NETWORK ESSENTIAL
Network: The physical connection of computers or 2 or more computers connected together
called Network.
Networking: sharing the resources within a N/W.
Share Resources: Hardware & Software
Require: Media
Media: it’s a communication path through which signal will pass.
Internet: connection number of network.
NETWORK SIZES
LAN: connection of 2 or more location within a single location.
CAN: connecting a N/W within a Single campus.
MAN:is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus.
WAN: is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communications
links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries)
Server: who always gives the resources.
Peer: who acts as both client and server.
Client:who always request for the resources.
There are 2 models
1) Work group or peer to peer model
2) Server based model or ( Client model) or (domain model)
Operating system
1) Client operating system
2) N/W operating system
Client operating system such as:
N/W operating system such as:
1) Windows 98
1) server 2000
2) NT- Workstation
2) NT server
Work group or peer to peer model
Disadvantage:
No centralize device
No centralized data base
Advantage:
Sharing the information
Reduce the cost
It’s an independent
Server based model or (Client or Server model) or (domain model)
Disadvantage:
It will depends on server
Cost is expensive
Only local user will be login
If server fails the whole N/W is fail.
Advantage:
Data Centralization
Security
Effective Permission
Single Platform to manage whole network
User can login to any computer and access their resources any time and much more
Basic components of N/W
Media, NIC, Protocols
N/W Card: is also called LAN orTransceiver.
Multiple home pc:aPC which is having more the one PC.
PXE: Pre-execution Environment and it is an Integrated IC.
Using PXE we can make client & connect to the server.
Different types of N/W card
1) ARC NET 2) TOKEN RING 3) ETHERNET
TOPOLOGY: The wave in which the Computers are connected is known as topology.
There are 2 types of topology
1) Physical topology: the physical structure of a N/W.
2) Logical topology: it defined the dataflow with in a N/W.
Each card has its own unique number.
MAC: Media access control
It is Identity for N/W
It is 12 digit Hexadecimal numbers or it is a 48 bit address given for only N/W card.
And the address is given by IEEE
Command for MAC address
1. Ipconfig/all
2. Winipcfg/all for windows 98 and 95 version.
Crimping: the Process of connecting RJ-45 to a UTP cable is known as crimping
TOPOLOGY
There are 5 types of topology
1) Bus topology or linear
2) Star
3) Ring
4) Hybrid
5) Mesh
BUS TOPOLOGY or Linear Topology
A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of clients are
connected via a shared communications line, called a bus.
Require: H/W and S/F, Media
BNC Connector, T-Connector, Terminator
It uses 10 base 2 thin co-axial cables (RJ-58 Radio gauge)
Maximum 30 nodes can connect.
In BUS topology the termination is must, always the 1
stsystem & last system must
be terminated in order to avoid ringing.
Ringing: The bonus pack of the signal is known as ringing.
In bus topology the data flows in Bidirectional.
Advantages
Easy to implement and extend.
Easy to install.
Well-suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speeds (quick setup).
Cheaper than other topologies.
Cost effective; only a single cable is used.
Easy identification of cable faults.
Reduced weight due to fewer wires.
Disadvantages
Limited cable length and number of stations.
If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network breaks down.
Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic (shared
bandwidth).
Proper termination is required (loop must be in closed path).
Significant Capacitive Load (each bus transaction must be able to stretch to most distant
link).
It works best with limited number of nodes.
Slower data transfer rate than other topologies.
Only one packet can remain on the bus during one clock pulse
Difficult to troubleshoot.
Star topology
Star networks are one of the most common computer networktopologies. In its simplest
form, a star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer,
Its Fig2 looks like: Physical is always star, Logical is always Bus
Fig2: Star Topology
It requires centralized Device (HUB, SWITCH)
UTP cable
Disadvantages
The cable require is becomes more
Cost will be more or high
If centralize device fails, the whole N/W will fail.
Advantage
Status LED’s
Troubleshooting easy
If the one pc fails the rest of the PC’s will participate
We can extend the N/W.
RING TOPOLOGY
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two
other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a
ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every
packet.
Require Token ring, Ethernet
1) CDDI: copper distributed data interface
2) FDDI: Fiber distributed data interface
3) IBM Token Ring
Cables: UTP cable & Fiber optic cable
Fig3: Ring topology
Advantages
Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to
transmit
Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
Can create much larger network using Token Ring
Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers
Disadvantage
One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the MAU can create problems for the
entire network
Network adapter cards and MAU's are much more expensive than Ethernet cards and
hubs
Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load
MESH TOPOLOGY
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of
subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and
including all the endpoints.
The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for
practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small number of
nodes to be interconnected.
All the pc are connected together
It support fault tolerance
Require UTP cable
Fig4: Mesh Topology
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network
A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).
Fig5: Hybrid Topology
To building a N/W
Combi card: -An N/W card which has more than 1 type of connector is called combi card.
Require: - Nodes, Media, NIC, Drivers
Drivers: - it is software which makes the H/W to function properly.
Plug-N- Play: - is a feature in which it automatically detects the hardware &try to load the resources. In order to support P-N-P
1) Os Must support
2) Bios must have P-N-P compatible
3) The hardware & drivers have P-N-P compatible (Plug & play)
Protocol: -is a set of rules which governs how the system will communicate n/w. or it is a common language used by the system for the communicating B/W each other protocol& Protocol is software Protocol stack: - A collection of protocol it is require for in order to provide task.
TCP/IP: - Transmission control protocol. It is routable protocol.
IPX/SPX: - internetworking packet exchange // Sequential Packet exchange. It is routable protocol. NET BIOS: - Net basic input output system. It is Non- routable protocol.
Adopter: - it is a card is connected to one of the slot. Ping: - Packet Internet Grapher.
OSI MODEL
OSI: - open system interface or interconnected.OSI model is known as Reference model & how the data will flow in the media this is done by OSI model.
It is designed in 1977 the organization ISO.
ISO: - International organization for standardization.
Reference model has 7 layers &each layer is performed its own task. Each subtask has one layer, the Dividing a subtask is known as task.
OSI Model have 7 Layers
Application Layer 7th Layer 7TH& 6TH& 5TH layer is also known as MESSAGES
It is a Top most layer Presentation Layer 6th Layer
Session Layer 5th Layer
Transport Layer 4th Layer 4thlayer is also known as SEGMENTS It is a medal most layer Network Layer 3rd Layer 3rd layer is also known as
PACKETS It is a medal most layer Data – Link Layer 2nd Layer 2ND layer is also known as
FRAMES It is a lower most layer Physical Layer 1STLayer 1st layer is also known as
BITS It is a lower most layer
Physical P Data–Link D Network N Transport T Session S Presentation P Application A
Please do Not through sars piazza awave
Application Layer
: - is a layer at which the users interact with the network.
Protocols used by the application layer: FTP=21& 20, TFTP=69, HTTP=80, SNMP= , NMTP=
Presentation Layer
It takes the presenting the data to the user or application layer. Presentation layer helps in compression, Encryption, code formatting
Protocols used by the Presentation layer: BMP, AUI, WAV, MPEG, DOC. & TEXT MODE: ASCIE, EBCDIC, and JPEU.
Session Layer
Which helps establish a session like user logon, exchanging dialogues, alerting, and authentication Which helps in build a session & teardown a session.
Before sending the data the session must establish
It helps in sending multiple sessions.(At a time a single pc sending so many files, web pages, printer o/p) Before sending the data 1st it contacts the transport layer.
Protocols: NFS: - N/W file system. RPC: - Remote processor call. SQL: - structure query language.
Transport Layer
It helps in flow control & Error control & segmenting, Multiplexing, Reliable & Unreliable services. Converting data into segments, 3way handshake, and connection management.
Segment: - is it a part of a message. Which helps in connection management.
Segmenting: - The process of dividing the large number of messages in to small blocks of data is known as segmenting.
Flow control: - in order to flow of data.
Which maintain the flow of data transfer B/W the PC-PC.
Sequential numbering: - which helps in the rearrange the data at the destination. Disadvantage: - there is no sequential number.
Advantage: - speed will increase.
Example: - there is 2 systemshave 100mbps & 2 systemshave 10mbps {100 mbps has adjusted to 10mbps}.
Connection Management: - it is for connection oriented or TCP. Before sending any data the 3way hand shake must establish.
Example: - 3 Way Hand Shake
Comp 1 Comp2
_________ SYNC _______________________ SYNC/ACKNOWNLEDGEMENT
ACKNOWNLEDGEMENT
FLOW OF SEGMENT (OR) CONTROL Connection Management
1) Connection establishment 2) Data –flow
3) Connection termination Flow Control
How the segments will flow Example: -
Sender Receiver
Flood /over flowing the data
Flow of controls uses 2 methods to avoide the over flow of data. 1) Windowing: it avoids the overflow of data.
2) Ready or not Ready
C2 C1
1) Ready or not Ready Example: - Sender Receiver 1-2-3-14-20-25 Not Ready Ready
Here there is no proper negotiating between devices. 2) Windowing
Segments 1-50 Segments 1-50
DYNAMIC NEGOCIATION
Negotiation: they will talk each other means source and destination. It will fix window size it is become slow
The destination is not over flow. Error control
CONNECTION ORIENTED
CONNECTION LESS
TCP (Transmission control protocol) UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Slow Fast
Reliable Non-Reliable
It will work with acknowledgement It will not work with acknowledgement It uses 3way hand shake It won’t use 3way hand shake
Ex: FTP Ex: DNS
Reliable: - the data losses are avoided and there is no data loss. Error control done at Transport layer.
Multiplexing
1-50 segments 10 segments
Network Layer
Which helps in routing, Brouter, Layer 3 switch & it will converts segments to packets. Packets are also known as datagram. Packets consisting of source and destinationIP address. Error checking done at N/W layer.
N/W is a logical&most of the important task will be done at the N/W &Transport Layer. The function of N/W layer routing [Route discovery or Route selection]
Routing: - is a device which used for routing & the process of transferring the packets from one network to another network is known as routing.
Each Router maintains a table known as routing table. All ways switches check the MAC address.
Router: - is used to connect 2 different networks. Device Addressing
Logical: - Ip address Physical: - MAC address
Where the router acts as a gateway B/W the N/Ws.
Hop count: - The one pass through a N/W or router is known as a Hop Count.
Routing table: -routers maintain a table known as routing table. Which helps the packets to reach its destination.
Data-Link Layer
Data link layer helps in MAC addressing & Error checking. Frame consists of Trailer, Data, and CRCHeader: - consists of source and destination MAC address Data: - consisting actual data to send the destination. CRC: - It is consists the Error checking.
Error checking is used to know whether the data is altered this error checking is done at the destination end where as it is send by the source end.
Example:-Frame works
1) After sending a frame it waits for some time.
2) If it receives (-ve) acknowledgement it will retransmit once again. 3) If it receives (+ve) acknowledgement it will transmit the next frame
4) No acknowledgement (+ve) or (-ve) it wait for some time & it transmit the same frame once again.
Parity checking: - is also used for error checking.1) Even Parity 2) Odd Parity MAC address is also known as Hardware (or) physical address.
It is 12 digit Hexa-decimal numbersEx: -0A-12-09-BC-08-F3 IEEE: - Divide a 12digit decimal into 2
1st 6 digit 2nd6 digit
It is given by IEEE & It is given by other company OUT: - organization unique identify
1st digit has to be same and another 6digit we can change that number. In data link layer has 2 sub layers
1) Logical link control (LLC) 2) MAC
Binding: - the process of linking the protocol to a NIC is known as binding or The process of interfacing the LAN drivers with protocols is knows as BINDING.
Data Link devices:- Bridge & Layer-2-switch.
Protocols: - 1) 802.3 2) 802.2 3) SAP/SNAD 4) FRAME RELAY 5) HDLC 6) PPP 7) SDLA LAN protocols: 802.3, 802.2, SAP/SNAD, Frame relay
DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Installed DHCP in to Windows 2000 & 2003 & 2008 server is called DHCP server. The range of IP address is created depending on the number of clients.
The range of IP address must use the same class & same N/W ID which is used for Windows 2000 & 2003 & 2008 server& it is one time configuration.
If the server fails the IP address will fail. DHCP port number= 67&68
Release the Existing IP address IPCONFIG / RELEASE Renew the existing IP address IPCONFIG / RENEW Auto private IP address (APIPA)
Whenever the client request & no response from the DHCP server the client will automatically generated a class B IP address of its own.
To configure DHCP at the Client end
1) Install DHCP in the machine running with server 2) Configure server
(a) Give the scope of IP address [Starting & ending range] (b) Specify the lease period
Note: - [DHCP will assign the IP address to clients on lease basis] (c) At the client end
(a) Select local area N/W & enable Obtain an IP address automatically
DHCP service
Configuring a DHCP Scope Log on administrator The DHCP Server provides:
1) Default gateway address 2) Domain Name
3) Service server addresses 4) WINS server addresses
5) NETBIOS name resolution type.
TITLE: DHCP Options Supported by Clients
From the Network Administration group, start DHCP Manager. The DHCP Manager window appears.
1) Under DHCP Servers, select *Local Machine*
Local Machine indicates that you are configuring the local DHCP server, and not a remote DHCP server.
2) From the Scope menu, choose Create. The Create Scope dialog box appears. 3) Complete the scope configuration.
The DHCP server cannot be a DHCP client. It must have a static IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway address. You also have the option of assigning an exclusion range or specific excluded addresses as well as lease duration and a name.
4) Choose OK when done.
5) Choose Yes to activate the scope.
The DHCP Manager window appears with the new scope added. Notice the yellow light bulb next to the IP address. This indicates an active scope.
6) Close the DHCP Manager TCP/IP Models
Application Also known as Application, Presentation, Session Transport Layer Also known as Transport
Internet Also known as Network
802 Projects
IEEE: -it is designed 1980 Feb standard for LAN &WAN&it has 12 standards. 1) 802.1 LAN/MAN Management
2) 502.2 LLC sub layer
3) 802.3 CSMA/CD [ Ethernet] 4) 802.4 Token Passing
5) 802.5 IBM Token Ring
6) 802.6 DQDB [Distributed Queue dual bus] 7) 802.7 Broad band N/W
8) 802.8 Fibre optic 9) 802.9 ISDN
10) 802.10 LAN/WAN security 11) 802.11 wireless communication
12) 802.12 Demand priority or 100VG anylan
Media access
1) Contention methoda) CSMA/CA & it is used in Apple talc Network b) CSMA / CD & it is user in Ethernet Network 2) Token passing
a) Token Ring & FDDI network 3) Demand priority
CSMA/CA: - Carrier sense multiple access / collision avoidance. CSMA/CD: - Carrier sense multiple access / collision detection. Contention Method
In contention method whenever the nodes what’s to send a data 1st
its sense the carrier whenever the carrier is found free it will transmit the data. When 2 systems sense the media at the same time & if it free they will transmit and collision will occur in a Network.
Before sending the data C1C4 sense the carrier or media or check to know whether the carrier free. CSMA/CD
Hub always logically Bus & physically Star. Switch always physical star & Logical Ring
In Ethernet always the data flows in Bidirectional.Ex:- 2 pc’s from C1 to C4& C2 C1are transferring the data at a time.
Disadvantage: - the collision will occur when 2 pc’s transmitted the data at a time. In this method all the system contender to transmit the data.
Whenever the number of nodes increases the collision will occurs data is avoided performance will decreases.
Ethernet network designed by HAWAI. CSMA/CA
Anode wishing to transmit data has to first listen to the channel for a predetermined amount of time to determine whether or not another node is transmitting on the channel within the wireless range. If the channel is sensed "idle," then the node is permitted to begin the transmission process. If the channel is sensed as "busy," the node defers its transmission for a random period of time. Once the transmission process begins, it is still possible for the actual transmission of application data to not occur.
In this method it won’t send the data 1st
, 1st it will send the signal. TOKEN PASSING
In telecommunication, token passing is a channel access method where a signal called a token is passed between nodes that authorize the node to communicate. The most well-known examples are token ring and ARCNET.
In case of token passing each system will get an opportunity to transmit the data here the token will be generated. The system which is having the token can transmit the data.
In this token passing method the collision are avoided because the data flows in always one direction & more number of systems will simultaneously transmit the data.
The Ring Designed by IBM international business machine. DEMAND PRIORITY PROTOCOL
Require demand priority switches. Demand priority is the media access control protocol defined in the IEEE 802.12 draft standard. It is called 100VG-anyLAN by HP. various techniques are used to ensure faitness of access for all nodes and to guarantee access time for individual nodes. Round robin selection procedures are used to give each node an equal opportunity to transmit data. Two priority levels are provided so that time-critical traffic such as interactive video, audio and multimedia can be given priority service with guaranteed low delay. A bandwidth allocator can be introduced to control the amount of bandwidth each application can use.
These techniques make demand priority able to accommodate multimedia applications with guaranteed performance levels, while allowing normal traffic to use the remaining bandwidth in a fair manner.
NETWORKING DEVICES 1) Hub
2) Switch 3) Router HUB
Hub is a device & also known as Concentrator There are 3 types of hub
1) Passive Hub 2) Active Hub 3) Intelligent Hub Active Hub
1) External power supply 2) Status’s LED’s
3) The signal become strong 4) Amplification
5) No MAC address
6) The administrator check the status of LED’s Passive Hub
1) The signals become weaken.
2) No amplification it’s just act likes a connector which helps how the system will communicate.
3) No amplification 4) No status LED’s
Intelligent Hub
1) It will check the status of the frame 2) The time requirement is more 3) Status of LED’s
4) Amplification
5) It’s have own power supply SWITCH
There are 3 types of switch
1) Store & forward 2) Cut through 3) Fragment free Store & forward
1) Before sending the data it will check the source and destination MAC address 2) It is slow
Cut through
1) It won’t check the CRC
2) It will check the destination & Amplify 3) It will faster
4) It won’t check the error 5) Non-Reliable
Fragment free
1) It will check 1st 64 bytes of data 2) There is128bytes
3) In 64 bytes any error will be their it won’t send the data for the destination.
4) Once a switch off the MAC table it will erase & its temporary memory & when the MAC table will take some time & its refresh.
5) Reliable
IP ADDRESSING
It is a logical or layer 3 addresses.It is a 32 bit address. It is an Ip 4 version. Each block is known as field or octet. Each field size is 8 bit.
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits Range & Classes of IP address
Class A 1 to126 [127 is a Loop back address& it is used for troubleshooting or it is checking for TCP/IP stack]
Class B 128 to 191 Class C 192 to 223
Class D 224 to 239 & Class E 240 to 254 [255 is a Broadcast address]
Without sub netting IP address has 2 parts 1) N/W part 2) Host part
With subneting IP address has 3 ports 1) N/W part 2) Host part 3) Subneting
To Built N/W
Whenever all computer must have same ID [Identification] &all computers must different host ID. Subneting: - The process of dividing large N/W’s into small N/W is known as subneting.
Subnet Mask: - which is used to differentiate the Host part from a N/W part. Class N/W Host No. of N/W No. of Host Subneting A 1 3 126 1, 67, 77, 214 Class A 255.0.0.0 B 2 2 16, 384 65, 534 Class B 255.255.0.0 C 3 1 20, 97, 152 254 Class C 255.255.255.0 D Multicast address E Research purpose 0 for N/W address / Default Routing
127 for loop back address 255 Broadcast addresses
(.)Dotperiod is used to separate the field.
Note: - While addressing a Host using an IP address the part should not consist of all Zero’s or all ones. Note: - Where all Zeros represent network address where all ones represent broadcast address.
For a given 2 N/W addresses are always lost For Class A 2 to the power of 24-2=22 For Class B 2 to the power of 16-2 =14 For Class C 2 to the power of 8-2=6 The host part should consist of 0’s & 1’s.
Private address
Class A: 10.0.0.0 [1 N/W is reserved for private]
Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.16.0.31 [16 N/W is reserved for private] Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.0 [256 N/W is reserved for private] Class C Subneting
Mask
bits Subnet Mask # of Host # of N/W’s
/24 255.255.255.0 2 to power of 8 256-2=254 /25 255.255.255.128 2 to power of 7 128-2=126 /26 255.255.255.192 2 to power of 6 64-2=62 /27 255.255.255.224 2 to power of 5 32-2=30 /28 255.255.255.240 2 to power of 4 16-2=14 /29 255.255.255.248 2 to power of 3 8-2=6 /30 255.255.255.252 2 to power of 2 4-2=2 Example:-
200.10.10.0/282 to the power of 4Total Network address=16 Host: (16-2=14 from each network) Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.240
Network
address
Host address Range
Broadcast
address
200.10.10.0 200.10.10.1 to 200.10.10.14 200.10.10.15 200.10.10.16 200.10.10.17 to 200.10.10.30 200.10.10.29 200.10.10.48 200.10.10.33 to 200.10.10.46 200.10.10.47 200.10.10.64 200.10.10.49 to 200.10.10.62 200.10.10.63 200.10.10.80 200.10.10.65 to 200.10.10.78 200.10.10.79 200.10.10.96 200.10.10.81 to 200.10.10.94 200.10.10.95 200.10.10.112 200.10.10.97 to 200.10.10.110 200.10.10.111 200.10.10.128 200.10.10.113 to 200.10.10.126 200.10.10.127 200.10.10.144 200.10.10.129 to 200.10.10.142 200.10.10.143 200.10.10.160 200.10.10.145 to 200.10.10.159 200.10.10.159 200.10.10.176 200.10.10.161 to 200.10.10.174 200.10.10.175 200.10.10.192 200.10.10.177 to 200.10.10.190 200.10.10.191 200.10.10.208 200.10.10.193 to 200.10.10.206 200.10.10.207 200.10.10.224 200.10.10.209 to 200.10.10.222 200.10.10.223 200.10.10.240 200.10.10.225 to 200.10.10.238 200.10.10.239 200.10.10.254 200.10.10.241 to 200.10.10.254 200.10.10.255Class B Subneting Host
bits
Subnet Mask Host Network
/16 255.255.0.0 2 the power of 16 65536-2= 65534 /17 255.255.128.0 2 the power of 15 32768-2= 32766 /18 255.255.192.0 2 the power of 14 1 6384-2= 16382 /19 255.255.224.0 2 the power of 13 8192-2= 8190 /20 255.255.240.0 2 the power of 12 4096-2= 4094 /21 255.255.248.0 2 the power of 11 2048-2= 2046 /22 255.255.252.0 2 the power of 10 1024-2= 1022 /23 255.255.254.0 2 the power of 9 512-2= 510 /24 255.255.255.0 2 the power of 8 256-2= 254 /25 255.255.255.128 2 the power of 7 128-2= 126 /26 255.255.255.192 2 the power of 6 64-2= 62 /27 255.255.255.224 2 the power of 5 32-2= 30 /28 255.255.255.240 2 the power of 4 16-2= 14 /29 255.255.255.248 2 the power of 2 8-2= 6 /30 255.255.255.252 2 the power of 13 4-2= 2
Example:-
175.10.0.0/202 to the power of 4Total Network address=16 Host: (16-2=14 from each network)
Network address Host address Range
Broadcast
address Range
175.10.0.0 175.10.0.1 to 175.10.14.254 175.10.15.255 175.10.16.0 175.10.16.1 to 175.10.30.254 175.10.31.255 175.10.32.0 175.10.32.1 to 175.10.46.254 175.10.47.255 175.10.64.0 175.10.48.1 to 175.10.62.254 175.10.63.255 175.10.80.0 175.10.64.1 to 175.10.78.254 175.10.79.255 175.10.96.0 175.10.80.1 to 175.10.94.254 175.10.95.255 175.10.112.0 175.10.96.1 to 175.10.110.254 175.10.111.255 175.10.128.0 175.10.112.1 to 175.10.126.254 175.10.127.255 175.10.144.0 175.10.128.1 to 175.10.142.254 175.10.143.255 175.10.160.0 175.10.144.1 to 175.10.158.254 175.10.159.255 175.10.176.0 175.10.160.1 to 175.10.174.254 175.10.175.255 175.10.192.0 175.10.176.1 to 175.10.190.254 175.10.191.255 175.10.208.0 175.10.192.1 to 175.10.206.254 175.10.207.255 175.10.224.0 175.10.208.1 to 175.10.222.254 175.10.223.255 175.10.240.0 175.10.224.1 to 175.10.238.254 175.10.239.255 175.10.254.0 175.10.240.1 to 175.10.254.254 175.10.255.255Class A Subneting Host
bits
Subnet Mask Host / Subnet Host/Network /8 255.0.0.0 2 the power of 24 16777216-2= 16777214 /9 255.128.0.0 2 the power of 23 8388608-2= 8388606 /10 255.192.0.0 2 the power of 22 4194304-2= 4194302 /11 255.224.0.0 2 the power of 21 2097152-2= 2097150 /12 255.240.0.0 2 the power of 20 1048576-2= 1048574 /13 255.248.0.0 2 the power of 19 524288-2= 524286 /14 255.252.0.0 2 the power of 18 242144-2= 242142 /15 255.254.0.0 2 the power of 17 131072-2= 131070 /16 255.255.0.0 2 the power of 16 65536-2= 65534 /17 255.255.128.0 2 the power of 15 32768-2= 32766 /18 255.255.192.0 2 the power of 14 16384-2= 16382 /19 255.255.224.0 2 the power of 13 8192-2= 8190 /20 255.255.240.0 2 the power of 12 4096-2= 4094 /21 255.255.248.0 2 the power of 11 2048-2= 2046 /22 255.255.252.0 2 the power of 10 1024-2= 1022 /23 255.255.254.0 2 the power of 9 512-2= 510 /24 255.255.255.0 2 the power of 8 256-2= 254
/25 255.255.255.128 2 the power of 7 128-2= 126 /26 255.255.255.192 2 the power of 6 64-2= 62 /27 255.255.255.224 2 the power of 5 32-2= 30 /28 255.255.255.240 2 the power of 4 16-2= 14 /29 255.255.255.248 2 the power of 2 8-2= 6 /30 255.255.255.252 2 the power of 1 4-2= 2 Example:-
10.0.0.0/23 2 to the power of 15Total Network address=768 Host: (2 to the power of 9 =512host from each network)
Network address Host address
Broadcast
address
10.0.0.0 10.0.0.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.2.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.4.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.6.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.8.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.10.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.12.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.14.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.16.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.18.1 to 10.0.1.254 10.0.20.1 to 10.0.1.254DEVELPOMENT OF TCP/IP
Require: -Media convertor, MSAU, Repeaters MSAU: - Multi Station Access Unit
Signal Generator: - It separates the signal& Noise.. ---
<----180km----><--100--->
MSAU: - it is used for IBM Token Ring. Repeaters: - It is a physical layer of OSI Model.
Drawback of Repeaters: - it will amplify the signals known as repeaters
Media convertor: - It is a small box & it is a device which converts input fibre optic cable to cable to fibre optic cable & output fibre optic cable to converting to the UTP cable is known as media convertor. Connect the Fibre optic cable requires: -
1) SC: - Subscriber connector 2) ST: - Straight trip
3) Patch cards
Advantages of Fibre optic cable
1) Cheap: - Fiber optic cables cost less than copper wire, making optical cables a more economical choice when transmitting data over large distances.
2) Secure: - Fiber optic cables offer more secure communications because they are highly resistant to tapping, radio frequency interference and jamming. The United States Department of Defense has been using fiber optics for secure communications for more than 25 years.
3) Low Attenuation: - Fiber optics experience very little data loss, even over long distances, because light travels through the fiber without experiencing attenuation or a loss of intensity over time.
4) Space Saver: - A single fiber optic cable can carry significantly more data than a single electrical cable, which saves space within a building or other small space.
5) Low Attenuation: -
Fiber optics experience very little data loss, even over long distances,
because light travels through the fiber without experiencing attenuation or a loss of
intensity overtime.
802.6 DQDB {Distributed Queue Dual-bus}
It is a distributed multi-accessnetwork.
a. Supports integrated communications using a dual bus and distributed queuing, b. Provides access to local or metropolitan area networks
c. Supports connectionless data transfer, connection-oriented data transfer, and isochronous communications, such as voice communications.
802.2 LLC Sub layer {Link link control}
The Logical Link Control (LLC) data communication protocol layer is the upper sub-layer of the Data Link Layer (which is itself layer 2, just above the Physical Layer) in the seven-layer OSI reference model. It provides multiplexing and flow control mechanisms that make it possible for several network protocols (IP, IPX) to coexist within a multipoint network and to be transported over the same network media. The LLC sub-layer acts as an interface between the Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer and the network layer. It is the same for the various physical media (such as Ethernet, token ring, and WLAN). As the Ether type in an Ethernet II framing formatted frame is used to multiplex different protocols on top of the Ethernet MAC header it can be seen as LLC identifier.
802.7 Broad band N/W
The IEEE Broadband Technical Advisory Group, chartered to develop standards for definition of a broadband cable plant design and establish guidelines for LAN construction within a physical facility such as a building. This standard has been withdrawn.
An IEEE standard for a broadband local area network (LAN) using coaxial cable. This standard was developed for cable Internet companies.
802.11 wireless communication
A WirelessLocal Area Network (WLAN) links two or more devices using some wireless distribution method (typically spread-spectrum or OFDM radio), and usually providing a connection through an access point to the wider internet. This gives users the mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network.
Wireless LANs have become popular in the home due to ease of installation, and the increasing popularity of laptop computers. Public businesses such as coffee shops and malls have begun to offer wireless access to their customers; sometimes for free. Large wireless network projects are being put up in many major cities: New York City, for instance, has begun a pilot program to cover all five boroughs of the city with wireless Internet access.
802.10 Local Area Network / Wide Area Network
1. Un-patched servers
Server systems used within the corporate network, both ones exposed to the internet, and internal servers that have no direct connection to the internet represent a potential major security risk.
While most IT departments would claim that they are diligent about applying patches as soon as they are available, this risk has to be taken very seriously as even large companies (Microsoft for example) have failed to patch all servers in a timely manner, leading to disruption of internal network traffic by Worms like Code Red and its variants. (Particularly at risk are internal servers that may be neglected because they don’t connect directly to the internet)
2. Un-patched client software
Many common and freely available internet client applications, in particular Internet Explorer, Outlook Express, and Outlook contain security vulnerabilities that may be exploited by a large number of variations on Worm or Viral code. Many of the variations will slip past anti-virus software for several days before anti-virus software makers add their signatures to their software.
Many of these threats can be negated by making sure that all web browsing and e-mail software is regularly updated with all available security patches.
In the particular case of e-mail attachments, the single most dangerous and common security threat today, Using Microsoft Outlook 2000 patched to at least service release 2 and having the extended attachment security option installed completely blocks all executable content in email attachments. Microsoft Office XP includes the dangerous attachment blocking automatically.
It should be noted that no version of Microsoft’s free Outlook Express offers effective blocking of dangerous attachments and users of Outlook Express should therefore have an up to date anti-virus utility installed on their system in addition to training on what attachments are safe to open.
3. Insecure peer to peer file sharing
Individual user’s computers often have file and printer sharing turned on, allowing files to be copied directly between computers within an office. While this is very convenient and often essential to workgroup productivity, care must be taken when deciding what folders to share.
Workstation computer operating systems generally offer much less security than server operating systems. Network aware worms and viruses may take advantage of unprotected shared folders to spread from machine within a LAN. To prevent the possible spread of viruses between computers the root folder, program folders, and operating system folders should never be shared.
Only folders containing data files should be shared, and confidential data that must be shared should be stored on a server where more security is available
.
4. Insecure passwords
When possible, any resources shared on a network should be protected by allowing access only with a valid user name and password combination. Passwords should be difficult to guess, and not shared or left in plain sight (i.e. stuck to the monitor.)
A strong password policy allows access to resources to be restricted as needed, to working hours, and an individual’s access to confidential data can be disabled immediately upon termination
.
Protecting the Network
Being aware of the above threats and following the guidelines above will provide a reasonable level of safety for a corporate network, but additional steps are usually taken to further reduce security risks. Firewalls and Network Address Translation
Most networks have the added security of a hardware or software firewall that blocks and discards any traffic coming into the network that is not expected. Computers behind the firewall usually are assigned special IP (Internet Protocol) addresses that cannot be routed over the internet.
Network address translation is performed by a gateway router or proxy server (often integrated with the firewall) that allows computers with non-routable addresses to make requests from the internet.
There is no way that unsolicited traffic from the internet can de directed to a computer with a non-routable address unless the firewall/router etc. has been specifically programmed to pass traffic to a particular server (a web or mail server for example) behind the firewall.
Unfortunately a firewall cannot prevent hostile applications running on individual workstations (such as Trojans, Viruses, and Worms) from opening security holes from inside a network, as the traffic can appear to be perfectly normal.
Programs like Zone Alarm (which has a free version) try to identify suspicious outgoing traffic, but these need to be installed on each individual workstation and may be of limited usefulness because of a large number of false alarms.
The Bottom Line
Even If all of the above suggestions are followed to the extreme, there is still the chance that
something can get past even the best planned network security; the internet will never be completely safe. These suggestions should in most cases limit potential damage to a single computer. The failure to follow these suggestions, in particular allowing unsafe peer to peer file sharing with inadequate or non-existent passwords could allow a hostile application to spread to a large number of computers
Expand
1 FAT File Allocation Table 2 LAN/N/W Local Area Network 3 WAN Wide Area Network 4 CAN Campus Area Network 5 MAN Metropolitan Area Network 6 NIC Network Interface Card 7 UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair 8 STP Shielded Twisted Pair 9 PXE Pre-Execution Environment 10 MAC Media Access Control
11 IBM International Business Machine 12 AWG American Wire Gauge
13 CDDI Copper Distributed Data Interface 14 FDDI Fibre Distributed Data Interface 15 TPI Twisted Per Inch
16 EMI Electro Magnetic Interface 17 AUI Attachment Unit Interface
18 FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing
19 TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
20 IPX/SPX Internetworking packet Exchange/Sequential Packet Exchange 21 NEUI Net Extend User Interface
22 BNC British Novell Connector
23 OSI Open System Interconnector Interface
24 ISO International Standardization For Organization 25 UDP User Datagram Protocol
26 IP Internet Protocol
27 DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 28 INIC Internet Network Information Centre 29 ARCN Attachment Resources Computing Network 30 LTAP Local Talk Access Protocol
31 TTAP Token Talk Access Protocol 32 PAP Print Access Protocol
33 ATDSP Apple Talk Data Steam Protocol 34 ATSP Apple Talk Session Protocol 35 DGDP Data Gram Delivery Protocol 36 ZIP Zone Information Protocol
37 RTMP Routing Table Management Protocol 38 ATTP Apple Talk Transmission Protocol 39 NNTP Network News Transmission Protocol 40 FQDN Fully Qualified Domain Name
41 WINS Windows Internet Name Service 42 DNS Domain Name System Or Service 43 POP Post Office Protocol
44 HTML Hyper Text Markup Language 45 HDLC High Level Data Link Control 46 SDLC Sequential Data Link Control 47 PPP Point To Point Protocol 48 SLIP Serial Line Internet Protocol 49 CLP Command Line Interface
50 IOS Internetworking Operating System 51 HAL Hardware Abstraction Layer 52 NDS Novell Directory Service 53 ADS Active Directory Service 54 RAS Remote Access Service 55 CSN Client Services Netware 56 GSN Gateway Services Netware 57 LLC Logical Link Control
58 APIPA Auto Private Internet Protocol Address
59 CSMA/CA Carrier Sense L=Multi Access/Collision Avoidance 60 CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection 61 QOS Quality Of Services
62 MAU Multistation Access Unit 63 PIG Packet Internet Grapher
64 IEEE Institute Of Electrical And Electronics Engineering 65 NLSP Netware Link State Protocol
66 OSPP Open Shortest Path Protocol 67 RIP Routing Information Protocol 68 SPF Shortest Path First
69 DQDB Distributed Queue Data Bus 70 ISDN Internet Service Digital Network 71 ST Straight Trip
72 SC Subscriber Connector 73 DOD Department Of Defense
74 ARPA Advance Research Project Agency 75 FTP File Transfer Protocol
76 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 77 TFP Trivial File Transfer Protocol 78 HTTP Hyper Tie Transfer Protocol 79 ARP Address Resolution Protocol
80 RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol 81 ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol 82 SNMP Simple Networking Manage Protocol 83 FPN File & Printer Netware
84 CSN Client Service Netware 85 GSN Gateway Service Netware 86 RPC Remote Processor Call
87 DCE Data Communication Equipment 88 BRI Binary Rate Interface
89 ASC Anolog Switch Connection 90 DSC Digital Switch Connection 92 TDM Time Division Multiple 93 ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode 94 MC Microsoft Challenge
95 RADUI Remote Authentication Dial In User Service 96 SLIP Serial Line Internet Protocol
97 CHAP Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol 98 EAP Extensible Authentication Protocol
99 PAP Password Authentication Protocol 100 L2TP Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol 101 BAP Bandwidth Allocation Protocol 102 PPTP Point To Point Tunneling Protocol
103 SMART Self Monitoring Analysis Receiving Transceiver 104 TDRM Time Domain Reflect meter
ACTIVE DIRECTORY SERVICES
An active directory is a directory structure used on Microsoft Windows based computers and servers to store information and data about networks and domains
Work group
In workgroup model with a single user account user can login from only from that local user system where the account is created but he can’t login from all the system.
In work group model only local users can be created
Note: Administrator built in user& Administrators built in group
Server act like a
1) Stand-alone server
2) Member server
3) Domain controller
4) Additional domain controller
Standalone – alone server
Standalone servers are independent of domain controllers on the network. They are not domain members and function more like workgroup servers. In many cases a standalone server is configured with a minimum of security control with the intent that all data served will be readily accessible to all users.
Member server
Member servers
A member server is a computer that:
Runs an operating system in the Windows 2000 Server family or the Windows Server 2003 family.
Belongs to a domain.
Is not a domain controller.
A member server does not process account logons, participate in Active Directory replication, or store domain security policy information.
Member servers typically function as the following types of servers: file servers, application servers, database servers, Web servers, certificate servers, firewalls, and remote access servers. For more information about server roles, see Server roles.
The following security-related features are common to all member servers:
Member servers adhere to Group Policy settings that are defined for the site, domain, or organizational unit.
Access control for resources that are available on a member server.
Member server users have assigned user rights.
Member servers contain a local security account database, the Security Accounts Manager (SAM).
Domain controller
Domain controllers
A domain controller is a computer that:
Runs an operating system in the Windows 2000 Server family or the Windows Server 2003 family.
Uses Active Directory to store a read-write copy of the domain database, participate in multimaster replication, and authenticate users.
Domain controllers store directory data and manage communication between users and domains, including user logon processes, authentication, and directory searches. Domain controllers synchronize directory data using multimaster replication, ensuring consistency of information over time.
Additional domain controller
If you already have one domain controller in a domain, you can add additional domain controllers to the domain to improve the availability and reliability of network services. Adding additional domain controllers can help provide fault tolerance, balance the load of existing domain controllers, and provide additional infrastructure support to sites.
More than one domain controller in a domain makes it possible for the domain to continue to function if a domain controller fails or must be disconnected. Multiple domain controllers can also improve performance by making it easier for clients to connect to a domain controller when logging on to the network. You can add additional domain controllers over the network or from backup media.
Before adding domain controllers you should thoroughly understand Active Directory and the requirements necessary to set up additional domain controllers in an existing domain
The command used to install active directory services DCPROMO to Install Domain Controller Promote DCPROMO to Demote or Uninstall
Points
1) Active directory services to a standalone server will convert to a domain control 2) To convert standalone server to domain controller install ADS
Before installing ADS
A) The system must have at least one partition formatted with NTFS 5.0 B) The N/W card has been configured properly.
3) In standalone server we can create the local user can be created
4) By converting standalone server to domain controller you cannot create local users
5) To login from the clients end to a domain controller connect the clients or joint the clients to a member of domain controller.
6) ADScan be installed only on windows 2000, 2003 server family. It cannot be installed on 2000 or XP Professional.
7) In 2000 or XP professional only local users can be created.
8) When I connect the standalone server to a member of domain controller it will become Member Server.
9) From the member server. The administration can be done but the directory will be updated in domain controller not the member server
10) Disjoining the member server from a domain controller will convert to a standalone server. 11) The process of transferring the database from one system to another system called Replication. 12) To support the fault tolerance creates one additional domain controller where it will keep an
additional copy of directory database.
13) The database updated in the domain controller will be replicated to Additional Domain Controller.
Points
a) When I connect between 2 different parent by default there is no relational ship.
b) In this case users in one domain cannot authenticate in the other domain & users in the other domain cannot authenticate in this domain.
c) In this case user has to manually establish the relationship. This relationship is known as TRANSITIVE TRUST
d) NON TRANSTIVE TRUST establish by in one way.
e) B/W parent & child domain by default a 2way trust relationship will establish by default this is known as Transitive Trust. Means users in one domain can authenticate in the other domain & users in the other can authenticate in this domain because both the domains are Trusting B/W each other.
A one way Non Transitive Trust
Pc1 Pc 2 Pc 3 Trusted Pc1 Pc 2 Pc 3 Trusting
In this Trust one domain has to be configured as Trust Domain. (Where the user account are their) and the other domain has to be configured as Trusting Domain.
In the one way Non Transitive Trust as shown in the above figure users in the MD domain can authenticate in the Staff.com domain but users in the Staff.com domain cannot authenticate in the MD.com.
The arrow indicates Trusted to Trusting.
Parent Domain
Schema
A schema is a set of rules which defines the tree structure.
A collection of tree are Known as Forest.
PROFILE
Profile: user desktop environmentProfile is divided by 2 types 1) Software profile 2) Hardware profile
Local profile:Stored in the C:\Documents and Settings\username folder. The profiles file is NTUSER.DAT in the directory called by the user's name.
Drawback: the user is not getting the same desktop in the other system whenever you login.
Mandatory profile:Which discards any changes the user makes to their profile at logoff time, can be implemented by modifying the name of the user profile file from ntuser.dat to ntuser.man. The ntuser.ini file is used to set up the user roaming profile components that are not copied to the server. The ntuser.dat.log file is used for ntuser.dat file recovery in the case of an error. Additional folders in the c:\documents and settings\username folder are: Desktop, Start Menu, My Documents, and Cookies. User can change the desktop
Roaming Profile: Stored on an NT server and downloaded to the computer that the user logs onto. This way the same user's profile can be available on any machine.
It is profile which will be updated in the Domain controller.
Disadvantage: in roaming profile whenever the user logoff the changes will be updated Drawback: background changes are updated.
RAID
(Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
BASIC DYNAMIC
Manufacture Disk Not available
Partition Volume
Support all OS 2000 family Convert basic to dynamic Disk Can’t convert
Simple Volume:The process of extending the size within a single drive is known as simple volume. We can create volumes after converting basic disks to dynamic mini single disk & up to 32 disks is required. In simple volume we can extend the volumes as much as possible with in the disk region. Simple volume is not fault tolerance.
Spanned volume:after upgrading as dynamic from the basic disk we can create spannedvolume We can extend the size of a volume by utilizating the free spaces from more than 1 Disk. At start writing the 1st disk & later on finishing that it goes to 2ndhard disk.
Data will be written one after another It won’t support fault tolerance Can’t extend system partition further. Only NTFS partition can be extended
Uneven size of space from different disks can be put together & create a volume. If any 1 disk fails the whole disk will crush.
RAID “0” OR Stripe Volume
It requires mini-2 HDD & Maxi -32HDD
On this volume we can have an even space from all the disks & put together & create a volume. It will take the least space from the disk & create a volume.
Data will be written simultaneously in the entire disk at a time.& it can be extended. It will uses for even sizes and performance.
RAID “1” OR Mirroring & Duplexing Volume
In order to create Mirroring 2HDD mini & maxi 2HDD & we should combine the HDD of having same R P M (Rotation per Minute).
After creating mirrored volume data will be automatically copied as it’s on the other disks.
If we cannot 2 HDD in a particular IDE then it becomes Mirroring. In case one HDD from to IDE 0 & one HDD from IDE-1 then it becomes Duplexing.
It support fault tolerance.
RAID “5” OR Stripping with parity Volume It require mini 3 HDD Maxi=32 HDD
It supports fault tolerance here also only even space of all the disks may be clubbed.
In this method 67% of the data may be written in the entire disk & 33% of the space will be resources for the parity information.
In this method we can break the Mirroring that makes 2 separate volumes & there will be no fault tolerance. & we can remove disk that makes it will remove whole disk.
Bridge
HUB HUB
pc1 2 3 4 5 6 7 pc1 2 3 4 Port 1 Port 2
A network bridge, also known as a layer 2 switch, is a hardware device used to create a connection between two separate computer networks or to divide one network into two. Both networks usually use the same protocol; Ethernet is an example of a protocol. Network devices include, but are not limited to, Personal Computers (PCs), printers, routers, switches and hubs. Devices connected to a network via an Ethernet adapter card have what is known as a Media Access Control (MAC) address, also called a physical or hardware address. It is this address that uniquely identifies a device to a bridge that can then determine to which network the device is connected.
The principal function of a networkbridge is to forward data based on the MAC address of the sending and receiving devices. This operation helps to eliminate what are known as collision domains. One way of defining a collision domain is a network in which one device, also called a node, and forces every other device to listen when it is transmitting data packets. Another definition states that a collision domain exists when two or more devices attempt to transmit information at the exact same time. Networks
running Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) should, in theory, be protected from collisions occurring, but CSMA/CD can fail.
Whenever collisions occur, the efficient transmission of data packets is greatly compromised. The more devices that are on a network trying to transmit data, the greater the chance for a collision to occur. A network bridge can be used to segment one network into two, thereby reducing the number of devices competing for transmission privileges. For example, if network A has 20 devices, there is the likelihood that two or more of them will attempt to transmit data at the same time and cause a collision. If a network bridge is added, it can split network A into networks A and B of 10 devices each.
Once the network bridge is incorporated, it will begin to "listen" to the transmission of data performed by devices on the two networks. It accomplishes this by recording the MAC address of the devices in a table that it automatically generates without being programmed to do so. When the first device transmits data, the network bridge will add its MAC address to what is known as a forwarding table for future reference. The bridge also looks at the MAC address of the destination or receiving device. If it does not appear in its table, the bridge will broadcast the data packet to all devices on both networks to locate the intended destination.
Forwarding tables are not instantly built, rather the network bridge has to wait until it receives a transmission from a device before it can learn its MAC address. MAC addresses of receiving devices also have to be learned via broadcast, a search for the location of the destination. Once the destination responds, its address is also added to the forwarding table of the network bridge. Eventually, all MAC addresses will be captured and data packets will be efficiently routed straight to their destination. This will happen without all devices having to listen to one transmitting device.
When the sending and receiving devices are on the same network, no forwarding of data packets takes place. If they are on opposite networks, the bridge will forward the information. The prevention of collisions is not the only advantage of using bridges; they also are used to control the flow of information to maintain privacy. When a device transmits, it is seen by the bridge as a MAC address that belongs to one of two separate networks, and if the sending and receiving devices are on the same network, the data will not be forwarded. This is one way anetwork administrator might maintain privacy of information. Features of bridge
Which isolates 2 different collision domains. Which will doubles the bandwidth
It reduces the traffic
Disadvantage
In bridge all the ports must have the same N/W ID. Whereas using router we cannot different N/Ws. Advantage
Different types of N/Ws can be connected like 1) Ethernet with token ring
This is possible because bridge acts like a translator.
Which accept the frame from an Ethernet n/w translated into a format that will be understood by the token ring n/w & (Viceversa)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRIDGE AND ROUTER
BRIDGE ROUTER
1 Built table based on MAC address Built table based on the network address
2 All the ports must have the same network number It can connect different network number
3 Unknown address will be forward It will filter the unknown address 4 Forward the broad cast address It won’t forward the broadcast
address
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRIDGE AND SWITCH
BRIDGE SWITCH
1 Switch mode: store & forward Store & forward
2 Duplexing: Function in only ½ duplexing Function in both ½ duplexing & fullduplexing
3 FPS: Switch will have more FPS(50,000) >1 Million
4 Ports: (2 TO 16) 100
The bridge will forward the unknown addresses to all the other ports from where it receives the frame. Bridge uses a protocol spanning tree protocol. (STP)
Spanning tree protocol: is set of rules which dynamically select the path by communicating with the bridges when the bridges are connected in parallel to provide the redundancy.
