•
Maslow-hierarchy of needs
•
Drive-reduction theory of motivation
•
Instinct theory
•
LH starts feeding, VMH stops feeding
•
Feel good-do good phenomenon
•
Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation,
Introduction to Emotion
1. James Lange Theory
2. Cannon-Bard Theory
3. Schacter-Singer Theory (2
factor)
Theories of Emotion
Emotions are our body’s adaptive response.
Controversy
1) Does physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience?
James-Lange Theory
William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea
that was diametrically opposed to the common-sense view. James-Lange
theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional
experience.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard
questioned James-Lange theory and proposed emotion-triggering stimulus and body's arousal
Two-Factor Theory
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer
proposed yet another theory which suggested that our physiology
and our cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two
Embodied Emotion
We know that emotions involve bodily
response. Some of these response are easy to notice (butterflies in stomach when fear arises) but others are more difficult discern
Emotions and Autonomic Nervous
System
During an emotional experience our autonomic nervous system mobilizes
Arousal and Performance
(remember Yerkes-Dodson??)
Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal,
Physiological Similarities
Physiological responses are pretty much similar across the emotions of fear,
anger, love and boredom.
Excitement and fear involve similar
This can be an issue when you study stress, which in our lives has physical consequences to psychological triggers.
Cognition and Emotion
What is the connection between how we
think (cognition) and how we feel
(emotion)?
Cognition Can Define
Emotion
Arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event.
Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger,
Two Routes to Emotion
Nonverbal Communication
Most of us are good at deciphering emotions thorough non-verbal
communication. In a crowd of faces a
Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal
Behavior
Women are much better at discerning
nonverbal emotions then men. When shown sad, happy and scary film clips women
Culture and Emotional
Expression
When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did pretty well
Emotions are Adaptive
Darwin speculated that our ancestors communicated with
facial expression in the absence of
language.
Nonverbal facial expression led to
Analyzing Emotion
Bell Work
•
When are you most happy?
•
Why are you happy at that time?
Today
•
Experience Emotions
•
Laugh it out
•
Fear , Anger, and Happiness
•
Review
Experienced Emotion
1. Fear
2. Anger
3. Adaptation-level
phenomenon
Experienced Emotion
Izard (1977) has isolated 10 emotions. And most of them are present in infancy, excluding contempt,
shame and guilt.
Dimensions of Emotion
Fear
Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep and preoccupy our thinking. But fear can be
adaptive – it makes us run away from danger, brings us
Learning Fear
We learn fear in two ways through
The Biology of Fear
Some fears are easier to learn than others. The amygdala in the brain associates emotions like
fear with certain situations and its proximity to the hippocampus allows for the easy encoding of
Causes of Anger
1. People generally get angry with friends and loved ones about misdeeds,
especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable.
Catharsis Hypothesis
Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves emotional release or “catharsis.”
Some believe that we are drawn to displays of violence (football, etc)
because it is cathartic and allows us an outlet for aggression.
Emotional Ups and Downs
Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative moods stay more or less the same over the
Feel-Good, Do-Good
phenomenon
Happiness & Satisfaction
Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries
Happiness & Prior Experience
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Like sensory adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to new situations until that situation
becomes the “norm”. Then people need a new experience.
This constantly raises the level for what is considered new and exciting
Happiness & Others’
Attainments
Happiness is not relative to our past but also to our comparisons with others. Relative Deprivation
is the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself with.
They realize that they have less of what they believe themselves to be entitled than those
around them.
