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The Role of Experience on the Developing Brain

Barb Jackson, Ph.D. Director, Education & Child Development

Munroe-Meyer Institute University of Nebraska Medical Center

Omaha, NE USA

The purpose of this presentation is to provide parents an understanding of the structure of the brain and how their experiences with their young infant/child can affect the development of the brain.

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“The brain is a work in progress, designed to be adjusted and fine tuned throughout life.”

Shore, 1997

Recent research has shown us that the brain truly is a work in progress and the interactions of young children in their environment adjust and fine tune the intricacies of the brain.

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Show a video excerpt that

illustrates a baby and adult

interaction…. Talk about how

they will begin to discover how

interactions influence the

developing brain (optional).

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Brain Development……. „What is the structure? „ How does it work? „Why are we interested in

the brain?

Let’s learn a little bit about brain development. The brain is part of the central nervous system that is contained within the cranium. Here are a few facts about the

brain……….It weighs 3 pounds. At birth it is about 1/3 size and by 3 it is 90% the size of the adult brain. The next section of this presentation will describe: (a) technologies that have unveiled new discoveries about the brain and (b) brain structures and function, and why we should be interested in studying this aspect of the brain.

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Advances in Technology „MRIs

„fMRIs „PET Scans

Advances in technology have really allowed us to understand the

relationship between experience and brain development. Two primary medical advances have supported this discovery, they include Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and PET scans. MRIs has been available since the 1980's and are a valuable tool in obtaining two and three dimensional images of the brain. This information is converted into computerized images representative of the brain structure.

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Hearing Seeing

Speaking Generating _Words

Rethinking the Brain: Early Childhood Brain Development-Presentation Kit, 1998. For Full presentation, or research book, Rethinking the Brain, please contact

the Families and Work Institute at www.familiesandwork.org

Positron emission tomography (PET) was developed in the 1980's. It is one of the first tools to depict brain function or metabolism. The images produced provide information related to blood flow and energy use in the brain reflecting neural activity. This PET shows the brain’s response to a person reading.

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Rethinking the Brain: Early Childhood Brain Development-Presentation Kit, 1998. For Full presentation, or research book, Rethinking the Brain, please contact the Families and Work Institute at www.familiesandwork.org

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a relatively new diagnostic tool that allows scientists to image actual brain activity rather than the structure alone. These images are of superior quality than the PET. Both the fMRI and MRI are relatively expensive tools.

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Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Brain

„Receive, analyze and transmit information

Neurons are highly specialized cells and are the building blocks of the brain. Their primary function is to receive, analyze, and transmit

information through the formation of connections. While there are

different kinds of neurons with specialized functions, they all have similar features. The neuron has an elongated shape with four basic parts: the soma, an axon, dendrites, and synapses. In addition, there is a protective covering on some neuronal axons called myelin.

The soma (or cell body) contains the nucleus of the cell. It is responsible for the regulation of basic cell properties essential for the health and survival of the neuron.

The axon is the part of the neuron that is sometimes called the nerve fiber. The axon is where information travels in the form of a nerve impulse to reach other neurons. Dendrites

are fibrous branch-like protrusions that extend from the soma and carry information (in the form of electrical impulses) toward the cell body. Whereas a neuron typically has only one cell body and axon, it may have up to 600 dendrites.

Myelin is a whitish, fatty material which insulates and protects the axons from each other and significantly increases the transmission rate of impulses.

A synapse is the space where

communication occurs between the axon of one neuron and, most commonly, the dendrite of another neuron. One neuron can actually have thousands of these synapses, or connection sites, with other neurons.

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The Child’s Brain Is Unique „Neurons are not yet fully insulated. „Neurons are still moving into positions. „Synapse development is exploding.

The child’s brain looks much

different then the adult brain. The neurons are not fully insulated and there is rapid increase of synaptic development. In a newborn the brain is not fully grown and as a result there is space in the cranium. Shaking an infant with their large head and weak neck muscles results in broken vessels, swelling, and tears in the brain tissue due to little to no myelin.

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Birth 6 years 12 years

Synapse Development

Look at the pattern of the synapse development that occurs across time. Although the actual number of

neurons remain stable….. The

synapses grow rapidly. By the end of first three years….. The brain develps twice as many synapses as it will need, approximately 1,000 trillion. Notice the decline in synapses by the time the child is 14 years old. Scientist call this “Pruning.” They suggest that what synapses are pruned is dependent on the experiences of the child. This explains why we have seen a sudden interest on the emphasis of the early years. Basically, research such as Chugani (1987) suggests that the brain has capacity to change in the first decade and both positive and negative experiences can influence that.

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CAUTION!

„There is controversy about Critical Periods!

„REMEMBER, the brain continues to grow throughout adolescence and adulthood!

Although there are significant changes that occur during the early childhood years there is controversy about the idea of critical periods and that all is lost by the time a child is six. The information that we have now suggests that the brain continues to grow and change throughout adolescence and adulthood.

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Structure of the Brain

Now let’s take a look at the structure of the brain and the general function of each part.

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Major Structures of the Brain

„Cerebral Cortex „Diencephalon „Cerebellum „Brain Stem „Limbic System

Now let’s begin to explore what the brain actually looks like and how it functions. The human brain has many parts, which function together as an integrated whole. When learning about brain structure, it is often helpful to learn about four major areas including the cerebral cortex, diencephalon, cerebellum, and brainstem. An additional collection of structures that will be explored is the limbic system.

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Cerebral Cortex: Frontal Lobe

„Higher intellectual reasoning „Emotional expression

and regulation, and „Motor movements

The cerebral cortex is what many

individuals popularly think of when picturing the human brain and it is responsible for the higher level cognitive processes associated with memory, thinking, sensations, vision, hearing, speech, and personality. The primary functions related to the frontal lobe are:

.Higher intellectual reasoning

.Emotional expression and regulation, and

.Motor movements.

Located in the frontal lobe is the

primary motor cortex, which as the

name implies, is highly involved in voluntary motor movement. The

Broca’s motor speech area, which is

also in the frontal lobe, is responsible for mouth movements during speech production.

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Cerebral Cortex: Parietal Lobe

„Sensory Information

To introduce this section have a quarter and have someone close their eyes and see if they can guess what they have. You are now using the

Parietal lobe……..One important

parietal lobe function is the analysis of body sensory data. Sensory receptors (e.g., for pain, pressure, and temperature) send impulses to this area of the brain. Posterior to this is an area is called the

somatosensory association area.

This area is highly specialized for skin sensations and makes

interpretations of the sensations such as reaching into your pocket and being able to discern by touch.

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Cerebral Cortex: Occipital Lobe

„Visual images are processed

The occipital lobe processes vision and matures very early.

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Cerebral Cortex: Temporal Lobe

„Specializes in auditory perception and language „Analyzes auditory information that enable recognition of whole words

The temporal lobe is an area of the brain that is responsible for the detection and analysis of auditory stimuli. In most persons, the superior segment of the left hemisphere is specialized for the comprehension of language and verbal memory. If damaged, the ability to understand spoken or written language may be impaired, so that one might no longer be able to glean the conventional linguistic meaning from stimuli taken in from the sensory apparatus. If the right superior portion of the

temporal lobe is damaged,

comprehension of affective language components may be impaired, so that the emotional tone in a message will be missed.

In summary: areas of the cortex allow the brain to:

*receive, categorize, and interpret sensory information,

*make rational decisions *activate behavioral responses

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Diencephalon

Hypothalamus

Thalamus

The diencephalon consists of two

parts, the thalamus and

hypothalamus. The thalamus is concerned with functions associated with sensation, movement, and

relaying information from one part of the CNS to another. It receives sensory information from all senses except smell (olfactory information travels directly to the cortex), then organizes and routes the information to the cerebrum (where sensation are ‘felt’). It also helps to associate sensations with emotions.

The hypothalamus is located inferior to the thalamus and includes the pituitary gland. Despite its small size, it is responsible for a variety of diverse functions. These include: *regulation of body rhythms (such as mental alertness, mood change, sleep cycles, and hormone secretion); and *stimulation of several internal organs in response to emotional experiences.

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Links to Neurological Problems „Phantom pain

„Ringing in the ear „Parkinson’s Disease

Lauerman (2000) suggest that there are many disorders that are

associated with the thalamus. These disorders include phantom limb pain, ringing in the ears, depression, as well as Parkinson’s disease. Rezai (2000) has been implanting “brain pacemakers” into the thalamus of patients with disorders such as Parkinson’s disease. The purpose of the pacemaker is to help reestablish the rhythms that were disrupted due to the imbalance of

neurotransmitters. In the case of Parkinson’s disease, the patients showed a decrease in hand tremors when the pacemaker was on.

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The hypothalamus helps to translate

affective experiences due to its links with the higher neocortical

structures. These may include translating experiences involving anger, apprehension, and

disappointment into physical reactions like insomnia, loss of appetite or deviant hormone patterns (Pathology, 1990). Many view the hypothalamus as the bridge between the body and the mind: the physical influences on the mind as well as the mental effects on physical symptoms.

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Cerebellum

The cerebellum contains more than

half of the brain’s neurons, suggesting its importance for the brain’s overall functioning.

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Cerebellum

„Involuntary movement „Balance „Posture and eye

movements „Long term memory

It is responsible for the coordination of involuntary (i.e., unconscious) movement and conditioned reflexes, which includes muscle tone

regulation, coordination, maintenance of equilibrium (balance) and posture, and eye movements. Overall, it helps to produce smooth coordinated movements, maintain balance, and sustain normal postures. The

cerebellum plays an important role in body movement, and its functioning is significantly affected by alcohol (which explains why persons who are intoxicated often display impaired coordination and slurred speech).

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Brain Stem

Pons

Medulla Oblongata Mid-Brain

The brainstem consists of 3 primary

parts, the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata.

The midbrain is largely made up of axons, which enable the cerebrum to communicate with the lower brain structures. It contains important motor and sensory nuclei.

Pons is composed primarily of sensory and motor fiber tracts and serves to connect the upper and lower CNS centers.

Medulla Oblongata has the reflex

centers for coughing, vomiting, swallowing, and sneezing.

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„with the cerebral

cortex „autonomic functions of brain stem Hypothalamus Cingulate Gyrus of Cerebrum Amygdaloid Nucleus of Basal Ganglia Olfactory Bulb Thalamus Fornix

In general the limbic system serves three primary functions including: *Establishing emotion states and related behavioral drives, *Linking conscious, intellectual functions of the cerebral cortex and autonomic functions of the brain stem,

*Facilitating memory storage and retrieval.

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Emotional Development „Emotions are set by the limbic system

and prefrontal lobes

„Limbic system forms an emotional

blueprint for later use

„Prefrontal lobes regulate emotional

responses

„Both lobes are developed and

connected early in life (8-18 months) Florida Starting Points Initiative, 1998

Both the limbic system and prefrontal lobes are related to emotions. There is a strong

connection between the two areas of the brain, beginning early in the infant’s development.

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Emphasis on the Early Years „Brain has capacity to change in the first

decade

„Enriched environment can increase the number of synapses

„Negative experiences can be more detrimental

Review that the brain is plastic, especially in the first years of life. Both positive and negative

experience can affect the number of synaptic connections that are either strengthened or pruned.

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Research has found that secure attachment provides a protective biological function and helps to buffer later stress. Neuroscience has provided us with more specific information on this.

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Enriched or Deprived:

Environment’s Influence on Brain Development

Use it or Lose it!

What influences whether synapses are pruned or not? EXPERIENCE!

Experience plays a role in what connections are kept and those that are discarded. Many refer to this as the “use it or lose it” process. Signals are strengthened with experience. As these connections become established through

experience, they eventually become exempt from elimination.

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High Quality Child Care „Increased IQ scores

„Improved rate of brain processing information

Ramey & Ramey, 1996

Ramey and Ramey (1996) also found that providing an enriched learning environment through an intensive, high quality program for young children who were at risk for developmental delay resulted in significant increases in IQ scores. PET scans (which measure brain activity) of these children at 12 years of age, demonstrated that their brains processed information at a more efficient rate than those of the control children. This suggested that positive behavioral changes (i.e., increased IQ scores) were

underscored by an increase in synaptic connections between brain cells.

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Deprived Environments Negatively Influence Development

„Decreased IQ

„Slower EEG maturation rate

Otero, 1996

Poverty and cultural disadvantage were found to be factors in pre-school children’s brain activity in Mexico. Children who were at high environmental risk demonstrated a slower EEG maturation rate (Otero, 1996).

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is stressed?? „Cortisol and adrenaline are released in response to stress „Cortisol reduces # of synapses „Adrenaline increases

blood pressure and heartbeat and tightens muscles

Gunnar, 1996

There is growing concern about what happens to babies that are stressed. Neuroscience research has found that cortisol and adrenaline are released in response to stress. If you think about it these important chemicals are helpful to someone who is in a stressful situation as they increase the blood pressure and heart beat, and tighten your muscles so that you are more prepared to act. However, there are negative

responses to chronic stress in which cortisol is continually released. Research shows that cortisol reduces the number of synapses in the brain.

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What does research tell us? „Children exposed to constant stress,

adrenaline does not subside = hyperaroused state.

„Baboons exposed to constant stress had major shrinkage in their hippocampus-related to learning and memory.

Perry, 1993

Sapolshky, 1996

Perry (1993) identified that when children are exposed to constant stress, the adrenaline does not subside. As a result they continue to be in a hyperaroused state and are more reactivate to situations. In addition, animal research showed that baboons that are exposed to constant stress had a major

shrinkage in their hypocampus which is related to learning and memory (Sapolshky, 1996).

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What helps buffer stress? „Babies who receive nurturing care in

first year, are less likely to respond to minor stress and produce less cortisol „Suggests that social emotional

environment may help to shape the regulatory capacities of brain

Dawson, et al., 1992

Research is showing us however that nurturing environments can help buffer stress. Promising news suggests that babies who received nurturing care can buffer the affects of stress. They are less likely to respond to minor stress and produce less cortisol. This has implications to parent educators as they are working with families. It is important to stress strategies that will help nurture their child. These will be discussed later in today’s talk.

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depression on a developing brain?

„How do you think a mother’s depression affects her interaction?

Have the audience generate how they think that the mother’s depression may affect her interaction with the child.

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Young Infants

„Babies were more withdrawn and less active

„Babies had shorter attention spans and less motivation to master new tasks „Reduced brain activity (40%) in left frontal region of the cortex - which is related to outwardly directed emotions „Greatest period of risk - 6-18 months

Dawson, et al., 1992

A study of 27 infants (11-17 months) found that infants who had mothers that were depressed showed reduced left frontal brain activity during playful interactions with their mother when compared to infants with nonsymptomatic mothers. These findings suggest that infant’s experience, related to their

emotional environment, influences brain development and subsequent behavior (less distress during separation) (Dawson, Kinger, Panagitides, Hill, & Spieker, 1992).

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depression be changed?

ƒFor many babies, once their mothers were treated for depression, the babies’ brain activity returned to normal.

Dawson, 1992

The exciting news based on this research is that for mothers who can be treated the babies’ brain activity returned to normal.

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for practice?

Do the following exercise: Have everyone write down 4-5 ideas for infants and preschoolers- one idea per sticky. Then have them group the ideas into themes for each age group. Have a leader from each group review the theme with the whole group. Some ideas are: Maintain small child/caregiver ratios Improve our knowledge of children Respond to children's cues

Engage in language activities

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Growth of the Mind

„Consistent, nurturing relationships with the same caregivers, early in life, are the cornerstones of emotional and intellectual competence.

Greenspan (1992)

Discuss the importance of

consistency of caregivers and the implications for child care. For example, should there be primary caregivers for each child? Should child care minimize transition between age groups?

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Primary Care

„During infancy the most important relationships are with the primary caregivers.

„Through primary care, the caregivers and children begin to develop bonds of comfort, familiarity, trust, and love. „The relationships between children and

caregivers are deepened through the sharing of daily routines.

It is very important that infants have a consistent adult figure in child care settings. This allows for the development of trust. Consistent daily routines are also important in order to provide consistent

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to the Relationship „Positive emotional climate „Sensitivity and responsivity to the

child’s cues

„Enriched environmental experiences „Appropriate developmental activities

As caregivers, it is important to provide a positive, nurturing climate for the children in your care. It is necessary to be sensitive to the unique cues of each of the children and be responsive to those cues, provide appropriate developmental activities and enriched environments.

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The Responsive Process

„Watch „Act „Adapt

Simply, this is how you can

incorporate a responsive process. Be an active observer of the child, act based on the cues of the child, and adapt your play to meet his emotional needs and developmental level.

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a child’s life!

Hopefully today’s presentation has helped you to understand the importance of your role in each child’s development, as well as their developing brain.

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References

Chugani, H. T. (1987). Positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. Annals of Neurology, 22 (4): 487-497. Dawson, G., Kinger, L. G., Panagitides, H., Hill, D. & Spieker, S. (1992). Frontal lobe

activity and affective behavior of infants of mothers with depressive symptoms. Child Development, 63, 725-737.

Florida Starting Points Initiative (1998). Maximizing Nebraska’s Brain Power: We need to use it or lose it.

Greenspan, S. (1992). Infancy and Early Childhood: The practice of clinical assessment and intervention with emotional and developmental challenges. International Universities Press, Inc., Madison, CT.

Gunnar, M.R. (1996). Quality of care and the buffering of stress physiology: Its potential in protecting the developing human brain. University of Minnesota Institute of Child Development.

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References, cont.

Otero, G. (1996). Poverty, cultural disadvantage and brain development: A study of pre-school children in Mexico. Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology, 102, 512-516.

Perry, B.D. (1996). Incubated in terror: Neurodevelopmental factors in the “cycle of violence.” In J. D. Osofsky (Ed.) Children, youth, and violence: Searching for solutions. NY: Guildford Press.

Ramey, C. T., and Ramey, S. L. (1996). Prevention of intellectual disabilities: Early interventions to improve cognitive development. Birmingham: University of Alabama Civilian International Research Center.

Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into early development. Families and Work Institute. New York, NY.