23.1.1
23.1.1 This chapter shall apply to the design of structural This chapter shall apply to the design of structural concrete members, or regions of members, where load or concrete members, or regions of members, where load or geometric discontinuities cause a nonlinear distribution of geometric discontinuities cause a nonlinear distribution of longitudinal strains within the cross
longitudinal strains within the cross section.section. 23.1.2
23.1.2 Any structural concrete member, or discontinuity Any structural concrete member, or discontinuity region in a member, shall be permitted to be designed by region in a member, shall be permitted to be designed by modeling the member or region as an idealized truss in modeling the member or region as an idealized truss in accordance with this
accordance with this chapterchapter..
A discontin
A discontinuity in the stress distribution occurs at uity in the stress distribution occurs at a changea change in the geometry of a structural element or at a concentrated in the geometry of a structural element or at a concentrated load or reaction. St. Venant’s principle indicates that the load or reaction. St. Venant’s principle indicates that the stresses due to axial force and bending approach a linear stresses due to axial force and bending approach a linear distribution at a distance approximately equal to the overall distribution at a distance approximately equal to the overall depth of the member,
depth of the member, hh, away from the discontinuity. For, away from the discontinuity. For this reason, discontinuity regions are assumed to extend this reason, discontinuity regions are assumed to extend a distance
a distance hh from the section where the load or change in from the section where the load or change in geometry occurs.
geometry occurs.
The shaded regions in Fig. R23.1(a) and (b)
The shaded regions in Fig. R23.1(a) and (b) show typicalshow typical D-regions (
D-regions (Schlaich et al. 1987Schlaich et al. 1987).). The plane sections assump-The plane sections assump-tion of
tion of 9.2.19.2.1 is not applicable in such regions. In general, is not applicable in such regions. In general, any portion of a member outside a D-region is a B-region any portion of a member outside a D-region is a B-region be
be applied. applied. The The strut-and-tie strut-and-tie design design method, method, as as describeddescribed in this chapter, is based on the assumption that D-regions in this chapter, is based on the assumption that D-regions can be analyzed and designed using hypothetical pin-jointed can be analyzed and designed using hypothetical pin-jointed trusses consisting of struts and ties connected at
trusses consisting of struts and ties connected at nodes.nodes.
23
R23.2.1 For the idealized truss, struts are the compres-sion members, ties are the tencompres-sion members, and nodes are the joints. Details of the use of strut-and-tie models are given in Schlaich et al. (1987), Collins and Mitchell (1991), MacGregor (1997), FIP (1999), Menn (1986), Muttoni et al. (1997), and . Design examples for the strut-and-tie ) and ACI SP-273 ( ). The process of designing a strut-and-tie model to support the imposed forces acting 23.2.1 Strut-and-tie models shall consist of struts and ties
connected at nodes to form an idealized truss.
on and within a D-region is referred to as the strut-and-tie method, and it includes the following four steps:
(2) Calculate resultant forces on each D-region boundary. (3) Select the model and compute the forces in the struts and ties to transfer the resultant forces across the D-region. The axes of the struts and ties are chosen to approximately coincide with the axes of the compression and tension
zones are determined considering the effective concrete is provided for the ties considering the steel strengths in or beyond the nodal zones.
The components of a strut-and-tie model of a single-span Fig. R23.2.1. The cross-sectional dimensions of a strut or tie are designated as thickness and width, and both directions are perpendicular to the axis of the strut or tie. Thickness is perpendicular to the plane, and width is in the plane of the strut-and-tie model. A tie consists of nonprestressed or prestressed reinforcement plus a portion of the surrounding concrete that is concentric with the axis of the tie. The the forces in the ties are to be anchored. The concrete in a tie is not used to resist the axial force in the tie. Although not explicitly considered in d esign, the surrounding concrete will reduce the elongations of the tie, especially at service loads.
R23.2.2 The struts, ties, and nodal zones making up the plane of the model, and thicknesses, typically the out-of- plane dimension of the structure, which should be taken into account in selecting the dimensions of the truss. Figures 23.2.2 Geometry of the idealized truss shall be consistent
with the dimensions of the struts, ties, nodal zones, bearing areas, and supports.
Fig. R23.2.1
R23.2.2(a) and (b) show a node and the corresponding nodal zone. The vertical and horizontal forces equilibrate the forces in the inclined strut.
If more than three forces act on a nodal zone in a two-dimensional strut-and-tie model, as shown in Fig. R23.2.2(a), it is suggested to resolve some of the forces to form three intersecting forces. The strut forces acting on Faces A-E and C-E in Fig. R23.2.2(a) can be replaced with one force acting on Face A-C as shown in Fig. R23.2.2(b). This force passes through the node at D.
Alternatively, the strut-and-tie model can be analyzed assuming all the strut forces act through the node at D, as shown in Fig. R23.2.2(c). In this case, the forces in the two struts on the right side of Node D can be resolved into a single force acting through Point D, as shown in Fig. R23.2.2(d).
If the width of the support in the direction perpendicular to the member is less than the width of the member, transverse reinforcement may be required to restrain vertical splitting in the plane of the node. This can be modeled using a trans-verse strut-and-tie model.
R23.2.3 Strut-and-tie models represent lower-bound strength limit states. The Code does not require a minimum level of distributed reinforcement in D-regions designed by this Chapter, but does for deep beams in 9.9.3.1 and for brackets and corbels in . Distributed reinforce-ment in similar types of D-regions will improve service-ability performance. In addition, crack widths in a tie can be controlled using , assuming the tie is encased in a prism of concrete corresponding to the area of the tie from
R23.8.1. 23.2.3 Strut-and-tie models shall be capable of
transfer-ring all factored loads to supports or adjacent B-regions.
R23.2.6
stresses on the loaded faces; these faces are perpendicular to the axes of the struts and ties that act on the node. This type of node is considered a hydrostatic nodal zone because the in-plane stresses are the same in all directions. Strictly speaking, this terminology is incorrect because the in-plane stresses are not equal to t he out-of-plane stresses.
Figure R23.2.6a(i) shows a C-C-C nodal zone. If the stresses on the face of the nodal zone are the same in all three struts, the ratios of the lengths of the sides of the nodal zone, wn1:wn2:wn3, are in the same proportions as the three forces, C 1:C 2:C 3.
A C-C-T nodal zone can be represented as a hydrostatic nodal zone if the tie is assumed to extend through the node and is anchored by a plate on the far side of the node, as shown in Fig. R23.2.6a(ii), provided that the size of the plate results in bearing stresses that are equal to the stresses in the struts. The bearing plate on the left side of Fig. R23.2.6a(ii) is used to represent an actual tie anchorage. The tie force can be anchored by a plate or through embedment of straight bars (Fig. R23.2.6a(iii)), headed bars, or hooked bars. For non-hydrostatic nodes, the face with the highest stress will control the dimensions of the node.
The lightly shaded area in Fig. R23.2.6a(ii) is an extended nodal zone. An extended nodal zone is that portion of a member bounded by the intersection of the effective strut width ws and the effective tie width wt .
For equilibrium, at least three forces should act on each node in a strut-and-tie model, as shown in Fig. R23.2.6c. C-C-C node resists three compressive forces, a C-C-T node resists two compressive forces and one tensile force, and a C-T-T node resists one compressive force and two tensile forces.
23.2.4 The internal forces in strut-and-tie models shall be in equilibrium with the applied loads and reactions.
23.2.5 Ties shall be permitted to cross struts and other ties. 23.2.6 Struts shall intersect or overlap only at nodes.
Fig. R23.2.6b —Extended nodal zone showing the effect of the distribution of the force.
Fig. R23.2.6c
23.2.7 The angle between the axes of any strut and any tie
23.2.8 Deep beams designed using strut-and-tie models shall satisfy 9.9.2.1, 9.9.3.1, and .
23.2.9 Brackets and corbels with shear span-to-depth ratio av/d < 2.0 designed using strut-and-tie models shall satisfy
, , and Eq. (23.2.9).
A sc f c f y)(bwd ) (23.2.9)
23.3.1 For each applicable factored load combination, design strength of each strut, tie, and nodal zone in a strut-and-tie model shall satisfy S n U , including (a) through (c):
(a) Struts: F ns F us (b) Ties: F nt F ut
(c) Nodal zones: F nn F us
23.3.2 shall be in accordance with 21.2.
23.4.1 The nominal compressive strength of a strut, F ns, shall be calculated by (a) or (b):
(a) Strut without longitudinal reinforcement F ns = f ce Acs
(b) Strut with longitudinal reinforcement F ns = f ce Acs + A s f s
where F ns shall be evaluated at each end of the strut and taken as the lesser value; Acs is the cross-sectional area at the end of the strut under consideration; f ce is given in As is the area of compression reinforcement along the length of the strut; and f s is the stress in the compres-sion reinforcement at the nominal axial strength of the strut. It shall be permitted to take f s equal to f y for Grade
23.4.2 Effective compressive strength of concrete in a strut, f ce
R23.2.7 The angle between the axes of a strut and a tie acting on a node should be large enough to mitigate cracking and to avoid incompatibilities due to shortening of the strut and lengthening of the tie occurring in approximately the same direction. This limitation on the angle prevents modeling shear spans in slender beams using struts inclined (Muttoni et al. 1997).
R23.3.1 Factored loads are applied to the strut-and-tie model, and the forces in all the struts, ties, and nodal zones are calculated. If several load combinations exist, each should be investigated separately. For a given strut, tie, or nodal zone, F uis the largest force in that element for all load combinations considered.
R23.4.1 The width of strut, ws, used to calculate Acsis the dimension perpendicular to the axis of the strut at the ends of the strut. This strut width is illustrated in Fig. R23.2.6a(i) and Fig. R23.2.6b. If two-dimensional strut-and-tie models are appropriate, such as for deep beams, the thickness of the struts may be taken as the width of the member except at bearing supports where the thickness of the strut must equal
the least thickness of the member or supporting element. The contribution of reinforcement to the strength of the strut
f s in the reinforcement in a strut at nominal strength can be obtained from the strains in the strut when the strut crushes. Detailing -forcement to prevent buckling of the strut rein-forcement.
R23.4.2 In design, struts are usually idealized as prismatic compression members. If the area of a strut differs at its two ends, due either to different nodal zone strengths at the two ends or to different bearing lengths, the strut is idealized as a uniformly tapered compression member.
23.4.3 Effective compressive strength of concrete in a strut, f ce, shall be calculated by:
f ce s f c where s
effect of cracking and crack-control reinforcement on the effective compressive strength of the concrete.
Strut geometry and location
Reinforcement
crossing a strut s
Struts with uniform
cross-sectional area along length NA (a)
Struts located in a region of a member where the width of the compressed concrete at midlength of the strut can spread laterally
(bottle-shaped struts)
(b)
(c)
Struts located in tension members or the tension zones
of members
NA (d)
Allothercases NA (e)
R23.4.3 0.85 f c
represents the effective concrete strength under sustained compression, similar to that used in and
. The value of s
strut and results in a stress state that is equivalent to the rect-angular stress block in the compression zone of a beam or column.
The value of s
is a strut located in a part of a member where the width of the compressed concrete at midlength of the strut can spread laterally (Schlaich et al. 1987; MacGregor 1997). The curved dashed outlines of the struts in Fig. R23.2.1 and the curved of bottle-shaped struts. To simplify design, bottle-shaped struts are idealized either as prismatic or tapered, and crack-transverse tension. The cross-sectional area Ac of a bottle-shaped strut is taken as the smaller of the cross-sectional The value of sin (c) applies to bottle-shaped struts where transverse reinforcement is not provided. The strength of a strut without transverse reinforcement is reduced by unre-The value of sin (d) applies, for example, to compression struts in a strut-and-tie model used to design the longitudinal box girders, and walls. The low value of s
struts need to transfer compression in a zone where tensile stresses act perpendicular to the strut.
The value of sin (e) applies to all other cases. Examples include a fan-shaped strut and the diagonal compression The value of s in (c) and (e), which are governed by longitudinal splitting of the strut, include a correction factor for lightweight concrete. Lightweight concrete has a lower tensile strength and higher brittleness, which can reduce the strut strength.
Fig. R23.4.3 strut.
23.4.4
length of a strut and its effect is documented by tests and analyses, it shall be permitted to use an increased value of f ce when calculating F ns.
23.5.1 For bottle-shaped struts designed using s = 0.75, reinforcement to resist transverse tension resulting from spreading of the compressive force in the strut shall cross the strut axis. It shall be permitted to determine the transverse tension by assuming that the compressive force in a bottle-shaped strut spreads at a slope of 2 parallel to 1 perpendic-ular to the axis of the strut.
23.5.2
-oped beyond the extent of the strut in accordance with . 23.5.3 Distributed reinforcement calculated in accordance
f c . si i s i A b s
where Asi is the total area of distributed reinforcement at spacing si in the i-th direction of reinforcement crossing a strut at an angle i to the axis of a strut, and bs is the width of the strut.
R23.5.1
the tensile force in the concrete due to the spreading of the strut. The amount of transverse reinforcement can be calcu-where the struts that represent the spread of the compressive force act at a slope of 1:2 to the axis of the applied compres-sive force. Reinforcement placed to resist the splitting force restrains crack widths, allows the strut to resist more axial force, and permits some redistribution of force. Alterna-tively, for f c
to select the area of distributed transverse reinforcement.
R23.5.3
crossing a cracked strut. This reinforcement will help control result in a larger strut capacity than if this distributed rein-forcement was not included. The subscript i
is 1 for the vertical and 2 for the horizontal bars. Equation than a stress to simplify the calculation.
in structures such as pile caps. If this reinforcement is not provided, the value of s given in expression (c) of Table
R23.5.3.1 An important example of the application of
stirrups crossing the inclined compression strut, as shown in
R23.6.1
R23.6.3.3Refer to . 23.5.3.1
be placed orthogonally at angles 1 and 2 to the axis of the strut, or in one direction at an angle 1 to the axis of the strut. Where the reinforcement is placed in only one direction, 1
23.6.1 Compression reinforcement in struts shall be parallel to the axis of the strut and enclosed along the length of the strut by closed ties in accordance with 23.6.3 or by
23.6.2 Compression reinforcement in struts shall be anchored to develop f s at the face of the nodal zone, where f s
23.6.3 Closed ties enclosing compression reinforcement in struts shall satisfy and this section.
23.6.3.1 Spacing of closed ties, s, along the length of the strut shall not exceed the smallest of (a) through (c):
(a) Smallest dimension of cross section of strut
(b) 48d b of bar or wire used for closed tie reinforcement (c) 16d b of compression reinforcement
23.6.3.2
0.5s from the face of the nodal zone at each end of a strut. 23.6.3.3 Closed ties shall be arranged such that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by crossties or the corner of a tie with an -along the tie from such a laterally supported bar.
23.6.4 Spirals enclosing compression reinforcement in struts shall satisfy .
23.7.1 Tie reinforcement shall be nonprestressed or prestressed.
23.7.2 The nominal tensile strength of a tie, F nt , shall be calculated by:
F nt = Ats f y + Atp( f se f p) (23.7.2) where ( f se f p) shall not exceed f py, and Atp is zero for nonprestressed members.
23.7.3 In Eq. (23.7.2), it shall be permitted to take f p
values of f p
R23.8.1The effective tie width assumed in design, wt , can vary between the following limits, depending on the distri- bution of the tie reinforcement:
(a) If the bars in the tie are in one layer, the effective tie width can be taken as the diameter of the bars in the tie plus twice the cover to the surface of the bars, as shown in
Fig. R23.2.6b(i).
(b) A practical upper limit of the tie width can be taken as the width corresponding to the width in a hydrostatic nodal zone, calculated as wt,max = F nt /( f cebs), where f ce is calculated for the nodal zone in accordance with 23.9.2. If the tie width exceeds the value from (a), the tie rein-forcement should be distributed approximately uniformly over the width and thickness of the tie, as shown in Fig. R23.2.6b(ii).
R23.8.2 Anchorage of ties often requires special atten-tion in nodal zones of corbels or in nodal zones adjacent to exterior supports of deep beams. The reinforcement in a tie should be anchored before it exits the extended nodal zone bars in the tie and the extensions of the outlines of either the strut or the bearing area. This length is anc. In Fig. R23.2.6b, this occurs where the outline of the extended nodal zone is crossed by the centroid of the reinforcement in the tie. Some of the anchorage may be achieved by extending the reinforce-ment through the nodal zone, as shown in Fig. R23.2.6a(iii) and R23.2.6b, and developing it beyond the nodal zone. If
the outside of the hooks in the support region.
In deep beams, hairpin bars spliced with the tie reinforce-ment can be used to anchor the tie forces at exterior supports, provided the beam width is large enough to accommodate
such bars.
Figure R23.8.2 shows two ties anchored at a nodal zone. Development is required where the centroid of the tie crosses the outline of the extended nodal zone.
The development length of the tie reinforcement can be reduced through hooks, headed bars, mechanical devices, smaller bars.
23.8.1 The centroidal axis of the tie reinforcement shall coincide with the axis of the tie assumed in the strut-and-tie model.
23.8.2 Tie reinforcement shall be anchored by mechanical devices, post-tensioning anchorage devices, standard hooks, or straight bar development in accordance with 23.8.3.
23.8.3 Tie reinforcement shall be developed in accordance with (a) or (b):
(a) The difference between the tie force on one side of a node and the tie force on the other side shall be developed within the nodal zone.
(b) At nodal zones anchoring one or more ties, the tie force in each direction shall be developed at the point where the centroid of the reinforcement in the tie leaves the extended nodal zone.
R23.9.2 The nodes in two-dimensional models can be -sive strength of the nodal zone is given by Eq. (23.9.2) where the value for nis given in Table 23.9.2.
Lower n
-tion of the nodal zones due to the incompatibility of tensile strains in the ties and compressive strains in the struts. The stress on any face of the nodal zone or on any section through the nodal zone should not exceed the value given by Eq. (23.9.2).
R23.9.4 If the stresses in all the struts meeting at a node are equal, a hydrostatic nodal zone can be u sed. The faces of such a nodal zone are perpendicular to the axes of the struts, and the widths of the faces of the nodal zone are proportional to the forces in the struts.
Stresses on nodal faces that are perpendicular to the axes 23.9.1 The nominal compressive strength of a nodal zone,
F nn, shall be calculated by:
F nn = f ce Anz (23.9.1)
where f ce Anz is given in
23.9.2 The effective compressive strength of concrete at a face of a nodal zone, f ce, shall be calculated by:
f ce n f c
where n shall be in accordance with Table 23.9.2.
n
Nodal zone bounded by struts, bearing areas, or both (a)
Nodal zone anchoring one tie (b)
Nodal zone anchoring two or more ties (c)
23.9.3
nodal zone and its effect is documented by tests and analyses, it shall be permitted to use an increased value of f ce when calculating F nn.
23.9.4 The area of each face of a nodal zone, Anz , shall be taken as the smaller of (a) and (b):
(a) Area of the face of the nodal zone perpendicular to the line of action of F us
(b) Area of a section through the nodal zone perpendicular to the line of action of the resultant force on the section
Fig. R23.8.2 —Extended nodal zone anchoring two ties.
