The Instructional Design Knowledge Base

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The Instructional Design Knowledge Base

The Instructional Design Knowledge Base: Theory, Research, and Practice provides ID professionals and students at all levels with a comprehensive exploration of the theories and research that serve as a foundation for current and emerging ID practice. This book offers both current and classic interpretations of theory from a range of disciplines and approaches. It encompasses general systems, communication, learning, early instruc-tional, media, conditions-based, constructivist design, and performance improvement theories.

Features include:

• Rich representations of the ID literature; • Concise theory summaries;

• Specific examples of how theory is applied to practice; • Recommendations for future research;

• A glossary of related terms; and • A comprehensive list of references.

A perfect resource for instructional design and technology doctoral, masters, and educa-tional specialist certificate programs, The Instructional Design Knowledge Base provides students and scholars with a comprehensive background for ID practice and a foundation for future ID thinking.

Rita C. Richey is Professor Emeritus of Instructional Technology at Wayne State University.

James D. Klein is Professor of Educational Technology at Arizona State University.

Monica W. Tracey is Associate Professor of Instructional Technology at Wayne State University.

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The Instructional Design

Knowledge Base

Theory, Research, and Practice

Rita C. Richey

James D. Klein

Monica W. Tracey

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First published 2011 by Routledge

270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

The right of Rita C. Richey, James D. Klein, and Monica W. Tracey to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Richey, Rita.

The instructional design knowledge base : theory, research, and practice / Rita C. Richey, James D. Klein, Monica W. Tracey.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Teaching. 2. Instructional systems—Design. 3. Continuing education. 4. Occupational training. 5. Human information processing. I. Klein, James D. II. Tracey, Monica W. III. Title.

LC5219.R495 2011 371.3—dc22 2010016006 ISBN13: 978–0–415–80200–0 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–80201–7 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–84098–6 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010.

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s

collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

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For the next wonderful generation: Madeline, Lily, and Mason For Bob: Without him, the field would still be a mystery to me For my family: Andrew, my rock, my joy, and my forever And our daughters Carly and Caitlin, May your lives be filled with as much joy as you have given us

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LIST OF TABLES

2.1 A Comparison of the Stages in the Systems Approach: Excerpts

from the Early Literature 1968–1981 17

2.2 An Overview of Representative Instructional Systems Design Models 20

2.3 A Comparison of the ADDIE Model Components and Instructional

Systems Design Common Tasks 21

2.4 A Comparison of Instructional Systems Design Common Tasks and

General Systems Theory Principles 22

2.5 An Overview of General Systems Theory and Instructional Design 29

2.6 Instructional Design Domains and Elements Related to General

Systems Theory 30

3.1 An Overview of the Berlo Model of Communication 34

3.2 An Overview of Communications Theory and Instructional Design 49

3.3 Instructional Design Domains and Elements Related to

Communications Theory 50

4.1 An Overview of Learning Theory and Instructional Design 68

4.2 Instructional Design Domains and Elements Related to Learning Theory 69

5.1 A Comparison of Major Elements in Early Instructional Theories 75

5.2 An Overview of Early Instructional Theory and Instructional Design 82 5.3 Instructional Design Domains and Elements Related to Early

Instructional Theory 83

6.1 An Excerpt from the Department of the Air Force Identification of

Suitable Media Given the Learning Objective and Learning Strategy 92 6.2 A Matrix of Representative Media Selection Models and Their

Components 96

6.3 An Overview of Media Theory and Instructional Design 101

6.4 Instructional Design Domains and Elements Related to Media Theory 102 7.1 A Summary of Gagné’s Interpretations of the Types of Learning from

Least to Most Complex 107

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7.2 Classes of Instructional Transactions 109 7.3 The Relationship Between Gagné’s External Events of Instruction and

the Internal Processes of Learning 113

7.4 The Primary Presentation Form Taxonomy 114

7.5 Components of the 4C/ID Model With Corresponding Steps 118

7.6 Jonassen’s (1997) Model for Designing Problem-Solving Instruction 121

7.7 An Overview of Conditions-Based Theory and Instructional Design 127

7.8 Instructional Design Domains and Elements Related to

Conditions-Based Theory 127

8.1 A Comparison of Instructional Systems Design and Constructivist

8.2 An Overview of Constructivist Design Theory and Instructional Design 144 8.3 Instructional Design Domains and Elements Related to Constructivist

Design Theory 145

9.1 Instructional and Noninstructional Performance Interventions 149

9.2 The Organizational Elements Model 155

9.3 Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Model of Evaluation 156

9.4 An Overview of Performance Improvement Theory and Instructional

Design 165 9.5 Instructional Design Domains and Elements Related to Performance

Improvement Theory 166

10.1 The Instructional Design Knowledge Base Taxonomy: Learner and

Learning Process Domain 171

10.2 The Instructional Design Knowledge Base Taxonomy: The Learning

and Performance Context Domain 173

10.3 The Instructional Design Knowledge Base Taxonomy: The Content

Structure and Sequence Domain 175

10.4 The Instructional Design Knowledge Base Taxonomy: The

Instructional and Noninstructional Strategies Domain 176

10.5 The Instructional Design Knowledge Base Taxonomy: The Media

and Delivery Systems Domain 178

10.6 The Instructional Design Knowledge Base Taxonomy: The Designer

and Design Processes Domain 180

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LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 The Domains of the Instructional Design Knowledge Base 4

2.1 An Overview of a General System 13

2.2 The ADDIE Model 19

3.1 The Mathematical Model of Communication 32

3.2 A Model of the Transmission of Messages 33

3.3 The Westley and MacLean S-R Communication Model 35

3.4 The Schramm Interactive Model of Communication 36

3.5 The Campos Ecologies of Meaning Model of Communication 37

4.1 The Memory System from an Information Processing Viewpoint 57

4.2 Contexts and Contextual Levels 64

5.1 Major Variables in Bloom’s Theory of School Learning 73

5.2 Bruner’s Concept of Curriculum Construction 77

6.1 The Caladine Technology Selection Method 95

7.1 The Performance-Content Matrix 108

7.2 A Sample Learning Hierarchy 110

7.3 Typology of Problems 120

7.4 A Model of Motivation, Performance, and Instructional Influence 122

9.1 A Comprehensive Model of Performance Improvement 148

9.2 The Performance Improvement Process Model 153

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PREFACE

This book is a product of passion for the field and a lot of hard work. The process of writ-ing it has left us once again in awe of the breadth and complexity of the field of instruc-tional design (ID). We have attempted to describe in some detail the ID knowledge base, reviewing its broad theory base, the research that supports this theory (noting the lack of research in some instances), and how all of this translates into ID practice. We anticipate that it will be read and used primarily by ID scholars and advanced graduate students. At the same time, we hope that practitioners will be able to use this book as a basis for mak-ing and justifymak-ing the many decisions they face in the course of an ID project.

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE BOOK

We define the ID theory base quite broadly. As such, we address the foundational theo-ries from other disciplines, as well as those which have been constructed by ID schol-ars. We present a range of theoretical positions including time-honored and modern interpretations of theory long recognized as instrumental in shaping ID practice. For example, communication theory has always been considered important, but what is communication from a constructivist point of view? We also discuss theory that is not always thought of as foundational to ID, such as social learning theory.

This book was also written with the assumption that a theory stems not only from research and theorizing, but also from the philosophical orientations of its community of advocates. Therefore, we have also explored the underlying philosophical positions of each theory cluster. For example, we explain how some early theorists considered gen-eral systems theory a philosophy of nonlinear thinking.

Research is also critical to the theory discussions in this book. We recognize the basic empirical support from which a theory was formed, and explore in more detail the stud-ies that attempt to validate the ID applications of these theorstud-ies. Finally, we suggest some new research that we think would contribute to the application of these theories in a variety of design settings.

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In addition to this book’s emphasis on theory, it is filled with descriptions of ID prac-tice that is rooted in theory. Examples of current and emerging pracprac-tice are both dis-cussed. For instance, we discuss how social networking tools are used in constructivist ID.

Finally, we have attempted not to simply describe and explain the theoretical founda-tions of ID in this book, but to synthesize the information from each of these theories into an instructional design knowledge base. This knowledge base takes the form of a multifaceted taxonomy that we hope will serve as a guide to understanding ID practice while guiding future ID research and theory development.

This book is based upon an extensive review of the literature. At the end of each chap-ter we provide a concise summary of each theory base and its elements that contribute to the knowledge base. In addition, there is a full glossary of terms to further aid your understanding of these many complex concepts.

OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK

This book consists of an introductory chapter, a discussion of eight theory bases, and a description of the final knowledge base. Below we describe the ten chapters that com-prise the main body of the book.

Chapter 1, “The Dimensions of an Instructional Design Knowledge Base”, explores the nature and scope of instructional design, as well as the characteristics of knowledge bases in general. It examines the role of theory and models in a knowledge base, and introduces the six major domains of the ID knowledge base.

Chapter 2, “General Systems Theory”, discusses one of the foundational ID theory bases through an examination of the major elements of systems theory and the systems approach, its most common application in the field of ID. In addition, this chapter iden-tifies and describes new trends in systems analysis and systems synthesis.

Chapter 3, “Communication Theory”, presents the evolution of communication models from the classic work of Shannon and Weaver to current constructivist views of the communication process. The impact of communication theory on ID is explored in terms of the role of language, the communication channel, and the attention-getting properties of messages. The unique role of mediated communication and culture are also explored.

Chapter 4, “Learning Theory”, examines the classical views of behavioral and cogni-tive learning, as well as social learning theory. Not only are the basic tenets of each of these theory clusters described, but examples of the many ways learning theory impacts ID are also discussed. This discussion includes recent applications of learning theory, such as contextual analysis.

Chapter 5, “Early Instructional Theory”, focuses on the contributions of the early scholars of curriculum and instruction (e.g., Ralph Tyler), individualized instruction (e.g., Benjamin Bloom), and cognitive approaches to instruction (e.g., Jerome Bruner). Such work has had an enormous impact on ID, including identifying and sequencing behavioral objectives, and the management of instruction.

Chapter 6, “Media Theory”, provides an overview of the role of media in the learn-ing process—how it represents reality, provides structure, and creates entire learnlearn-ing environments. This chapter also includes a full discussion of the various approaches to media selection and media use.

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Chapter 7, “Conditions-Based Theory”, highlights the key principles that distin-guish conditions-based theory and it emphasizes the work of the theory’s major schol-ars, Robert Gagné and David Merrill. This chapter also addresses the ways in which conditions-based theory is currently being refined and developed, such as through the design of instruction for complex learning and problem solving.

Chapter 8, “Constructivist Design Theory”, explores the ways in which constructivist philosophy influences instructional design by examining its three key principles. Then we discuss the manner in which these principles impact the various facets of the ID process. This discussion also includes an exploration of how constructivist thinking has reshaped ID processes and models.

Chapter 9, “Performance Improvement Theory”, centers on the issues facing design-ers who focus on enhancing individual and organizational performance. Five basic per-formance improvement models and three approaches to evaluation are described. The performance improvement orientation to ID is explored in terms of competency devel-opment, analysis, intervention strategies, transfer of training, and evaluation.

Chapter 10, “A Taxonomy of the Instructional Design Knowledge Base”, concludes this book. We first discuss the general nature of taxonomies and then describe how we consolidated the vast array of information presented throughout this book into a tax-onomy of ID. Finally, we present taxonomies for the six domains of the field and discuss how they can be used by practitioners and researchers.

In this book we have tried to describe the very complex intellectual base of instruc-tional design, and at the same time describe the diverse approaches to ID practice that reflect this foundation. The theory-research-practice interactions are included through-out. In addition, we are making a call for continued empirical work to support these and future applications of ID theory. Perhaps you will be encouraged to undertake such research or perhaps the formation of new theory that others may write about.

Rita C. Richey James D. Klein

Monica W. Tracey Tempe, Arizona

Detroit, Michigan

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We have stood on the shoulders of many scholars while writing this book. Two of the people whose insightful work have shaped our thinking and in turn this book are Pat Smith and Tim Ragan. As we go to press, the ID field has been saddened by the passing of our good friend Tim. We want to thank Pat and Tim for their contributions to ID and to this book. Their influence goes on.

There are other “giants of the field” whose presence is felt in this book as well, and we thank them for their years of dedicated work. (If we started a specific list, we would invariably leave someone out. So, the better part of valor is to be mercifully general.)

We also owe our great appreciation to others who have helped bring this project to fruition, including the students who “tested” chapters in their classes, and Sara Kacin and Kelly Unger who were involved in literature searches. Family members often pro-vided more than moral support; Jayne Klein and Leslie Klein lent their time and com-puting skills to many tables and figures, and Charles Elder provided frequent solicited and unsolicited opinions. Finally, James Quinn used portions of the book in his teaching and provided very important input. This book is much richer due to all of you.

As usual, the staffs at Routledge and Taylor & Francis have been of invaluable help during the course of this project. Special thanks to Sarah Burrows, who helped bring this project into existence, and to Alexandra Sharp and Alex Masulis, who have helped us end it. We also thank the reviewers who gave generously of their time, and whose work, while masked in anonymity, did so much to shape the final product.

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1

THE DIMENSIONS OF AN INSTRUCTIONAL

DESIGN KNOWLEDGE BASE

Instructional design (ID) today is an established profession, as well as an area of study. As a profession, it consists of a series of well-defined competencies, and an active group of practitioners who work in increasingly complex and sophisticated environments. As an area of study, it has a rich and growing foundation of research and theory viewed from increasingly diverse points of view. Both the practice and the study of ID can be seen in two ways: as strategies for creating particular products and as the implementa-tion and management of the overall design process. In either of these orientaimplementa-tions ID is a planning process. As such, it is distinguished from development processes, the actual production of instructional materials.

The immediate precursors of this field were research and development of training materials produced during World War II and the programmed instruction movement (Reiser, 2007a). However, the ID field did not emerge in a formal sense until the 1960s in higher education settings, even though the term “instructional design” was not typi-cally used until the 1970s. Instead many designers thought of themselves as educational psychologists, media specialists, or perhaps training designers (Dick, 1987). Since the 1980s, the preponderance of ID practice has occurred in the private sector, primarily in business and industrial settings. However, designers also work in government and mili-tary settings, health care, P–12 schools, and even in nonprofit and community settings. Correspondingly, there are hundreds of academic programs that educate and train these professionals.

Designers work with all types of instruction, including employee training workshops, online and web-based instruction, and train-the-trainer programs. Moreover, in the current milieu, instructional designers also deal with noninstructional interventions created to solve workplace problems for which training is not the appropriate solution.

This book is not about how to design instruction, but rather it explores the intellec-tual foundations of the ID field, its knowledge base. We will consider the wide range of ID theoretical and conceptual foundations that currently shape the field. In doing so, we will examine eight clusters of theories, the underlying philosophical orientations of

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2 • The Dimensions of an ID Knowledge Base

each, the evolution of such thinking, and the research which supports these theories. In addition, we will explore the traditional and emerging applications of each theory to ID. Before we begin this task, however, we will discuss:

• The dimensions of ID; and

• The nature of disciplinary knowledge bases, including the role of theories and models.

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW

ID, even though it is an established field, is at times viewed from various perspectives. In this section we will first examine alternative definitions of ID and then present the one that we are using here. In addition we will explore the scope of the field and its major areas of concern.

The Definition of Instructional Design

ID has been defined over the years in a variety of ways. Most of the definitions high-light process. Smith and Ragan’s (2005) definition fits into this genre, although theirs is quite generalized. To them, ID is “the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation” (p. 4). This definition emphasizes ID’s scientific foundations and the range of products emanating from ID projects. The vast majority of process-oriented definitions, however, are closely tied to the traditional instructional systems design (ISD) process (i.e., analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation). Dick, Carey, and Carey (2009) simply say that ID is ISD. While others may not be as direct, in essence they are agreeing with this approach (see Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2007; Piskurich, 2006; Seels & Glasgow, 1998 for example).

One exception would be Reigeluth (1983), who interprets ID as a facet of instruction, “the process of deciding what methods of instruction are best for bringing about desired changes in student knowledge and skills for a specific course content and a specific stu-dent population” (p. 7). Reigeluth’s orientation accentuates strategy selection and de-emphasizes the analysis phase; it is also less compatible with the current emphasis on non-instructional interventions. Nonetheless, here too design is viewed as a planning activity. Some ID definitions stress function more than process. Gustafson and Branch (2007) say that “Instructional design (ID) is a systematic process that is employed to develop education and training programs in a consistent and reliable fashion” (p. 11). Piskurich (2006) posits that “Instructional design stripped to its basics is simply a process for help-ing you to create effective trainhelp-ing in an efficient manner” (p. 1). Another function-oriented interpretation of ID is presented by Reigeluth (1983). He describes ID as “a body of knowledge that prescribes instructional actions to optimize desired outcomes, such as achievement and affect” (p. 5).

In spite of the alternative emphases of these various definitions, we believe that there would likely be little fundamental disagreement among these scholars as to the essential nature of ID. We presume that most would agree with Smith and Ragan’s (2005) posi-tion that “Design is distinguished from other forms of instrucposi-tional planning by the level of precision, care and expertise that is employed in the planning, development, and evaluation process” (p. 6). In keeping with this position, we think:

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The Dimensions of an ID Knowledge Base • 3 ID is the science and art of creating detailed specifications for the development, evalu-ation, and maintenance of situations which facilitate learning and performance.

The Scope of Instructional Design

ID encompasses a broad range of activity from analysis through evaluation. It includes the initial planning steps in a project and often works through the creation of proce-dures that ensure the continued operation of the intervention. At times, design tasks are blurred with development tasks. Some designers write materials such as trainer’s guides, work sheets, or job aids. While they typically make media selection decisions, they seldom produce the final piece of mediated instruction. Even though many view evalu-ation as a separate activity, designers typically write test items and collect performance data. They also often conduct evaluations of existing products. While designers are intimately concerned with the delivery of instruction, they are not necessarily teachers or trainers.

To many designers, ID processes are almost synonymous with the various design phases. But ID knowledge (and consequently the entire knowledge base) addresses more than the procedural steps in these phases. ID knowledge relates to a wide variety of top-ics that impact many parts of the design process. We picture the ID knowledge base as relating to the following six content domains:

• Learners and Learning Processes; • Learning and Performance Contexts; • Content Structure and Sequence;

• Instructional and Noninstructional Strategies; • Media and Delivery Systems; and

• Designers and Design Processes.

These topics cover the most critical ID concepts, processes, and research.1_{Design is}

inti-mately involved with learning and with learners. The arrays of instructional and nonin-structional strategies are often dependent upon our understanding of how people learn and perform and how their backgrounds impact learning and performance. Design processes are also dependent upon the nature of the content, the type of learning envi-ronment, and the many media and delivery options that can be incorporated into a particular design. Moreover, design processes are impacted to some extent by the char-acteristics of the designers themselves.

These domains encompass a broad array of specific elements that play a role in ID. Learning contexts, for example, refer to instructional settings as well as organizational climates. Each domain impacts the traditional design phases in multiple ways. These domains, however, are not distinct unto themselves, and in many cases they overlap. Figure 1.1 portrays a view of the major domains of the ID knowledge base.

1 While evaluation is usually considered a part of the instructional design process, we are viewing the general field of evaluation as a separate area of research and practice, one upon which designers draw as they do their work. We discuss evaluation topics at various points in this book, but do not view it as a distinct ID domain.

The Instructional Design Knowledge Base

The Instructional Design Knowledge Base

The Instructional Design

Knowledge Base

Theory, Research, and Practice

Rita C. Richey

James D. Klein

Monica W. Tracey

CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

PREFACE

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE BOOK

OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1

THE DIMENSIONS OF AN INSTRUCTIONAL

DESIGN KNOWLEDGE BASE

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW