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Edith Cowan University

Research Online

Theses: Doctorates and Masters Theses

2016

Assessment of competitive requirements, repeated

sprint paddle ability and trainability of paddling

performance in surfers

Oliver Farley

Edith Cowan University

Due to Copyright reasons, Chapters 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 & 9 are not included in this version of the thesis.

This Thesis is posted at Research Online. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1912 Recommended Citation

Farley, O. (2016).Assessment of competitive requirements, repeated sprint paddle ability and trainability of paddling performance in surfers. Retrieved from https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1912

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Assessment of Competitive Requirements, Repeated Sprint Paddle

Ability and Trainability of Paddling Performance in Surfers

Oliver R. L. Farley

A thesis submitted to Edith Cowan University

in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

2016

School of Medical and Health Sciences Edith Cowan University, Western Australia

Supervisors: Dr Jeremy M. Sheppard Associate Professor Chris R. Abbiss

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Dedication

I dedicate this thesis to all those who have been there as part of this since day one, the middle and the end and to those who are no longer with us to see what we have achieved

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COPYRIGHT AND ACCESS DECLARATION

I certify that this thesis does not, to the best of my knowledge and belief:

(i) incorporate without acknowledgement any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any institution of higher education;

(ii) contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text; or

(iii) contain any defamatory material.

Signed (signature not included in this version of the thesis) Date……….

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Abstract

Studies examining the physical demands of surfing, the physiological characteristics of surfers, training techniques and various indices important to surfing performance are limited and characterised by methodological discrepancies. This thesis consists of five studies to assess the competitive requirements, test specific repeat sprint fitness and the trainability of sprint paddling in surfers.

Initially an understanding of surfing movement patterns and a determination of the reliability and validity of custom-made GPS units was established (SurfTraX, Gold Coast, Australia) (Study 1: The validity and inter-unit reliability of custom-made SurfTraX GPS units and use during surfing). Durations, intensities, external loads and velocity of movements during competitive surfing were then examined (Study 2: Workloads of competitive surfing: A performance analysis of three surfing competitions). During competition surfers paddle 44% of the total time and have a significantly higher work to rest ratio at a beach-break compared to point-breaks. Further, point-breaks involve longer continuous durations of paddling, with significantly longer rides, compared to the beach-break. Data from Study 2 aided in forming the rationale for developing and determining the reliability of a novel repeat sprint paddle test (RSPT) (Study 3: The repeat-sprint paddle test: A protocol for measuring surfing athletes’ sprint paddle performance). With lacking appropriate and valid testing protocols for evaluating physiological qualities in surfing athletes, Study 3 determined that the measurements of RSPT total time, best 15m time, and peak velocity from recreational and competitive surfers were reliable between days. Additionally, the smallest worthwhile change ranged from 0.02 to 2.7 s, demonstrating high sensitivity in detecting performance changes. After determining the reliability of the RSPT, this study investigated the durations that adolescent competitive surfers spend surfing and physically training.

In the pilot study (Study 4: Tracking 6 Weeks of Training/Surfing Sessions of Adolescent Competitive Surfers: Just what are these young surfers up to?) adolescent surfers provided details on the amount of time spent free surfing, being coached, competing, strength training, conditioning and undertaking balance work over six weeks. It was found that adolescent surfers spent 14 more hours surfing than doing any form of land-based training, including no form of specific paddle training.

Following the conclusions of Study 4, Study 5 examined the effectiveness of implementing structured training on the paddling abilities of adolescent surfers (Study 5:

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Five weeks of sprint and high intensity interval training improves paddling performance in adolescent surfers). It was discovered that high intensity interval training (HIT) (30 s sprint paddling) decreased athletes 400m endurance paddle time, and sprint interval training (SIT) (10 s sprint paddling) decreased the total RSPT time. Such training can be implemented to improve aerobic and repeat sprint paddle ability, which are key aspects of the sport. Additionally, the 400m paddle and RSPT can possibly discriminate between aerobic and anaerobic training adaptations, with aerobic gains likely from HIT and anaerobic gains likely from SIT.

Overall, this thesis established greater in-depth information on competitive surfing, an innovative and reliable test to assess repeat sprint ability, and two training methods that produced beneficial sprint and endurance paddle improvements.

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Acknowledgements

None of this work would exist had it not been for my parents and brothers’ encouragement to peruse my dream and passion or the support over the years and trying to figure out where I am going with all of this surfing research. A PhD seemed so unrealistic, not something I thought I would I go on to do after I finished my Bachelor’s degree. Mum and Dad, you guys kept on believing and saying I could do it and keep on doing what I’m doing, without your aid over the years a uni degree would not have been possible. To my brothers, Glen and Nigel, I look up to you guys and followed in your footsteps and you guys helped me so much in getting to where I am now. Furthermore, had it not been for my previous supervisors Dr Nigel Harris and Associate Professor Andrew Kilding to peruse the PhD and carry on within the field of research, I would have not attempted to go this far. So thank you I owe this to you.

The dream would not have been possible had I not met my supervisor to be Dr Jeremy Sheppard in 2012. You encouraged me to apply for the scholarship (I had never received one in my life) from Edith Cowan University to peruse the PhD in collaboration with the “ultimate dream factory” Surfing Australia High Performance Centre. The sheer magnitude of the experience, the steep learning curve and the amount of knowledge gained from you is something that I could not fully express my gratitude towards. I gained so much knowledge it seems common now, but I sometimes forget where I came from and what I knew back then to what I do now. You gave and taught me so much and what you have achieved and created is something that I strive towards as well, you ignited the passion and drive. Furthermore, I would like to thank gratefully my other supervisor Associate Professor Chris Abbiss. The amount of advice, feedback and editing you have done has turned this thesis and overall research into something far greater than what it would have been had you not spent so much time on it. Nor would have I learnt and developed a far greater knowledge on topics and research as a whole. I cannot thank you enough; you have ultimately tuned my writing and research skills around.

I would also like to thank my co-scholars based at the HPC, Josh Secomb, Lina Lundgren, Tai Tran, Brendon Ferrier and Jo Parsonage. Thanks guys for all of your help, not only with the data collection but advice with the research, stats aid (Josh and Lina) and general vi

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help with the wok over the years. Josh, my Aussie mate, cheers bro. You helped me so much, were a good mate to me, and helped me a lot. Even though we had a little NZ v AUS rivalry at times and banter, we still got along like good mates and shared many convos skating back home in the evenings about work and future ideas and you were there for every data collecting study, thanks mate owe a lot to you.

I would also like to acknowledge the involvement of my cousin James Matthew, thanks cuz for all of your help and support over the year and past years. Also a special mention to my sister in-law Zarah, thank you for your time, encouragement and aid with the thesis! Finally, I would like to thank all the surfers involved in the studies and HPC guinea pigs (Cam, Shane, Kingy, Clancey, Tim, Linton, Samba…cheers boys!) and to Ellen Raymond and Gavin Oliver for all of your help in filming the heats in the mid-day sun, thanks guys had some good laughs and times at the events.

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List of Publications and Presentations Related to Thesis

Original Research

Farley, O. R. L., Secomb, J. L., Raymond, E. R., Lundgren, L., Ferrier, B., Tran, T, T.,

Abbiss, Chris., Sheppard, J. M. (2016). Workloads of competitive surfing: A performance analysis of three surfing competitions. (Journal of Sports Sciences, In Review)

• 80% own work, performed the experiments and wrote the paper

Farley, O. R. L., Secomb, J. L., Lundgren, L., Ferrier, B., Parsonage, J., Abbiss, C.,

Sheppard, J. M. (2016). The repeat-sprint paddle test: A protocol for measuring surfing athletes’ sprint paddle performance. (Strength and Conditioning Journal, In Review)

• 80% own work, performed the experiments and wrote the paper

(Accepted) Farley, O. R. L., Secomb, J. L., Parsonage, J., Lundgren, L., Abbiss, C.,

Sheppard, J. M. (2016). Five weeks of sprint and high intensity interval training improves paddling performance in adolescent surfers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

• 80% own work, performed the experiments and wrote the paper

(Accepted) Farley, O. R. L., Abbiss, C., Sheppard, J. M. (2016). Performance Analysis of

Surfing: A Review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research • 80% own work, investigated literature and wrote the paper

(Accepted) Farley, O. R. L., Abbiss, C., Sheppard, J. M. (2016). Testing Protocols for

Profiling of Surfers’ Anaerobic and Aerobic Fitness: A Review. Strength and Conditioning Journal

• 80% own work, investigated literature and wrote the paper

Farley, O. R. L., Secomb, J. L., Parsonage, J., Lundgren, L., Abbiss, C., & Sheppard, J. M. (2015). Tracking 6 weeks of training/surfing sessions of adolescent competitive surfers:

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Just what are these young surfers up to? Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning, 23(6), 98-100.

• 80% own work, performed the experiments and wrote the paper

Farley, O. R. L., Andrews, M., Secomb, J. L., Tran, T. T., Lundgren, L., Abbiss, C., &

Sheppard, J. M. (2014). The validity and inter-unit reliability of custom-made Surtrax GPS units and use during surfing. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning, 22(5), 102-105.

• 75% own work, performed the experiments and wrote the paper

Farley, O. R. L., Coyne, J., Secomb, J. L., Lundgren, L., Abbiss, C., Tran, T. T., &

Sheppard, J. M. (2013). Comparison of the 400 metre timed endurance surf paddle between elite competitive surfers, competitive surfers and recreational surfers. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning, 21(2), 125-127.

• 80% own work, performed the experiments and wrote the paper

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List of Co-author Publications arising from PhD

Farley, O. R. L., Raymond, E., Secomb, J. L., Ferrier, B., Lundgren, L., Tran, T. T.,

Abbiss, C., Sheppard, J. M. (2015). Scoring Analysis of the Men’s 2013 World Championship Tour of Surfing. International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education, 9(1) 38-48.

• 70% own work, performed the experiments and wrote the paper

Secomb, J. L., Nimphius, S., Farley, O. R. L., Lundgren, L. E., Tran, T. T., & Sheppard, J. M. (2015). Relationships between lower-body muscle structure and, lower-body strength, explosiveness and eccentric leg stiffness in adolescent athletes. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 14(4), 691.

• 4% contribution - aided with the experiments and revisions

Secomb, J. L., Nimphius, S., Farley, O. R. L., Lundgren, L., Tran, T. T., & Sheppard, J. M. (2015). Lower-body muscle structure and jump performance of stronger and weaker surfing athletes. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance.

• 4% contribution - aided with the experiments and revisions

Secomb, J. L., Farley, O. R. L., Lundgren, L., Tran, T.T., King, A., Nimphius, S., Sheppard, J. M., Meir, R. and Triplett, T. (2015). Associations between the performance of scoring manoeuvres and lower-body strength and power in elite surfers. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 10(5), 911-918.

• 4% contribution - aided with the experiments and revisions

Secomb, J. L., Nimphius, S., Farley, O. R. L., Lundgren, L. E., Tran, T. T., & Sheppard, J. M. (2015). Relationships between lower-body muscle structure and, lower-body strength, explosiveness and eccentric leg stiffness in adolescent athletes. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 14(4), 691.

• 4% contribution - aided with the experiments and revisions

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Conference Abstracts

Farley, O. R. L., Coyne, J., Secomb, J. L., Lundgren, L., Tran, T. T., Abbiss, C., Sheppard, J. M. Comparison of the 400 metre timed endurance surf paddle between elite competitive surfers, competitive surfers and recreational surfers. Australian Strength and Conditioning Association Conference, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 2013. Poster Presentation: (Appendix 6).

Farley, O. R. L., Andrews, M., Secomb, J. L., Tran, T. T., Lundgren, L., Abbiss, C.,

Sheppard, J. M. The validity and inter-unit reliability of custom-made SurfTraX GPS units and use during surfing. Australian Strength and Conditioning Association Conference, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 2014. Poster Presentation: (Appendix 7).

Farley, O. R. L., Secomb, J. L., Parsonage, J., Lundgren, L., Abbiss, C., Sheppard, J. M.

Tracking 6 Weeks of training/surfing sessions of adolescent competitive surfers:

Just what are these young surfers up to? Australian Strength and Conditioning Association Conference, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia, 2015. Poster Presentation: (Appendix 8).

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Use of Thesis

This copy is the property of Edith Cowan University. However, the literary rights of the author must also be respected. If any passage from this thesis is quoted or closely paraphrased in a paper or written work prepared by the user, the source of the passage must be acknowledged in the work. If the user desires to publish a paper or written work containing passages copied or closely paraphrased from this thesis, which passages would in total constitute an infringing copy for the purpose of the Copyright Act, he or she must first obtain the written permission of the author to do so.

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Table of Contents

Dedication ... ii

Declaration ... iii

Abstract ... iv

Acknowledgements ... vi

List of Publications and Presentations Related to Thesis ... viii

List of Co-author Publications arising from PhD ... x

Use of Thesis ... xii

Table of Contents ... xiii

List of Tables ... xix

List of Figures ... xxi

Chapter 1: Introduction and General Overview ... 1

1.2 Research Purpose ... 5

1.3 Research Significance ... 6

1.4 Research Questions and Hypothesis/Null hypothesis ... 6

1.5 General Overview ... 8

Chapter 2: Literature Review Performance Analysis of Surfing ... 10

2.1 Introduction ... 10

2.1.1 Measurements of External Loads... 12

2.2 Time-Motion Analysis ... 13

2.2.1 Time-Motion Analysis of surfing ... 14

2.3 Summary ... 19

2.4 Global Positioning System Athlete Analysis ... 19

2.4.1 Reliability and Validity of GPS Measurement ... 20

2.4.2 Considerations for use of GPS in surfing ... 22

2.4.3 Distances ... 23 xiii

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2.4.4 Speeds ... 24

2.5 Summary ... 26

2.6 Measurements of Internal Loads ... 27

2.6.1 Heart Rate Monitoring in Surfing ... 28

2.7 Summary ... 32

2.8 Conclusion ... 33

Chapter 3: Literature Review Testing Protocols for Profiling of Surfers’ Anaerobic and Aerobic Fitness ... 34

3.1 Introduction ... 34

3.2 Anaerobic Fitness... 36

3.3 The Role of Anaerobic Power in Surfing ... 37

3.4 Anaerobic fitness assessment ... 39

3.4.1 Ergometer Based Testing ... 39

3.5 Pool-Based Testing ... 42

3.6 Summary ... 45

3.7 Aerobic Fitness ... 46

3.8 Aerobic Testing ... 47

3.8.1 Ergometer Based Aerobic Fitness Testing ... 48

3.8.2 Influences of Surfing and Variables Accountable for VO2peak Values ... 53

3.8.3 Testing Implications on Results ... 53

3.9 Pool-Based Aerobic Testing ... 55

3.10 Summary ... 57

3.11 Conclusion ... 58

Chapter 4: Literature Review The Utilisation of Sprint and High-Intensity Interval Training to aid in Surfers’ Trainability for such Prerequisites ... 61

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4.1 Introduction ... 61

4.2 High Intensity Interval Training ... 63

4.3 Sprint Interval Training... 65

4.4 Repeated Ability ... 67

4.5 Utilisation of Training Methods... 68

Chapter 5: Study 1: The Validity and Inter-Unit Reliability of Custom-Made SurfTraX GPS Units and use during Surfing ... 70

5.1 Introduction ... 70 5.2 Methods... 71 5.2.1 Statistical Analyses ... 72 5.3 Results ... 72 5.3.1 Surfing... 72 5.3.2 GPS validity ... 73 5.3.3 GPS Inter-unit reliability... 73 5.4 Discussion ... 74 5.5 Practical Applications ... 76

Chapter 6: Study 2: Workloads of Competitive Surfing: A Performance Analysis of Three Surfing Competitions ... 77

6.1 Introduction ... 77 6.2 Methods... 78 6.2.1 Participants ... 78 6.2.2 Design ... 79 6.2.3 Methodology ... 80 6.2.4 Statistical Analyses ... 82 6.3 Results ... 82 xv

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6.3.1 Activity Durations ... 82

6.3.2 GPS data... 86

6.4 Discussion ... 88

6.5 Conclusion ... 91

6.6 Practical Applications ... 91

Chapter 7: Study 3: The Repeat-Sprint Paddle Test: A Protocol for Measuring Surfing Athletes’ Sprint Paddle Performance ... 93

7.1 Introduction ... 93

7.2 Methods... 95

7.2.1 Experimental Approach to the Problem ... 95

7.2.2 Participants ... 95

7.2.3 Procedures ... 96

7.2.4 Repeat Sprint Test ... 97

7.2.5 400m Timed Endurance Paddle Test ... 97

7.2.6 Statistical Analyses ... 98

7.3 Results ... 98

7.4 Discussion ... 100

7.5 Conclusion ... 103

7.6 Practical Applications ... 103

Chapter 8: Study 4: Tracking 6 Weeks of Training/Surfing Sessions of Adolescent Competitive Surfers: Just what are these young surfers up to? ... 104

8.1 Introduction ... 104

8.2 Methods... 105

8.2.1 Approach to the Problem ... 105

8.2.2 Participants ... 105

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8.2.3 Procedures ... 105

8.2.4 Statistical Analyses ... 106

8.3 Results ... 106

8.4 Discussion ... 107

8.5 Practical Applications ... 109

Chapter 9: Study 5: Five Weeks of Sprint and High Intensity Interval Training Improves Paddling Performance in Adolescent Surfers ... 110

9.1 Introduction ... 110

9.2 Methods... 111

9.2.1 Experimental Approach to the Problem ... 111

9.2.2 Participants ... 112

9.2.3 Procedures ... 112

9.2.4 SIT training ... 112

9.2.5 HIT training ... 113

9.3 Performance measures ... 114

9.3.1 Repeat sprint paddle test ... 114

9.3.2 400m timed endurance paddle test ... 114

9.3.3 Session RPE ... 114 9.3.4 Statistical Analyses ... 115 9.4 Results ... 115 9.5 Discussion ... 117 9.6 Conclusion ... 120 9.7 Practical Applications ... 120

Chapter 10: Overall Summary and Conclusions ... 121

References ... 124

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Appendix 1: Ethics Approval Letter ... 139

Appendix 2: Participant Medical Questionnaire ... 140

Appendix 3: Information Letter and Inform Consent Study 1 ... 142

Appendix 4: Information Letter and Inform Consent Study 3 ... 146

Appendix 5: Information Letter and Inform Consent Study 5 ... 151

Appendix 6: Conference Poster ... 156

Appendix 7: Conference Poster (Study 1) ... 157

Appendix 8: Conference Poster (Study 4) ... 158

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List of Tables

Table 1: Performance analysis studies conducted to date investigating internal and external

loads of surfing ... 11

Table 2: Time-motion analysis activity definitions for analysing surfing workloads... 14

Table 3: Analysis of durations and percentages of time spent in each surfing activity and number of occurrences per activity ... 17

Table 4: Classification of speed zones during surfing ... 25

Table 5: Surfing heart rate measures from studies to date ... 29

Table 6: The mean segment paddle times (s) and peak velocities (m·s-1) recorded from studies to date from varying athlete competencies ... 45

Table 7: Comparison of mean (±SD) aerobic values in male surfers from studies to date (Adapted from Farley et al. (Farley, 2011)) ... 51

Table 8: Raw data are presented with mean ±SD from subject one using GPS units 1 – 4 *Set 1 and 2 on day 1; Sets 3 – 5 on day 2... 73

Table 9: Raw data are presented with mean ± SD from subject two using GPS units 5 – 9 *Set 1 and 2 on day 1; Sets 3 – 5 on day 2... 74

Table 10: Time-motion analysis activity definitions ... 81

Table 11: Average total workloads to relief ratio per 20min heat ... 86

Table 12: Average wave speeds and distances covered per wave at each event ... 87

Table 13: Average GPS wave differences between heat winners and losers within same heat ... 87

Table 14: Reliability of performance during the repeat sprint paddle test in recreational and competitive surfers ... 99

Table 15: Discriminatory validity between competitive level surfers and recreational surfers tested on different times ... 99

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Table 16: Intercorrelation matrix between the repeat sprint paddle test performance variables and the 400 m endurance paddle time between 18 surfers ... 100

Table 17: The average (±SD) hours spent surfing and training per week, over 6 weeks for

8 adolescent surfers and the effect size (d) between total surfing hours and total training hours ... 106

Table 18: Description of the five weeks SIT and HIT training intervention ... 113

Table 19: Performance during the 400m endurance paddle prior to (Pre) and following

(Post) five weeks of sprint interval (SIT) and high intensity interval (HIT) training ... 116

Table 20: Performance during repeat sprint paddle test prior to (Pre) and following (Post)

five weeks of sprint interval (SIT) and high intensity interval (HIT) training... 116

Table 21: Average weekly session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) from HIT and SIT

training sessions from each athlete ... 117

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Modified kayak ergometer to simulate surfboard paddling ... 41

Figure 2:A: Percentage of Total Time Spent Stationary, Paddling, Paddling for a Wave,

Wave Riding and Performing Miscellaneous Activity; B: Average TMA Time Spent Performing the Activity; C: Frequency of Times Each Action was performed during the 20-minute Competitive Surfing Heat. ... 83

Figure 3: A: Percentage of Time Spent Paddling within the Various Time Zones; B:

Percentage of Time Spent Stationary within the Various Time Zones; C: Percentage of Time Spent Sprint Paddling for a Wave within the Various Time Zones during a Competitive Surfing Heat. ... 85

Figure 4: The average (±SD) weekly hour’s adolescent surfers perform free surfing, being

coached, competing in surfing competitions, and performing land-based strength, balance and conditioning training ... 107

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Chapter 1:

Introduction and General Overview

The sport of surfing, referred to as he‘e nalu (he‘e: to ride; nalu: the surf) by Polynesians (Nendel, 2009), is an ancient sport with origins in noble tradition. Chiefs took their rightful place when surfing, riding bigger boards and challenging bigger waves than that of commoners, who would ride smaller boards away from the chiefs (Harvey, 2009). Documentation of the sport is scarce prior to Captain James Cook’s observations of Tahitian canoe surfing in 1777; however, surfing in the form as many would identify with today, was invented and mastered by Hawaii’s population around 1000 years ago, with both royalty and commoners participating (Warshaw, 2003).

At the turn of the twentieth century Hawaii was annexed by the United States of America. As a result, the once cultural and religious pastime of surfing became increasingly commercialised, losing its noble traditions and becoming comparative with other American sports such as baseball, football and basketball (Nendel, 2009). The transformation of surfing saw three-time world record holder and multiple Olympic gold medal champion in freestyle swimming, Duke Paoa Kahanamoku, embark on a world tour in 1915, where he provided a major stimulus in the development of surfing in Sydney, Australia (Osmond, 2011). Since this time, surfing has continued to grow in popularity to become a thriving culture (Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005). Surfing has undergone multiple changes, not only with advances in equipment (i.e. surfboard design and construction, wetsuits and surf apparel), but also in the way surfers are riding the waves. Modern day surfing contains aggressive quick turns and airborne innovative manoeuvres incorporating gymnastic type movements which are now commonplace within surfing (Lundgren, Tran, Dunn, Nimphius, & Sheppard, 2014; Souza, Rocha, & Nascimento, 2012).

Surfing requires athletes to paddle in a prone position for a prolonged duration. The surfer must also be capable of navigating through or around breaking waves, against currents, moving to different locations and remaining stationary while recovering or waiting for a suitable wave (Farley, Harris, & Kilding, 2012a; Lowdon, 1983). Powerful paddling is required when trying to ‘catch’ a wave, thus ensuring enough momentum has been generated to enter the wave with adequate entry speed before quickly ‘popping-up’ (prone to standing) on the board. Once up on the board and riding, the surfer requires

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balance, strength, power, coordination, mobility of body joints and the ability to react to critical situations during wave riding, such as anticipating and adapting to the continuously changing wave formation (Lowdon, 1983; Lowdon & Pateman, 1980; Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005). The combination of the aforementioned physiological aspects are vital in performing the turns, snaps, cutbacks on the wave face, launching into the air for aerials manoeuvers and landing safely, while remaining in control on the board (Everline, 2007; Tran, 2015). From a competitive aspect, judges score performance during wave riding in reference to several key criteria, which are based on the surfer’s ability to successfully perform difficult manoeuvres with commitment and in combination (ASP, 2013; Farley, Raymond, et al., 2015).

The first surfing world championship was held in Sydney, Australia, in 1964 (Kampion, 2003), however, formal training for such events was not a prerequisite. During the 1970s and 1980s the majority of competitors had no specific or suitable training routine, with the common belief that surfing alone was sufficient for developing the physical fitness required for competition (Lowdon, Mourad, & Warne, 1990). Over the last two decades the sport has grown substantially with an increase in the attention given to the physical preparation of elite surfers (Farley et al., 2012a; Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005; Secomb, 2012; Sheppard et al., 2012; Sheppard et al., 2013). Converse to the growth of competitive surfing, limited research is available which examines the physical demands of the sport (Barlow, Gresty, Findlay, Cooke, & Davidson, 2014; Farley, Harris, & Kilding, 2012b; Meir, Lowdon, & Davie, 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005; Secomb, Sheppard, & Dascombe, 2014). Previous researchers have noted that environmental factors involved in surfing influence the physical and energy demands of the sport (Lowdon, Bedi, & Horvath, 1989; Lowdon & Lowdon, 1988; Meir et al., 1991). Indeed, competitions take place under a variety of conditions that can be affected by the weather, swell, tides and the type of break/wave, all of which ultimately affect physiological demands imposed onto the surfers (Barlow, Gresty, et al., 2014; Farley et al., 2012b; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005; Secomb et al., 2014). However, methods to best physically prepare such athletes is currently unclear, with no literature to date reporting on specific water training methods. Recently training has focused on strength, power and utilisation of stable and unstable (i.e. BOSU balls) methods (Everline, 2007; Tran et al., 2015).

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Surfing is a unique sport in which participants do not pay conscious attention to training but instead practice when they have time and the surf conditions will permit (Lowdon et al., 1989). It has been previously documented that surfers can spend between 3.7 to 5 hours a day practicing in good surf conditions, three to five days a week for recreational and international level surfers (Lowdon, Pateman, & Pitman, 1983; Lowdon, Pitman, Pateman, & Ross, 1987; Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005). Within juniors (<19 y), weekly surfing hours range between 7.5 (Recreational surfers) to 18 (Competitive surfers) hours surfing each week (Loveless & Minahan, 2010a). Interestingly, the amount of time elite surfers spend in the water is similar to the training times of elite athletes in other sports, yet surfers are more likely to consider this time as recreational rather than as training (Lowdon et al., 1989).

During competition professional and elite surfers can compete in up to three heats per day, lasting between 20 to 40 minutes each, during which approximately 50% of the total time is spent paddling (Farley et al., 2012b; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva, Bishop, & Hamer, 2006). Studies have reported that competitive surfing is characterised by repeat high-intensity intermittent bouts of paddling (60% performed between 1 – 10 s), with short periods of recovery (64% between 1 – 10 s), resulting in moderate (140 b·min -1) to high (190 b·min-1) heart rates and a total distance of approximately 1km travelled in each 20 minute heat (Farley et al., 2012b; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005). Due to these physical demands it has been suggested that surfers are required to have a high muscular endurance, anaerobic power of the upper torso, excellent cardio-respiratory fitness and be able to rapidly recover from brief high-intensity efforts (Lowdon, 1983; Lowdon et al., 1989). However, with such requirements for the sport it is surprising these athletes do not partake in extra conditioning to enhance these qualities.

Given the high metabolic demands of surfing, literature on surfer’s aerobic and anaerobic characteristics is surprisingly limited. Technological developments in laboratory-based ergometers has seen such devices being utilised as an alternative to swimming pool-based testing in the assessment of arm power, anaerobic and aerobic fitness (Farley et al., 2012a; Kimura, Yeater, & Martin, 1990; Loveless & Minahan, 2010a, 2010b; Lowdon et al., 1989; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005; Morton & Gastin, 1997). Previous studies have used tethered board paddling (Lowdon et al., 1989), arm cranking (Lowdon et al., 1989), swim-bench ergometers (Loveless & Minahan, 2010a,

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2010b; Meir et al., 1991) and modified kayak ergometers (Farley et al., 2012a; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005) to investigate peak or maximal aerobic capacity (VO2peak or VO2max) and anaerobic power during surfboard paddling. These studies have indicated that the aerobic capacity of surfers are comparable to other sports involving upper-body paddling, such as swimming (50 – 70 mL·kg-1·min-1) (Kimura et al., 1990) and surf-life saving (40 mL·kg-1·min-1) (Morton & Gastin, 1997). However, the importance of cardiovascular fitness to surfing performance is not entirely clear. Indeed, from many of the previous studies on surfers, there has been no significant correlation identified between the surfer’s season ranking and relative VO2peak (Farley et al., 2012a; 2010a; Lowdon et al., 1989; 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005). While VO2peak does not appear to be a discriminator of surfing performance, it is just one aspect of cardiovascular fitness.

Given the significant amount of time surfers spend paddling at low to moderate intensities, cardiovascular fitness is likely to be an important aspect of the sport. Additionally, with the prominence of the short bursts of paddling (1 – 10 s) to catch a wave it is not surprising that significant relationships between surfers’ season rank and anaerobic peak power output have previously been reported (Farley et al., 2012a). Much of this work examining aerobic and anaerobic capacity in surfers has been obtained in laboratory settings using ergometer activities (i.e. tethered board paddling, arm cranking, swim-bench ergometers and modified kayak ergometers) (Farley et al., 2012a; Kimura et al., 1990; Loveless & Minahan, 2010a, 2010b; Lowdon et al., 1989; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005; Morton & Gastin, 1997), which may have limited validity. Indeed, the relationship between power output measured on an ergometer and the power generated when paddling on-water during surfing is currently unclear (Farley et al., 2012a; Loveless & Minahan, 2010a). Pool-based testing would seem more appropriate given the nature of the sport; therefore, the development of reliable and valid on-water assessments for anaerobic and aerobic performance of surfers is worthwhile. Currently however, surfing specific pool testing for surfers is limited and typically comprises of only a 15m sprint paddle and 400m endurance paddle (Sheppard et al., 2012). Therefore, further testing methodologies to determine the physiological aspects of paddling performances need to be developed.

With the importance of repeated short bursts of paddling (1 – 10 s) to catch a wave, aerobic and anaerobic characteristics (Farley et al., 2012a; Loveless & Minahan, 2010a, 4

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2010b; Lowdon & Pateman, 1980; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005) and the significant relationships between surfers’ season rank and anaerobic peak power output (Farley et al., 2012a), training to enhance these qualities should be investigated. The physical capacity to catch waves and out-paddle opposition during a heat is a vital component of the sport and could be the difference between winning and losing. Surfers with superior sprint paddling ability may have an advantage against their competition in a heat by sitting deeper on the peak of the wave, thereby controlling the line-up (Tran, 2015). Therefore, training methods should emphasise these energy systems, particularly anaerobic sprint power given the importance for wave entry speed (Sheppard et al., 2012). Training methods for improving athletic performance such as high intensity interval training and sprint interval training may help surfers with aerobic conditioning, repeated efforts and anaerobic repeat sprint paddle ability. Training methods that have emerged as highly effective with improving aerobic performance and metabolic functioning are high intensity interval training (HIT) and more recently sprint interval training (SIT) (Billat, 2001; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a, 2013b; Laursen & Jenkins, 2002). From a surfing specific stand point, HIT has potential to be a favourable training stimulus for VO2max enhancements (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Buchheit et al., 2008; Gibala, 2009; Gibala & McGee, 2008) and SIT for improving sprint paddle power and repeat sprint paddling ability (Burgomaster et al., 2008; Gibala et al., 2006; Gibala & McGee, 2008). Such adaptations would be highly beneficial for competitive athletes to withstand the demands of surfing and gain an upper edge over fellow competitors.

1.2Research Purpose

The main objective of this thesis was to better understand the physiological factors important to surfing performance. In order to create an informed training prescription for the preparation of elite surfers, the reliability and validly of the SurfTraX GPS units (Study 1) was determined. The activity profile and exercise durations of competitive surfing competitions were then quantified using performance analysis methods (Study 2). The results from Study 2 assisted in the design, validity and reliability of a repeated sprint paddle test (RSPT) that reflects the demands of the sport (Study 3). Thereafter, the thesis examined the training loads of adolescent competitive surfers (Study 4) and the effectiveness of implementing structured training programmes in surfing athletes. Specifically, the results of Study 2 aided in the design of two distinct training methods aimed at improving aerobic and anaerobic capacity of surfing athletes (Study 5).

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1.3Research Significance

The growth of competitive surfing and increased attention given to these athletes striving to qualify and compete at the highest level of international surfing requires coaches and athletes alike to be up to date with the latest scientific literature to help enhance the qualities required to win. Research on the competitive requirements, physiological demands, assessment of fitness and trainability of anaerobic and aerobic fitness qualities of surfers is vital for the growth of elite surfing performance. Such information will support the development of surf specific on-and-off-water training programmes. The findings from this thesis provide additional surfing literature, thus informing sports scientists, coaches and the wider surfing community on methods to improve surfing performance. The use of the data from this thesis will also provide an in-depth analysis of competitive surfing and physical requirements at different locations/breaks; a test for measuring surfers’ repeat sprint paddle ability, which can be used for performance monitoring; applicable water based paddle-training methods that improve paddle performance and talent identification through the aforementioned information.

1.4Research Questions and Hypothesis

Study 1

1. Are the SurfTraX GPS units capable of measuring the actual measured distance correctly between day-to-day tests and between units during 100m of sprinting, rugby field walking and a ‘W’ shape run?

Measured distances will not be the same between day-to-day testing and between units. GPS units will not measure the actual distances correctly. The GPS units will underestimate the actual distance at sprinting 100m and running in a ‘W’ shape but will be accurate during the walk.

2. What is the day-to-day and between unit reliability of SurfTraX GPS units during 100m sprinting, rugby field walk and a ‘W’ shape run?

The day-to-day results within all tests will provide similar results, but will have a small error for all speeds and distance measures. All GPS units will provide reliable inter unit data during the walk, but will not be as reliable during the 100m sprint or the W running course, again subject to small errors within measures.

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Study 2

1. What are the activity profiles (i.e. exercise durations, distances, velocity of movements, work to rest ratios) experienced during competitive surfing and do these demands differ between surf break locations/type?

Competitive surfing will be characterised by short duration (4-6s) moderate- to high-intensity bouts of paddling, cover approximately 1km per 20 minutes of surfing time. Overall intensity (velocity), the percentage of time spent paddling and the percentage of time spent wave riding will differ between locations. The total distance travelled and overall time spent wave riding will be higher at a point-break compared to a beach-break.

2. Do the activity profiles differ between surfers competing in the same heats and are higher ranked surfers surfing faster, further and catching more waves?

The distances travelled, number of waves caught, sprint paddles and rest periods will be different between surfers of all levels. Therefore, the activity profiles will differ. Higher ranked surfers will paddle further, catch more waves and generate more speed on a wave.

Study 3

1. Are measurements of total time, fastest time, fatigue index, peak velocity and blood lactate assessed using the repeat sprint paddle test reliable between day-to-day trials?

The test will be reliable between days, providing a reliable measure of performance and blood lactate.

2. Does a pool-based repeat sprint paddle test provide discriminatory validity data between surfers of varying abilities and paddling performance?

Performance measure outcomes from the RSPT will be greater for higher ranked surfers, compared with lower ranked surfers and that of recreational surfers.

Study 4

1. How many hours a week do adolescent surfers spend in the water surfing in terms of free surfing, being coached and competing?

Surfers will spend around 12 hours of free surfing per week, 4 hours being coached and 20 minutes competing.

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2. How many hours a week do adolescent surfers spend physically training as part of a structured weekly plan performing strength, balance and conditioning work?

Surfers will not spend any time strength training, but will spend 4 hours conditioning and 2 hours’ balance training per week.

Study 5

1. Does additional, specific paddle based training of high intensity interval training (HIT), or sprint interval training (SIT) improve surfing performance (aerobic conditioning, repeated efforts and anaerobic repeat sprint paddle ability)?

SIT will produce significant improvements in the 15m sprint paddle but not the 400m paddle. HIT training will improve anaerobic threshold and result in improvements in the 400m paddle and the repeat sprint paddle test.

1.5 General Overview

In spite of the recent growth in the professionalism of surfing there is still a paucity of research into surfing performance as a whole. While there has been an attempt to identify the physical demands of surfing through performance analysis, relationships between indices of surfing performance and physiological demands and/or characteristics of surfers, current research is characterised by methodological discrepancies. Currently there is no in-depth performance analysis of competitive surfing nor is there any investigation between locations and individual competitors. Specific pool-based paddling testing protocols to assess surfing athletes’ repeat sprint paddle performance or studies investigating the implementation of interval paddling, are also not evident in current research.

As such, this thesis consists of five studies to assess the competitive requirements, test specific repeat sprint fitness and the trainability of sprint paddling in surfers. The purpose of this thesis was to firstly determine the reliability and validity of custom-made GPS units for use in surfing (Study 1), thereafter investigate the durations, intensity, external loads and velocity of movement during competitive surfing (Study 2). During Study 2, participants wore a GPS tracking unit while simultaneously being filmed for synchronisation and time-motion analysis at three different surfing locations and events.

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The performance analysis aided in forming a basis of rationale for developing and determining reliability of a novel repeat sprint paddle test (RSPT) (Study 3). Additionally, performance measurements recorded from RSPT were used to determine if blood lactate, total time, peak velocity, fastest 15m time and fatigue index are relevant for surfing performance and whether the RSPT provides additional discriminatory information beyond an existing test (i.e. 400m endurance time trial).

The pilot study (study 4) questioned eight adolescent surfers twice a week for six weeks during which they reported on the weekly surfing hours and structured training hours they undertook. Several participants did not report any form of structured training. Given that such structured training has been reported on to improve performance in many sports, these findings warrant the need for investigation into the benefits of structured training within surfing. Thereafter, the fifth study (Study 5) examined the effects of two specific training methods; sprint interval training (SIT; 10 s paddle bursts) and high intensity interval training (HIT; 30 s paddle bursts). Such training methods were implemented to improve 400m time trial and anaerobic repeat sprint paddle ability in adolescent surfers. Overall, this thesis contributed to the establishment of reliable GPS units for use in surfing research, work to rest ratios at different types of surf breaks and the competitive demands on a greater scale. Further, it determined specific performance testing protocols for competitive and recreational surfing athletes, the surfing and structured training hours of competitive adolescent surfers and the implications of HIT and SIT in improving aerobic and repeat sprint paddle ability.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review Performance Analysis of Surfing

Due to Copyright reasons,

Chapter 2 is unavailable in this version of the thesis.

The chapter was originally published as:

Farley, O. R. L., Abbiss, C., Sheppard, J. M. (2016). Performance Analysis of Surfing: A

Review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research [Epub ahead of print]. DOI:10.1519/JSC.0000000000001442

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Chapter 3: Literature Review Testing Protocols for Profiling of Surfers’ Anaerobic and Aerobic Fitness

Due to Copyright reasons,

Chapter 3 is unavailable in this version of the thesis.

The chapter was originally published as:

Farley, O. R. L., Abbiss, C., Sheppard, J. M. (2016). Testing Protocols for Profiling of Surfers’ Anaerobic and Aerobic Fitness: A Review. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 38(5), 52-65. DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000252

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Chapter 4: Literature Review

The Utilisation of Sprint and High-Intensity Interval Training to aid in Surfers’ Trainability for such Prerequisites

4.1 Introduction

Competitive surfing is a sport that is predominantly characterised by intermittent paddling bouts that vary in intensity and duration (Farley et al., 2012b; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2006; Secomb et al., 2014). This is due to surfing involving prolonged periods of paddling to the waves, against currents, moving to different locations and remaining stationary while recovering or waiting for a suitable wave (Farley et al., 2012a; Lowdon, 1983). Not only are professional surfers battling the environmental variables, but they can compete in up to four, 20 to 40 min heats within a single day (Farley et al., 2012b; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2006; Secomb, 2012) and can paddle approximately 1km during a 20 min competitive heat (Farley et al., 2012b).

Competitive surfing takes place under a variety of surf conditions, environmental factors and at different surf break locations. As a result, the multiple facets involved ultimately influence the physiological demands encountered (Farley et al., 2012b; Lowdon, 1983; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2006; Secomb, 2012). These demands are further increased by intermittent breath holding during the duck-diving process under advancing broken waves and during wave hold-downs (Loveless & Minahan, 2010a, 2010b; Lowdon, 1983; Lowdon et al., 1989; Lowdon & Pateman, 1980; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2006; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2005). This is illustrated by the fact that surfers typically paddle between 60% (Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2006) and 80% (Farley et al., 2012b; Secomb et al., 2014) of the total paddling time between 1 and 20 s. From these paddling bouts, it has been reported that approximately 60% (Farley et al., 2012b; Secomb et al., 2014) of the total time paddling is spent paddling between 1 and 10 s, interspersed with short periods of recovery (64% between 1 – 10 s), resulting in moderate (140 b·min-1) to high (190 b·min-1) HR (Farley et al., 2012b; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2006; Secomb, 2012).

In addition to the prolonged periods of submaximal exercise, surfers are also required to perform short powerful bursts of paddling (4 – 5 s) to reposition in the surf and to gain crucial 61

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enough momentum for the wave take-off (Farley et al., 2012a, 2012b; Loveless & Minahan, 2010b; Lowdon, 1983; Lowdon et al., 1989; Lowdon et al., 1990; Lowdon & Pateman, 1980; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005; Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2006; Secomb, 2012; Secomb et al., 2014). These repeated high-intensity bursts of intermittent paddling and short recovery periods emphasise the importance of paddling and recovery ability. This highlights the importance of athletes requiring high muscular endurance; moderate-high cardio-respiratory endurance and recovery, and anaerobic power of the upper-body (Farley et al., 2012a; Lowdon, 1983; Lowdon et al., 1989; Lowdon & Pateman, 1980; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005). Competitive surf athletes also perform high volumes of training/continuous paddling due to the amount of time spent surfing daily/weekly (Loveless & Minahan, 2010a). Therefore, to gain maximal sprint paddle benefits, but limit extra loading onto the shoulders and surrounding muscle groups, a practical, time-efficient training module is required.

The physical capacity to catch waves and out-paddle competitors during a heat is a vital component of the sport and potentially the difference between winning and losing a competitive heat. Surfers with superior sprint paddling ability may have an advantage against their competition in a heat by sitting deeper on the peak of the wave, thereby controlling the line-up (Tran, 2015). Those who are able to out paddle opponents have a greater chance in obtaining ‘priority’. Within competitive surfing, such as on the World Surfing League, the surfer with priority has the unconditional right of way to catch any wave they choose, with priority lost once they catch a wave and/or a surfer paddles for but misses a wave (WSL, 2015). A significant relationship between a surfer’s season rank and anaerobic peak power output has been reported, thus highlighting the importance of anaerobic power as a key aspect for success in the sport (Farley et al., 2012a). Surfers lacking upper-body paddling power to catch the wave will likely hinder their scoring chances due to not being able to enter the wave with speed and commit to ‘catch’ waves at a crucial take-off point (higher risk to fall from having to stand up quickly); commitment is part of the judging criteria (ASP, 2013). Therefore, with a higher entry speed the surfer can generate board speed quickly, thus allowing them to execute the first manoeuvres in the most critical section of the wave with greater speed and power to maximise scoring potential (Sheppard et al., 2012).

From a physiological standpoint, training the aerobic energy system is important due to the continuous submaximal paddling and repeated high-intensity efforts (Farley et al., 2012a; 62

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Loveless & Minahan, 2010a; Lowdon, 1983; Lowdon & Pateman, 1980). Furthermore, key physiological performance aspects of professional surfing athletes include the ability to recovery quickly, withstand the surf break conditions, as well as surf waves with speed, power and execute manoeuvres with flair. Given the importance of sprint paddling performance in surfing, training methods are needed to specifically target the energy systems utilised during such short and powerful movements. Incorporating these aspects in the training regimes of elite surfers may allow sport scientists and strength and conditioning coaches to better prepare these athletes for competition.

Greater analysis of the sport from recent research has allowed an understanding of the physiological demands and workloads associated with surfing. Training in regards to the aforementioned energy systems and performance aspects associated with the sport should be investigated to aid these athletes. Currently however, there is limited literature on training aspects, particularly related to paddling performance and energy systems, which is unlike that of mainstream sports. To date, no studies have specifically reported on the trainability of paddling performance. The development of best practice for training energy systems would aid in the development and preparation of professional surfers. Therefore, this review covers literature investigating various training protocols utilised in sports to enhance the anaerobic and aerobic fitness of athletes. An ever increasing amount of literature has emerged investigating high intensity interval training (HIT) and more recently sprint interval training (SIT), as highly effective methods of training to improve aerobic performance and metabolic functioning (Billat, 2001; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Laursen & Jenkins, 2002). With literature suggesting that surfing athletes need to have repeat sprint paddle ability, upper-body paddling power and a well-developed aerobic capacity, training methods should emphasise these energy systems. For that reason, this review will cover literature based on HIT and SIT in regards to how these methods can be applied to training programmes for surfers.

4.2 High Intensity Interval Training

HIT has emerged as an effective training method for improving both aerobic and anaerobic capacities, with such adaptations dependent on the intensity and duration of work and relief periods, exercise modality and the number of repetitions and sets (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a, 2013b; Laursen & Jenkins, 2002; Sloth, Sloth, Overgaard, & Dalgas, 2013).

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The manipulation of any of these aforementioned variables can affect the acute physiological responses from HIT (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a). In contrast to submaximal exercise training, which is characterised by prolonged, continuous activity, HIT is normally achieved through the use of intervals with modalities generated from the demands of the sport. Traditional HIT is characterised by intermittent work periods of 30 s interspersed with 30 s of rest, performed at a higher-intensity that is greater than the anaerobic threshold (Laursen & Jenkins, 2002) and that elicits VO2max (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a, 2013b; Buchheit et al., 2008; Gibala, 2009; Gibala & McGee, 2008). In addition, HIT can be defined as repeated short (≤45 s) to long (2 – 4 min) bouts of high-intensity exercise interspersed with recovery periods (Billat, 2001; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b; Laursen & Jenkins, 2002) of low-intensity work or inactivity that allow a partial, but often not a full recovery (Laursen & Jenkins, 2002). This type of training repeatedly stresses the metabolic systems used during specific endurance-type exercises (Daniels & Scardina, 1984) at a higher intensity to what is actually required during the activity (Laursen & Jenkins, 2002).

As a result of high volume training, athletes with a greater training age characteristically have a high aerobic capacity, lactate threshold and economy of motion (Jones & Carter, 2000; Laursen & Rhodes, 2001). Therefore, HIT may provide a unique stimulant to further enhance these characteristics (Laursen & Jenkins, 2002; Londeree, 1997). Exercising at intensities close to the athletes’ VO2max allows for the recruitment of large motor units (i.e. Type IIA (intermediate) muscle fibres) (Altenburg, Degens, van Mechelen, Sargeant, & de Haan, 2007; Gollnick, Piehl, & Saltin, 1974; Haff & Triplett, 2015; Karp, 2001) and the implementation of near-to-maximal cardiac output, which, sequentially results in oxidative muscle fibre adaptation and myocardium enlargement (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a). As such, effective stimulus and adaptations require athletes to spend several minutes per HIT session at intensities greater than 90% of VO2max (Billat, 2001; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Laursen & Jenkins, 2002; Midgley, McNaughton, & Wilkinson, 2006). The implications of HIT have been suggested to stimulate the skeletal muscle modelling, typically associated with traditional endurance training (Gibala & McGee, 2008) and increase cardiovascular parameters such as heart size, blood flow capacity and artery dispensability (Krustrup, Hellsten, & Bangsbo, 2004; Rakobowchuk et al., 2008). Indeed, several studies have documented enhanced cardiovascular fitness (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Buchheit et al., 2008; Gibala, 2009; Gibala & McGee, 2008) and VO2max following two (Hazell, MacPherson, Gravelle, & Lemon, 2010; Rodas, Ventura, Cadefau, Cussó, & Parra, 2000) to ten (Hickson, Bomze, & Holloszy, 1977) weeks 64

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of structured HIT. Furthermore, it has been reported that an increase in VO2peak and maximal activity of mitochondrial enzymes in skeletal muscle (Laursen & Jenkins, 2002; Ross & Leveritt, 2001) have occurred following six weeks of HIT. Such adaptations in VO2max may be associated with improvements in both oxygen delivery and oxygen utilisation, suggesting that HIT is an extremely effective method of training to improve cardiovascular fitness in athletes (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Buchheit et al., 2008; Gibala, 2009; Gibala & McGee, 2008). By improving cardiovascular parameters a greater amount of energy can be supplied aerobically, thus allowing athletes to sustain intense exercise for longer durations and also recover more rapidly between high-intensity phases (Fernandez-Fernandez, Zimek, Wiewelhove, & Ferrauti, 2012; Hazell et al., 2010; Iaia, Rampinini, & Bangsbo, 2009). It should be noted that such adaptations have been reported from running and cycling studies, however, it has been documented that four weeks of HIT improved aerobic endurance capacity in swimmers (Faude et al., 2008) which is highly applicable to surf athletes.

In many forms, HIT can elicit significant improvements in endurance performance with already highly trained athletes (Laursen, Blanchard, & Jenkins, 2002; Smith, McNaughton, & Marshall, 1999; Stepto, Hawley, Dennis, & Hopkins, 1999). Such performance improvements have been shown to be parallel to the enhancements in ventilator threshold and peak power, but generally not VO2max or economy of motion (Laursen & Jenkins, 2002). For highly trained surfers who typically have a well-developed aerobic capacity (Farley et al., 2012a; Lowdon, 1983; Lowdon et al., 1989; Lowdon & Pateman, 1980; Meir et al., 1991; Mendez-Villanueva & Bishop, 2005), endurance performance, peak power and ventilator threshold enhancement would be beneficial for sprint paddling power and the intermittent repeat sprint paddling seen in the sport. Such improvements from a relatively low impact and time-efficient form of training is positive to implement with surf athletes.

4.3 Sprint Interval Training

SIT is an aspect of HIT involving repeated bouts of maximal intensity work at shorter intervals (10 – 30 s), with relatively long periods of rest (i.e. 4 – 6 repeated ‘‘all-out’’ 30 s efforts separated by 4 min recovery). The implementation of 30 s SIT has been proposed as an innovative and time-efficient method to induce rapid changes in exercise capacity and skeletal muscle energy metabolism (Burgomaster et al., 2008; Gibala et al., 2006; Gibala & McGee,

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2008). Like HIT, the magnitude of such performance changes depend on the nature of the training protocol, such as the frequency, intensity, duration and recovery between bouts (Burgomaster, Hughes, Heigenhauser, Bradwell, & Gibala, 2005), with repeated bouts of SIT likely stressing many of the physiological/biochemical systems used in aerobic efforts (Daniels & Scardina, 1984; Laursen & Jenkins, 2002). The small duration of very intense work has been reported to “double” the length of time intense aerobic exercise could be maintained (i.e. from 26 to 51 min) (Coyle, 2005) and has been further documented to improve cardiovascular fitness and peripheral muscular adaptations (Burgomaster et al., 2008; Gibala et al., 2006; Gibala & McGee, 2008; Sloth et al., 2013). The metabolic changes reported are likely a result of the high simultaneous stress on both the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems.

The effectiveness of SIT is associated with to the high level of motor unit activation as mentioned in HIT. All-out sprint training stresses the recruitment and adaptation of Type IIA (intermediate) muscle fibres that are just as responsive as Type I (slow twitch) muscle fibres in increasing mitochondrial enzyme activity to high absolute levels (Chi et al., 1983; Coyle, 2005; Dudley, Abraham, & Terjung, 1982; Haff & Triplett, 2015; Jansson & Kaijser, 1977). As such, the implications of SIT have been reported to increase mean and peak anaerobic capacity (Barnett et al., 2004; Burgomaster et al., 2007; Burgomaster et al., 2008; Burgomaster et al., 2005; Hazell et al., 2010; McKenna et al., 1997) and maximum short-term power output (MacDougall et al., 1998). Furthermore, alterations in glycolytic enzymes, increase muscle Cr and CK levels (Burgomaster et al., 2008), muscle buffering and ionic regulation following SIT result in improved anaerobic performance (Burgomaster, Heigenhauser, & Gibala, 2006; Burgomaster et al., 2005; Gibala et al., 2006; Harmer et al., 2000; Hazell et al., 2010; MacDougall et al., 1998). The increased maximal glycolytic enzyme activity and sodium potassium (Na+-K+) pump capacity are also suggested to improve power output (MacDougall et al., 1998). Given the utilisation of aerobic metabolism during repeated sprinting (Bogdanis et al., 1996b; McKenna et al., 1997), increases in muscle oxidative capacity have been reported (Burgomaster et al., 2008; Gibala et al., 2006) after 6 to 8 weeks of SIT (Burgomaster et al., 2005; Jacobs, Esbjörnsson, Sylven, Holm, & Jansson, 1987; MacDougall et al., 1998).

Of particular interest to the implementation of power burst paddling in surfing, especially when paddling into a wave, is that individual SIT bouts are typically characterised by the generation of peak power output within the first 5 to 10 s. For an athlete preforming traditional 30 s bursts, the power output declines for the remaining 20 to 25 s, however, 66

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maintenance of a high power output is required (Hazell et al., 2010). One study (Hazell et al., 2010) demonstrated that modified SIT protocols (4 – 6 x 10 s:2/4 min recovery, three times per week over two weeks) produced similar and significant VO2max and 5km time trial performance improvements when compared with the established 30 s:4 min SIT protocol. Such performance improvements were attributed to the generation of peak power output and higher intensity of work during the first few seconds of each training bout compared to 30 s SIT (Hazell et al., 2010). However, the underlying mechanism responsible for these rapid adaptations requires further investigation. Nonetheless, such adaptations are highly relevant to surfers’ sprint paddles, with the main stimulus of SIT being the generation of peak power output (Hazell et al., 2010).

4.4 Repeated Ability

During surfing, there are periods where the athlete performs multiple repeated efforts and short sprint bursts of paddling, such as when duck diving under waves and paddling quickly before repeating the same process, or when repositioning for a wave after missing one, then paddling quickly for another wave. The ability to repeat, short bursts of sprints/efforts (1 – 7 s), with brief recovery periods (≤30 s), is asserted to be a critical aspect of athletic fitness and sprint ability within field and court-based team sports (Newman, Tarpenning, & Marino, 2004; Turner & Stewart, 2013; Wadley & Le Rossignol, 1998). This repeated sprinting, termed repeated sprint ability (RSA) (typically attributed to ≤10% of total activity and defined by a number of sprints and rest in a specified time period) has been established as an important fitness component and critical in the outcome of a field-based match (Oliver, Williams, & Armstrong, 2006; Reilly, 1997). Athletes who are able to produce and maintain a higher RSA are likely to outperform and withstand a higher physiological workload than athletes with a lower ability (Bishop, Spencer, Duffield, & Lawrence, 2001).

Literature has recently moved away from RSA and begun referring to it as repeat effort ability (REA). In a rugby league study, athletes performed a repeated-sprint (12 x 20m sprints performed on a 20 s cycle) and a repeated-effort (12 x 20m sprints with intermittent tackling, performed on a 20 s cycle) (Johnston & Gabbett, 2011). The authors suggested that the addition of tackling significantly increased the physiological response to repeated-sprint exercise and reduced repeated-sprint performance in rugby league players (Johnston & Gabbett, 2011). This method of training and testing could be applied to surfing when aspects such as duck diving 67

References

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