Essentials in Conducting

THE

_LIBRARY

OF

THE

_UNIVERSITY

OF

_CALIFORNIA

LOS

_ANGELES

GIFT

OF

ROBERT

HUTCHINS

ESSENTIALS

IN

CONDUCTING

BY

KARL

WILSON GEHRKENS,

A.M.

PROFESSOR OFSCHOOL MUSIC

OHERLINCONSERVATORY OF MUSIC

AUTHOR OF "MUSICNOTATION ANDTERMINOLOGY**

BOSTON

OLIVER DITSON

COMPANY

NEW YOKK CHICAGO

CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. LYON & HEALY LONDON

Copyright

By OLIVER DITSON COMPANY

Library

To

the

_Memory

of

ROBERT

C.

BEDFORD

for_{many years}

SECRETARY OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES

of

TUSKEGEE

INSTITUTE

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I Introduction , 1

CHAPTER II Personal Traits _necessary in

Conduct-ing 8

CHAPTER

III The _Technique oftheBaton 20

CHAPTER

IV _{Interpretation} in _Conducting

Intro-ductory 36

CHAPTER

V

_{Interpretation} in _Conducting

_Tempo

46

CHAPTER VI _{Interpretation} in _Conducting

Dyna-mics 57

CHAPTER VII _{Interpretation}in_{Conducting Timbre,}

Phrasing, etc 64

CHAPTER

VIII TheSupervisor ofMusicasConductor. 76

CHAPTER

IX

_{The Community}

Chorus Conductor.. 85

CHAPTER

X

The Orchestral Conductor 93

CHAPTER

XI

Directingthe Church Choir 108

CHAPTER XII The

Boy

Choirand its Problems 118

CHAPTER

XIII The Conductor as Voice Trainer 131

CHAPTER

XIV

TheArt of_{Program Making} 140

CHAPTER

XV

Conductor _{and Accompanist} 147

CHAPTER

XVI

Pifficiency in the Rehearsal 152

APPENDIX

A

Reference List 164

APPENDIX

B

Score ofsecond

movement

of _Haydn's Symphony, No. 3 166

PREFACE

IN _{putting out} this little _book, the author is well

aware of the fact that

_many

musicians feel that

con-ductors, like _poets

and

teachers, are '"born

and

not

made";

but his _experience in _{training supervisors of} music has led

him

to feel that, although only the

ele-mentary

phases of _conducting can be _taught, such

in-struction is nevertheless _quite worth while,

and

is often

surprisingly effective in its results.

He

has also

come

to believe that even the _{musical genius}

_may

profit

by

the experience ofothers

and

_may

thus be enabled to do

effective

work

as a conductor

more

_quickly than if he

relied _wholly

_upon

his native ability.

The

book

is of course planned especially with the

amateur in view,

and

the author, in _writing it, has

had

in

mind

his

own

fruitless search for information

_upon

the subject of _conducting

when

he

was

_{just beginning}

his career as a teacher;

and

he has tried to _say to the

amateur of _today those _things that he himself _{so sorely}

needed to

know

at that time,

and had

to find out

_by

blunderingexperience.

It should _{perhaps be} stated _{that although the} writer

has himself

had

considerable experience in _conducting,

the material here presentedisrathertheresultof

observ-ing and analyzing the

work

of others than an account

of his

own

methods. In _preparation for his task, the

author has observed

_many

of the better-known

conduc-tors in this _country, both in rehearsal

and

in _public

performance, during a period of

some

twelve _years,

and

the

book

represents an attempt to _put into _simple

this observation. It is _hoped that as a result of

read-ingthese pages the amateur

may

not _only have

become

more

fully informed concerning those practical phases of _{conducting about which he} has _{probably been} seek-ing light, but

may

be inspired to further reading

and

additional _{music study} in _preparation for the _larger

as-pects ofthe work.

The

writerwishes to _acknowledge the material

assist-ance rendered

him

_by

Professor

John

_{Ross Frampton,}

of the

Iowa

State Teachers _College,

and

Professor

Os-bourne

_McConathy,

of Northwestern University, both

of

whom

have

read the

book

in _manuscript

and have

given invaluable suggestions.

He

wishes also to

ac-knowledge his _{very large} debt to Professor _George

Dickinson, ofVassar _College,

who

has read the material

both in _manuscript

and

in_proof,

and

to

whose

_pointed

comments and

criticisms

_many

_{improvements both} in

material

and

in _arrangement are due.

K.

W.

G. OBERLIN,

OHIO

Essentials

in

_Conducting

CHAPTER

I

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION

_The

word

_"conducting" as used in a

musi-cal sense

now

_ordinarily refers to the

activities of an orchestra or chorus leader

who

stands

before _{a group} of _performers

and

_{gives his entire} time

and

effort _{to directing their playing or singing,} to the

end that a _musically effective _{ensemble performance}

may

result.

This is _accomplished

_{by means}

of certain

conven-tional

movements

of a slender stick called a baton

(usually heldin therighthand), aswellasthrough such

changes of facial _{expression, bodily posture,} et cetera,

as will _convey to the _{singers or players the conductor's}

wishes concerning therendition ofthe music.

Conducting in this sense involves the _{responsibility} of _having the _{music performed} at the correct _tempo,

with appropriate

dynamic

effects, with precise attacks

and

releases,

and

in a _{fitting spirit.} This in turn im-plies that

many

details have been

worked

out in

re-hearsal, these including such items as

_making

certain

that all _{performers sing or play the} correct tones in

the correct _{rhythm; insisting}

_upon

_accurate

pronuncia-tion

and

skilful enunciationofthe wordsin _{vocal music;}

indicating logical

and

musical phrasing; correcting

mis-takes in _{breathing or bowing; and,} in _general,

of the music as well as an _{absolutely perfect} ensemble

with all _parts in correct_proportion

and

_{perfect balance.}

In order to

have

his directing at the public

perform-ancefunction properly, it thus becomes the conductor's

task to plan

and

to administer the rehearsals in such a

way

that the performers

may

become

_thoroughly familiar

with the music, both in _technique

and

in _spirit. In

other words, theconductor

must

play the partofmusical

manager

as well as that of artistic _inspirer,

and

if he

does_{not perform}histask,insuchfashionas tobelooked

up

to

_by

the

members

of his chorus or orchestra as the

real _leader,

and

if he himself does not feel confident of

being able to

do

his

work

betterthan

any

oneelse

_upon

the ground, he cannot possibly be successful in

_any

very high degree.

A

conductor

must

first of all be a

strong leader,

and

failing in this,

no

amount

of musical

abilityor anythingelse will enable

him

to conduct well.

We

shall have

more

to _say

_upon

this _point in a later

chapter.

SUMMARY

OF

THE

_Conducting of one kind or another

HISTORY OF

fra,s _{undoubtedly been practised} for

CONDUCTING

, ,

many

centuries, but directing

by

gestures of the

hand

has not been traced farther back

than _{the fourteenth century, at} which time Heinrich

von

Meissen, a Minnesinger, is _represented in an old

manuscript directing a group of musicians with stick

in hand. In thefifteenth _{century the} leader of the

Sis-tine Choir at

Rome

directed the singers with a roll of

paper (called

a

"sol-fa"), held in his hand.

By

the latter _part of the _{seventeenth century} it

had

become

customary for the conductor to sit at _{the harpsichord}

or organ, filling in the harmoniesfrom a "figured bass,"

and

_giving

_any

needed _signals with one

hand

or the

head as best he could. _{Conducting during} this _period

signified merely keeping the performers together; that

"time beater."

With

the advent of the conductor in

the role _{of interpreter,} such _directing

became

obsolete,

and

from the _{early nineteenth century,}

and

_particularly

as the result of the _{impetus given the} art

_by

the

con-ducting of Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Liszt,

and Wagner,

the conductor has

become an

_exceedingly important

functionary,in these

modern

days even rankingwith the

prima donna in operatic performances! It is

now

the

conductor's

aim

_{not merely} to see that a _composition is

played correctly

and

with

good

ensemble;

more

than

that, the leader of _{today gives his}

own

version or

read-ingofthe compositionjust asthepianistorviolinistdoes.

Instead of_being a

mere

"timebeater"he has

become an

interpreter,

and

(except in the case of the

organist-director of a _{choir) he attempts} to

do

_{nothingexcept} so

to _manipulate his musical forces as to secure an

effec-tive _performance.

THE

PSYCHOLOGICAL

The

conductor works _largely

BASIS OF

through the instrumentality of

in-CONDUCTING

.- .? .. .- ., . . , .

stinctive imitation; that is, his

methods

are founded

upon

the fact that

human

_beings

have an innate tendency to

_copy

the actions of others,

often without _{being conscious that they} are doing so.

Thus, if one _person

_yawns

or coughs, a second _person

observing

him

has an instinctive _tendency to

do

like-wise.

One

member

of_{a group}isradiant_{with happiness,}

and

_very soon the others catch the infection

and

are

smiling also; a singer at a public performance strains

to_geta _high tone, and instinctively ourfacespucker

up

and

our throat muscles

become

tense, in _sympathetic

but entirely unconscious imitation. In very

much

the

same

_way

in _{conducting, the} leader sets the _tempo,

and

is imitated

_by

the musicians _{under him; he} feels a

certain emotional thrill in _{response to the composer's}

message,

and

arousesasimilarthrillin_{the performers};

the _{singers to phrase properly, often} without either the

conductororthe_singersbeingawareof

how

thedirection

was

_conveyed. It is atleast _{partly because}

we

instinc-tivelyimitatethementalstateor the emotionalattitude

ofthe_pianistorthevocalistthat

we

_{are capable}of_being

thrilled or calmed

_by

_{musical performances,}

and

it is

largely for this reason that

an

audience always insists

upon

seeing the artist as well _{as hearing} him. In the

same

_way

the musicians in a chorus or orchestra

must

see the conductor

And

catch from

him

_by

instinctive

imitationhis attitudetowardthemusic_{being performed.}

This_pointwillbe

more

_fullydiscussedinalaterchapter,

when we

take

_up

interpretation in conducting.

CONDUCTING

In_settingoutto

become

a conductor A

COMBINATION

OF _jt

^

_bewellfofthe

young

mus

ician

to _{recognize at the outset that}

_by

far the larger part of the conductor's

work

rests

_upon

an

art basis,

and

that only

a

comparatively small

por-tion of it is _science; hence he

must

not expect to find

completeinformation concerninghisfuture

work

in

_any

treatise

_upon

the _subject. It is one _{thing to} state that

there are three _primary colors, orthat orange is the

re-sult of _mixing red

and

yellow, but itis a very different

matter to _give directions for _painting

an

effective

land-scape, or a true-to-life portrait.

One

thing involves

science only, but the other is concerned _{primarily with}

artf

and

it is always dangerous todogmatize concerning

matters artistic.

To

_{carry the} illustration one _step

farther,

we

may

say that it is _{comparatively easy to}

teacha _{pupil to}strike certain_{piano keys}in such a

_way

as to_producethe correct_melody,

_{harmony, and rhythm}

of a certain _composition; but

who

would

venture, even

in these _daysof _{frenzied advertising,} to_promise that in

so

_many

lessons he could teach a _{pupil to play} it as a

Hofmann

or a Paderewski would?

Here

_again

we

see

science _{being always susceptible of organization} into a

body

of principles

and

laws whichwillworkinevery case,

while art is _{intangible, subtle,}

and

_{ever-varying.}

The

_{application of}ourillustrationto_conductingshould

now

be clear.

We

_may

teach a _beginner

how

to wield

a baton _according to conventional _practice,

how

to

se-cure firm attacks

_{and prompt}

releases,

and

possibly a

few other _definitely established facts about _conducting;

butunlessourwould-beleaderhasmusical_feelingwithin

him and

_musicianship back of him, it will *be _utterly futilefor

him

to _{peruse these pages} further, or to

make

any

otherkindof _{an attempt} to learn toconduct;for,as

stated _{above, only a very small part} of conducting can

becodifiedintorules,directions,

and

formulae,

by

farthe

larger part of our _{task being} based

_upon

each

indi-vidual's

own

innatemusicalfeeling,

and upon

thegeneral

musical _training that he has _undergone. All this

_may

be _{discouraging,} but on the other hand, granting a fair

degree of native musical ability, coupled with a large

amount

of solid music _study,

any

onepossessinga sense

of leadership can, after a reasonable

amount

of

intelli-gent practice, learn to handle a chorus or even an

orchestra in a fairly satisfactory manner. It is our

purpose in _general to treatthe scientificratherthan the

artisticsideof_conducting,

and

we

are_takingfor_granted,

therefore,that the reader is

endowed

with musical

feel-ing at least in a fair _degree,

and

has _{acquired the}

rudi-ments

ofmusical_{scholarship as} theresult ofanextensive

study of piano, organ, singing, ear-training, music

history,

harmony,

et cetera,

and

especially

by

attentive

listening toa verylarge

amount

ofgood musicwithscore

in

hand

.

Asa

resultof_combiningsuch musical

abilitywith

a careful _readingofthese_pages

and

withalarge

amount

of practice in _{actually wielding the baton,} it is

_hoped

that _{the beginner}willarrive athis_goal

somewhat

earlier

than hewouldif_{he dependedentirely}

_{upon what}

_the

ESSENTIALS

IMPORTANCE

The

musical amateur

who

isambitiousto

OF MUSICAL _{conduct should therefore}

study music in SCHOLARSHIP .. , _{j * j u*}

u-all its _phases,

and

if in doubt as to his

talent, he should submit to a vocational test in order to determine whether his native musical

endowment

is

sufficient to

make

it worth his while to _study the art

seriously. Iftheresultofthetestis_encouraging, show-ing a good ear, a strong rhythmic reaction,

and

a

con-siderable

amount

of

what

_{might be termed}native musical

taste, let

him

practise his piano energetically

and

intel-ligently,

and

especially let

him

learn to read three

and

four voices

on

_separate staffs _(as in a vocal _score) in

orderto _{prepare himself}for_{future reading}offull scores.

Let

him

_study

_harmony,

counterpoint, form, and, if

pos-sible,composition

and

orchestration. Let

him

work

in-defatigably at ear-training,

and

particularly at

har-monic

ear_{training, so}that notes

and

tones

_may

become

closely associated in his mind, the printed page then

giving

him

auditory ratherthan merely visual imagery;

in other words, let

him

school himself to

make

the

printedpageconveytohis

mind

theactual soundsof the

music. Let

him

study the history of music, not _only

as a record of the

work

of individual _composers, but as

an accountof

what

has _transpiredin _{the various periods} or_epochs ofmusical art, so thathe

may

become

intelli-gent concerning the ideals, the styles,

and

the forms of

these various _periods.

And

finally, let

him

hear all the

good music he possibly can, listening to it from the

threefold_standpointof sense,emotion,

and

intellect,

and

notingparticularlythosemattersconnectedwith

expres-sion

and

_{interpretation}in theserenditions. In as

_many

cases as possible let

him

_study the scores of the

com-positions beforehand, comparing then his

own

ideas of

interpretationwiththose of the performer or conductor,

and

_{formulating reasons} for

_any

differences of _opinion

that

_may

become

manifest.

lines (history,

phy, theory,esthetics, et_cetera),but

_upon

awide _variety

of _topics, such as _painting

and

the other arts,history,

literature,sociology,pedagogy,etcetera.

As

theresultof

such study

and

such _{reading, a type} of musical

scholar-ship will be attained which will _{give the} conductor an

authority in _{his interpretations}

and

criticisms that

can-not _possibly be achieved in

_any

other _way. Let us

hasten to admit at once that _{the acquiring} of this sort

of scholarship will take a _long time,

and

that it cannot

all be done _{before beginning} to conduct.

But

in the

course of several _years of broad

and

_{intelligent study a}

beginning at least can be

made, and

later on, as the

result of continuous _growth while at work, a fine, solid, comprehensive scholarship

may

finally eventuate.

CHAPTER

II

PERSONAL

TRAITS

NECESSARY

IN

CONDUCTING

IMPORTANCE

OF In_{the introductory chapter}it

was

noted

PERSONALITY _tnat

tjje con(iuctor

must

build

_upon

a

foundation of musical_scholarship ifhe

is to be _really successful; thathe

must

possess musical

feeling;

and

that he

must

go through extensive musical

training, if he is to conduct with taste

and

authority.

But

in addition to _{these purely musical requirements,}

experience

and

observation have demonstrated that the

would-be conductor

must

be _possessed of certain

defi-nitely established personal characteristics,

and

that

many

amusician

who

has been

amply

able to_passmuster

from a _{musical standpoint,} has failed as a conductor

because he lacked these othertraits.

It is not

my

_purpose to _give at this _point an

exhaus-tive list_{of qualities} that

must

form the personal

equip-ment

ofthe conductor. In_generalitwillbesufficientto

state thathe

must

_possessin a fair_{degree those personal}

traits that are _advantageous in

_any

_profession.

But

of these desirable _qualities three or four

seem

to be so

indispensable that ithas _{been thbught} best to devote a

brief_chaptertoadiscussion ofthem. These_qualitiesare:

1. Asense ofhumor.

2. A_{creative imagination.}

3. A _{sense of leadership}combined with organizingability. A SENSE

The

first of these traits, a sense of humor,

OF

HUMOR

_mav

perhaps

upon

first_thought

seem

a

pecul-iar_{quality to include}ina_categoryofvirtues

for the professional

man

of

any

type,

and

especially for

that the_ability to seethings in a

humorous

light (which

very frequently

means

merely seeing

them

in _true

per-spective) has helped

many

a

man

to avoid wasting

ner-vous _energy

_upon

_{insignificant} occurrences, while the

lack _{of this ability} has caused

more

trouble

_among

all

sorts of _{people (and particularly,} it seemsto_me,

_among

musicians) than

any

other _{single thing.}

ILLUSTRATIONS

Some

_{player or singer}is either

over-arduousorabitsleepyduring thefirst

stages ofrehearsing a

new

composition,

and

makes

a

_wrong

entrance, perhaps during a pause

just before the climacteric point.

The

occurrence is

really funny

and

the other performers are inclined to

smile or snicker, but our serious conductor quells the

outbreak with a scowl.

The

humorous

leader, on the

other hand, sees the occurrence as _{the performers} do,

joins in the laugh that is raised at _{the expense} of the

offender,

and

the rehearsal _goes

on

with renewed spirit.

An

_{instrumental performer}

makes

a

bad

tone,

and

the

conductor _laughs at _{him, saying} it sounds like a wolf

howling or an ass _braying. If the

remark

is

accom-panied

by

a smile, the performer straightens

up and

triesto overcome thefault; but ifthe

comment

is

made

with a snarl there is a _tightening

_up

of muscles, an

in-creasedtension of the nerves,

and

the performer is

more

than _likelyto

do

worse the nexttime.

There is a difference of _opinion between the

con-ductor

and some

_performer about fingering or bowing,

phrasing or interpretation,

and

a quarrel seems

immi-nent; but the conductor refuses to take the matter too

seriously, and, having

ample

authorityforhis

own

view-point,proceeds as he _{has begun,}later on _talking it over

with the performer,

and

_perhaps giving

him

a reasonfor

his _opinion.

Humor

is thus seen to have the

same

effect

_upon

a

musical _{machinery seems} to need

more

of this kind of

lubricationthan almost

_any

other_variety.

But

theconductor

must

distinguish carefully between

sarcastic wit, which laughs at,

and

humor,which*laughs

with. In a

book

_{bearing the copyright date} of 1849,

the_{writer distinguishes} between the two, in the

follow-ing words:*

Humororiginallymeantmoisture,asignificationitmetaphoricallyretains,

forit is_{the very} juice of the mind,enrichingandfertilizingwhereitfalls.

Witlaughsat;humorlaughswith. Witlashesexternalappearances,or

cun-ninglyexchangessinglefoiblesinto character;humorglides intothe heartof

its_{object, looks lovinglyupon}theinfirmitiesitattacks, andrepresents the

wholeman. Witis_abrupt,scornful . . . ;humorisslowandshy,

insinuat-ingitsfuninto_yourheart.

THE

VALUE

OF

The

conductor with a sense of

humor

A

CHEERFUL

_^jj

ordinarily have the advantage

AT^'PTTTTT^T?

also of _being cheerful in his attitude

toward _{the performers,}

and

this is an asset of

no

mean

significance. It is a well-known _{psychophysical} fact that the

human

body

does

much

better

work

when

the

mind

is free from care,

and

that in

_any

_profession or

vocation, other things being equal, the worker

who

is

cheerful

and

_optimistic will _perform his labor

much

more

_efficiently at the _expense of _considerably less mental

and

_{bodily energy than he}

who

is ill-humored,

worried, fretful,

and

unable to take a joke.

But

the

foreman

who

possesses this quality of cheerfulness

and

humor

is _doubly fortunate, for he not only secures the

beneficial results in his

own

case, but

by

his attitude

frequently arouses the

same

desirable state of

mind

and body

in those

who

are _{working under} him. It is

particularly because of this latter fact that the

con-ductor needs to cultivate a cheerful, even a

humorous

outlook, especially in the rehearsal.

As

the result of

forming this habit, he will be enabled _{to give directions}

*

_W

in such a

_way

that _they will _{be obeyed cheerfully (and}

consequently

more

effectively); he will find it _possible

to _{rehearse longer} with less _fatigue both to himself

and

to his musical forces;

and

he will be _{able to digest} his

food

and

_{to sleep soundly} after therehearsal because he

is _{not worrying} over trivial _{annoyances that, after} all,

should

have

been dismissed with a _laugh as soon as _they

appeared. There

must

not of course be so

much

levity

thattheeffectiveness oftherehearsalwillbe_endangered,

but there is not

much

likelihood that this will _happen;

whereas there seems to be considerable _danger that

our rehearsals will

become

too cold

and

formal.

A

writeron the_psychology of _laughter states_that

"laugh-terisman'sbestfriend";*

and

in_{another place (p.342)}

says that thesmilealwaysbringstothe

mind

"relaxation

from strain."

THE VALUE

OF Creative _imagination is an inborn

IMAGINATION

quality "a gift of the gods"

and

if

IN

CONDUCTING

i

j- -j ij *

the individualdoesnot_possessit,_very

little can be done for

him

in the artistic realm.

Con-structive or creative _{imagination implies} the _ability to

combine

known

elements in

new

_ways

touse the

mind

forwards, as it were.

The

_{possession of} this trait

makes

it _{possible to picture to oneself}

how

_things are _going to

look or sound or feel before

_any

actual sense _experience

has taken _{place; to see into people's}

minds and

often find out in advance

how

they are going to react to a

projected situation; to combine chemical elements in

new

_{ways and}

thus create

new

substances; to _plan

detailsof_organization in_{a manufacturing}establishment

or in an educational institution,

and

to be able to

fore-cast

how

these things are going to

work

out.

It is this _{quality of creative imagination that enables}

the inventor to _project his

mind

into the future

and

see a continent _spanned

_by

_railways

and

_telephones,

and

the barrier of an ocean broken

down

_{by means}

of

wireless

and

_aeroplane;

and

in _every case the inventor

works with old

and

well-known materials, being merely

enabled

_by

the

_power

of his creative faculties (as they

are erroneously called) to combine these

known

ma-terials in

new

_ways.

In the caseofthe musician, such creative_imagination

has always been recognized as a sine qua

non

of original

composition, but its _{necessity has not always been} so

clearlyfeltinthe caseof_{the performer.}

_Upon

_analyzing

the situation it becomesevident,however,that the

per-former cannot possibly get from the composer his real message unless he can follow

him

in his _imagination,

and

thus re-create the work.

As

for _{adding anything}

original to

what

the composer has given, this is _plainly

out of _{the question} unless the _interpreter is

endowed

somewhat

extensively with creative imagination;

and

the possession of this _quality will enable

him

to

intro-duce such subtle variations from a cut-and-dried,

merely accurate rendition as will

make

his

perform-ance

seem

_{really spontaneous,}

and

will _inevitably

arouse a

more

enthusiastic _{emotional response} in the

listeners.

Weingartner

sums up

the value of _imagination in the

final _paragraph of one of the few _really valuable books

on conductingat our_disposal.*

Moreand moreIhavecometothinkthatwhatdecidestheworthof

con-ductingis_{the degreeof suggestivepower}thattheconductorcanexerciseover

the performers. Attherehearsalsheis_{mostly nothing}morethanaworkman,

whoschoolsthemenunderhimso conscientiouslyandprecisely thateachof

them knowshis placeandwhat hehastodothere;hefirstbecomesanartist

whenthemomentcomesforthe_productionofthework. Noteven themost

assiduous_{rehearsing, sonecessary}aprerequisite asthisis,canso stimulate

the_{capacities of}the _{players as}theforce of imaginationof the conductor.

Itisnot thetransference ofhis_personalwill,butthemysteriousact of creation

thatcalledtheworkitselfintobeingtakes placeagaininhim,and transcend-ing thenarrowlimits of reproduction,hebecomesanew-creator, aself-creator.

*

This _quality is _{indispensable}to all musicians, be _they

creators or performers, but is _{especially desirable} in the

conductor, for he needs it not_only from _{the standpoint}

of _{interpretation, as already noted,} but from that of

manager

or organizer.

Upon

this latter _point

we

shall

have more

to _say later, but it

_may

be well to_{state just}

here thatiftheconductorcould _imagine

what was

_going

on in the

minds

of his _{players or singers,}

and

could see

things from their viewpoint; if he could forecast the

effectof his _explanatory directions or_{of his disciplinary}

rulings,nine-tenths of all the _{quarreling, bickering,}

and

general dissatisfaction that so frequently

mar

the

work

of

_any

_{musical organization could easily} be eliminated.

We

_might also

add

that if the conductor could only

foresee theeffect

_upon

his audiencesof certain works,or

of certain _{interpretations,} his _plans would probably

often be_materially altered.

ORGANIZING ABILITY

_But

theconductor

must

be

more

AND

A S _{than a}

_{humorous-minded}

_and

imaginative musician.

He

must

also _{(especially in} these

modern

times) be

an

organizer,a

business

man,

a leader.

The

qualities of leadership

and

organizing ability are so closely connected that

we

shall for the

most

_part treat

them

together in our

dis-cussion,

and

they are so _important that a fairly

exten-sive analysiswill be _attempted.

In an article

on

Schumann

in Grove's _Dictionary

Dr. _{Philip Spitta,} the well-known historian

and

critic,

comments upon

the conducting of this famous

composeras follows:*

Schumannwassadly wantingin therealtalentfor_conducting. Allwho

eversawhimconductor_{played under}hisdirectionareagreedonthis_point.

Irrespective of the factthat conductingforanylength oftimetiredhimout,

hehadneitherthe collectedness_{and prompt}presenceofmind, nor the

sym-pathetic faculty,northe enterprising dash,without eachofwhich conducting

inthetrue senseis_impossible. Heeven founddifficulty instarting ata given

tempo;nay, he even sometimes shrank from givinganyinitialbeat, so that

someenergeticpioneerwouldbegin without waitingforthesignal,andwithout

incurringSchumann'swrath! Besidesthis,anythoroughpractice, bitbybit,

withhis orchestra, withinstructive remarksbythe_way as to themodeof execution,wasimpossible tothis_greatartist,whointhis_respectwas astriking contrast toMendelssohn. Hewould haveapieceplayed through,andifit

didnotanswerto his wishes,haveit_repeated. Ifitwent nobetterthesecond

orperhapsthird time, hewouldbe extremely angry atwhathe considered

the clumsiness, oreven the ill-will ofthe players; butdetailedremarks he

nevermade.

This estimate of

Schumann's

work

as a conductor

demonstrates unmistakably that he failed in this

par-ticular field, not because his musical scholarship

was

not _adequate, but becausehe did nothave that_peculiar

ability which enables one

man

to dominate others;

viz., a sense of leadership, or personal magnetism, as it is

often called. Seidl asserts* thatBerlioz,Massenet,

and

Saint-Saens likewise failed as _conductors, in _spite of

recognized musicianship;

and

it isof course well

known

that even Beethoven

and

Brahms

could not conduct

their

own

works as well as

some

of their_{contemporaries}

whose names

are

now

almost _forgotten.

The

_feeling that one has the

_power

tocause others to

do

one's will seems in

most

cases to be inborn, at least

certain children display it at a _{very early age;}

and

itis

usually theboys

and

girls

who

decide

on

theplayground

what games

shall be_played next,or

what

mischief shall

now

be entered upon,

who

later

on

become

leaders in

their several fields of _activity.

And

_yet this sense of

leadership, or something closely approximating it,

may

also be acquired, at least to a certain extent,

by

almost

any

one

who

makes

aconsistent

and

_{intelligent attempt}

in this direction. It is this latter fact which

_may

en-courage thoseofus

who

arenot_{naturallyas gifted along}

these lines as

we

should like to _be,

and

it is because of

this possibilityof _acquiring

what

in _conducting

amounts

*_Seidl,TheMusicoftheModernWorld, Vol.I,p.106.

to an indispensable qualification that an attempt is

here

made

to _{analyze the thing called leadership into} its

elements.

THE

FIRST

The

_primary basis

_upon

which a sense of

ELEMENT

IN

leadership rests is _undoubtedlyconfidence

T"FAOT^T?mTTP

in_{one's generalability}

and

in one's

knowl-edge of the _particular subject being handled.

The

leader

must

not _only

know

but

must

know

that he

knows. This

makes

quick judgments possible,

and

the

leader

and

_organizer

must

always be capableof

making

such judgments,

and

of _doing it with _finality.

The

baseball _player

must

decide instantly whether to throw

the ball to "first," "second," "third," or "home,"

and

he

must

_repeatedly

make

such_{decisions correctly} before

he can

become

a _strong

and

_{respected baseball captain.}

The

same

_{thing holds true} of theforeman in a _factory,

and

bothbaseball_captain

and

_factoryforeman

must

not

only

know

every detail of the

work

done under them,

but

must

know

that_they

know

it,

and

must

feelconfident

of _being able to cause those _{working under}

them

to

carry it

on

as _theyconceive it.

So

the conductor

must

not _only

know

music, but

must

have confidence in his

ear, in his _{rhythmic precision,} in his taste, in his

judg-ment

of _tempo, in short, in his musical scholarship;

and

he

must

not _only feel that he

knows

exactly

what

should

be done

in

_any

_given situation, but be confident

that he can

make

his chorus or orchestra

do

it as he

wishes.

Think

forinstance of securing a firm attack on

the first tone of such _{a song} as the Marseillaise. It is

an_extremely difficult_thingto do,

and

itwould be_utterly

impossible to direct

any

oneelse_exactly

how

to

accom-plish it;

and

yet, if the conductor

knows

_exactly

how

it

must

sound, if he has an _{auditory image} of it before

theactualtonesbegin,

and

ifhefeelsthat

when

he_begins

to beat time the chorus will _{sing as} he has heard

them

cer-ESSENTIALS

IN

tain to follow.

But

if he is uncertain or hesitant

_upon

any

of _{these points,} he will _{as surely} fail _{to get} a _good

attack.

Such confidence in one's

own

_ability as

we

have been

describing usually results in _{the acquiring} of

what

is

called an_easymanner, self-possession, in short, poise,

and

it is the possession of such a bearing that gives us

confidence in the scholarship

and

ability of the leaders

in

_any

_typeof _activity.

But

the influence of this _type

of

manner

cannot be

_permanent

unless it rests

_upon

a

foundation _{of really solidknowledge} or_ability.

THE SECOND

The

secondelement includedin_leadership

ELEMENT

IN

an(j _{organizing ability} is the

_power

to

make

oneself understood, that is,

clear-ness of _speech

and

_{of expression.} This involves

prob-ably first of all, so far as conducting is concerned, a

voice that can be _easily heard, even in a _{fairly large}

room,

and

that carries with it the tone of authority.

But

itincludes also_{a good}

command

of _languagesothat

one'sideas

_may

be_expressedclearly,

and

one's

commands

given definitely.

An

important point to be noted in

this connection is that the conductor

must

be able to

exercise rigid self-control, so as not to

become

inco-herent under stress of _{anger, emergencies,} or other

excitement.

THE THIRD

The

finalelementinvolvedin_leadershipis

ELEMENT

IN

a tremendous love of

and

_respect for the

thing that is _{being done.}

_Napoleon

be-came

a great general because of his confidence in his

own

_ability,

and

because of his _{very great} enthusiasm

forhiswork. Lincoln

became

oneofthegreatest

states-men

of all times _largely because of his earnestness, his

extraordinary love

and

respect for the

common

people,

and

_{his unfaltering}confidencein the_justiceofthe cause

never have

become

one of the world's

most

influential

teachers if he

had

not felt that _{the thing} he was _trying

to

do was

a big thing, a vital _thing in the life of his

country,

and

if he

had

not

had

a real love in his heart

for his

work

_among

_{the ragged}

and

untrained urchins

whom

he _gathered about him.

And

for the

same

reason it is clear that

no

one can

become

a _strong

and

forceful conductor

who

does not

have an overwhelming love of music in his heart.

We

may

go farther

and

_{say that}

no

conductor can give a

really spirited reading of a musical composition if he

doesnotfeel_genuinelyenthusiastic over the

work

_being

performed,

and

thatonereason forthe_{sluggishresponse}

that musicians often

make

to the conductor's baton is

the mediocrity of the music _{which they} are _{being asked}

to _perform.

The

conductor is not in

_sympathy

with it

(sometimes without _realizing this _himself),

and

there

is _consequently

no

_virility in _{the playing} or _singing.

The

_remedy

for this state of affairs consists, first, in

allowingonly those

who

have

some

tastein theselection

of music to conduct;

and

second, in _inspiring all

con-ductorstotake

much

more

time

and

much

_greaterpains

in _deciding

_upon

the works to be rehearsed. In

direct-ing a choir one

_may

examine a dozen cantatas, or

twenty-five anthems, before one is found that is _really

distinctive. If one stops at the second or third,

and

thinks_{that although not verygoodyet}it is_possiblygood

enough, very probably the choir will be found tobe

sluggish

and

unresponsive,filled with

what Coward

calls

"inertia."51

But

if one _goes on _{looking over}

more and

more

selections until _{something really} distinctive is

dis-covered, it is

more

than _{probable that the chorus} will

respond with energy

and

enthusiasm.

We

have heard

_many

arguments in favor of _teaching

children _{only the} best _music,

and

here is _{yet another,}

perhaps

more

potent than all the rest.

_They

must

be

taught only good music because

_you

as a musician will

find it _impossible to

become

enthusiastic over mediocre

or_poor works;

and

if

_{you do}

not _yourselfglowover the

music that

_you

are _directing,

_you

will _{hardly succeed}in

arousing thechildren's interest, for enthusiasm spreads

by

contagion,

and

there can be

no

spreading

by

contact

unless

we

have a _point from whichto start.

A

sense of _leadership consists, then, of acombination

of self-confidence

and

_poise, clearness of _speech

and

ex-pression,

and

enthusiasm for one's work;

and

if with

these three there is _mingled the _ability to think _clearly

and

definitely,

we

have a combination that is

bound

to

produce distinctive results,

no

matter

what

the field of

activity

may

be. Let us repeat that the encouraging

thing about the whole matter is the fact that

most

of

the things involved in _leadership can be acquired, at

least to a _{certain degree,} if _persistent efforts are

made

foralongenough time.

Before going on with the _{topic to} be treated in the

next _chapter, let us

summarize

the materials out of

which our conductor is to be fashioned.

_They

are:

1. Innate musical_ability.

2. A_{longperiod of} broad andintelligentmusic study.

3. Anattractiveand engagingpersonality.

4. Asense ofhumor.

5. A_{creative imagination.}

6. Consciousleadershipandorganizingability.

Some

of these _qualities are _{admittedly almost}

dia-metrically opposed to one another,

and

it is _probably

because so few individuals

combine

such _apparently

opposite traits that such a small

number

of musicians

succeed as conductors,

and

so few organizers

and

busi-ness

men

succeed as musicians.

But

in _spite of this

difficulty,

we

must

insist again that

any

really tangible

and permanent

success in _conducting involves a

com-bination of these attributes,

and

that the conductor of

not only those qualities of the artist needed

_by

the solo

performer, but

must

in addition _{be a good} business

manager, an organizer, a tactician, a _diplomat, a

task-master in _{plain English, a good} boss. It is _primarily

because of the lack of these last-mentioned _qualities

that

most

musicians fail as conductors.

A

writer inthe

Canadian Journal of Music, signing himself Varasdin,

sums

it

_up

wellin the _following words:

Hewhowishesto"carryaway"his_{bodyof players as well as his audience,}

theformertoa_{unanimously actedimprovisation,}thelattertoa unanimously

feltemotion, needsaboveall_{"commandingpersonalmagnetism,"}and

every-thingelsemustbe subordinateto that.

Hemustbe"verymuchalive" _(highlyaccumulatedvital_{energy,always}

readyto discharge,isthesecret ofall_{personalmagnetism)} andthealertness,

thepresenceofmind, the acuteand immediateperceptionofeverything going

onduringrehearsalorperformance, thedominancy andimpressiveness of his

minutestgesture, theabsolute self-possessionandreposeevenin_workingup

themost_excitingclimaxesandin effectingthemost suddencontrasts allthese

CHAPTER

III

THE

TECHNIQUE

OF

THE

BATON

THE BATON

Before giving actual directions for the

manipulation of _{the conductor's baton,} it

may

be well to state that the stick itself

should be _{light in weight, light in color,}

and

from

six-teento_twentyinches_long. It

must

bethin

and

flexible,

and

_{should taper gradually} from the end held in the

hand

to the _point. Batons of this kind can be

manu-factured _easily at

_any

_{ordinary planing} mill wherethere

is a lathe.

The

kinds sold at stores are _usually

al-together too thick

and

too heavy. If at

_any

time

some

adulating chorus or choir should present the conductor

with an

_ebony

baton with silver _mountings, he

must

notfeel _{that courtesy}

demands

thatitshould be usedin

conducting.

The

proper thing to

do

with such an

in-strument is to tie a ribbon around one end

_{and hang}

it

on the wall as a decoration.

THE

CONDUCTOR'S

_A

word

about the music desk

_may

MUSIC

STAND

also be

m

Qrder at tnig tj

me

jt

should be

made

of

wood

or _heavy

metalso thatin_conductingone need not constantly feel that it is _likely to beknocked over.

The

_ordinary

fold-ing music stand

made

of light metal is _altogether

un-suitable foraconductor'suse.

A

_goodsubstantialstand

with a metal base

and

standard and

wood

_top can be

purchased forfrom three to five dollars from

_any

dealer

in musical instruments. If no

_money

is available

and

thestand isconstructed at_home, it

_may

bewell tonote

TECHNIQUE

and

ahalf feet high,

and

the top or desk about fourteen

by

twentyinches. This_{top should} tilt_{only slightly,} so thattheconductor

_may

_glancefrom itto his_performers

without too

much

_change of focus.

Our

reason for

mentioning apparently trivial matters of this kind is to

guardagainst

any

possible distraction ofthe conductor's

mind by

unimportant things. If these details are well

provided for in advance, he will be able while

conduct-ing to give his entire attention to the real

work

in

hand.

HOLDING

The

baton is _ordinarily held between

AND

WIELDING

_the

_thumb

_and

first, second

and

third

THE BATON

,> , ,1 _j ,

fingers, but the conductors_grasp

_upon

itvaries with the emotional_{quality of}the music.

Thus

in a _{dainty pianissimo} passage, it is often held _very

lightly between the

thumb

and

the first

two

_fingers,

while in a fortissimo one it is _{grasped tightly} in the

closed fist, the tension of the muscles being symbolic of

the_{excitement expressed}inthemusicatthat_point. All

muscles

must

be relaxed unless a contraction occurs

because of _{the conductor's response to emotional}

ten-sion in the music.

The

wrist should be loose and

flexible,

and

the entire beat so full of _{grace that the}

attention of the audience is never for an instant

dis-tracted from _listening to the music

by

the conspicuous

awkwardness of the conductor's

hand

movements.

This _grace in _{baton-manipulation} need not interfere in

any

way

with the definitenessor _{precision of} the beat.

Infact

an

_easy, graceful beat usually results in afirmer

rhythmicresponsethan ajerky,

awkward

one. Forthe

first beat of the measure the entire

arm

(upper as well

as lower)

moves

_vigorously

downward,

but for the

re-maining beats the

movement

is _mostly confined to the

elbow

and

wrist. In the case of a divided beat (see

pages 23

and

24) the

movement

comes

almost _entirely

POSITION OF

_The

_hand

manipulatingthebaton

must

al-THE BATON

_wa

y

S be held _{sufficiently high} so as to be easilyseen

by

all_{performers, the}elbow_being kept well

_away

from the _{body, almost} level with the

shoulder.

The

elevation of the baton, of course,

de-pends

upon

the size ofthe_{groupbeing conducted,}

_upon

the

manner

in which _{the performers} are _arranged,

and

upon

whether they are sitting or standing.

The

con-ductorwill_{accordinglyvary}its_{positionaccording to the}

exigencies of the occasion, always

remembering

that a

beat that cannot be _easily seen will not be readily followed.

PRINCIPLES

AND

If one observes the

work

of a

num-METHODS

_{bgj. of}

conductors, it soon

becomes

evident that, although at first _they

appear to

have

absolutely different methods, there are

nevertheless certain fundamental _underlying principles

in accordance with which each beats time,

and

it is

these general principles that

we

are to deal with in the

remainder of this _chapter. It should be noted that

principles ratherthanmethods are to be discussed, since

principles are universal, while

methods

are individual

and

_{usually only}local in_{their application.}

DIAGRAMS

OF

The

general direction ofthe baton

BATON

MOVEMENTS

_movements

_now

_{in universal use is}

shown

in the following figures.

In actual _practice however, the baton

moves

from

point to pointin a very

much

more

complex fashion,

and

TECHNIQUE

of time _beating an elaborated version of _{the foregoing}

figures is_supplied. It is of course understood thatsuch

diagrams are of _{value only} in _{giving a general} idea of

these

more

_complex

movements and

that they are not

to be _{followed minutely.} 1

*

1

TWO-BEAT

MEASURE

THREE-BEAT

MEASURE

2

i

3

FOUR-BEAT

MEASURE

SIX-BEAT

MEASURE

, 1

₂

VERY

SLOW

TWO-BEAT

MEASURE

VERY

SLOW

THREE-BEAT

MEASURE

CONDUCTING

.987

321

45

6

SLOW

FOUR-BEAT

SLOW

NINE

-BEAT

MEASURE

MEASURE

SLOW

TWELVE-BEAT

MEASURE

An

examination of these _figures will

show

that

all baton

movements

are based

_upon

four _general principles:

1. The_{strongest pulse of}ameasure(thefirstone)is_alwaysmarked bya

down-beat. Thisprincipleis_merelyaspecificapplication ofthegeneral fact

thatadownwardstrokeis_strongerthan_{an upward one}(cf.drivinganail). 2. Thelast_{pulse of}a measureis_{alwaysmarked by anup-beat, since}itis

generallytheweakest partofthe measure.

3. Inthree-andfour-beatmeasures,thebeatsare so_{planned that}thereis

neveranydangerofthehandscolliding inconducting vigorousmovements

thatcallfortheuseofthefreehandas wellastheoneholding the baton.

4. Incompoundmeasures the secondary accentismarked bya beat al-mostas strong as thatgiventhe_primaryaccent.

NUMBER

OF BEATS

The

fact thata _compositionis

DETERMINED BY

TEMPO

_i

_n

_{4-^measure doesnot}

neces-sarily

mean

that everymeasure

isto be directed

_by

_{beinggiven four} actual beats,

and

oneofthethingsthat the conductor

must

learn is

when

to _give

more

beats and

when

fewer.

TECHNIQUE

probably begivenonly

two

beats, butinan_adagio

move-ment, as, e.g., the first part of the Messiah overture, it

may

be _necessary to beat eight for each measure in

order to insure _{rhythmic continuity.} There are

_many

examples of _triple measure in which the

movement

is

so rapid as to

make

it _{impracticable} to beat three in a

measure,

and

the conductoris therefore content _merely

to _give a down-beat at _{the beginning} of each measure;

waltzes are

_commonly

conducted

by

givinga down-beat

forthefirst measure, an _up-beatforthe second, etcetera;

a_six-partmeasurein_rapid

_tempo

receivesbut

two

beats;

while

98

and

128

are ordinarily given but three

and

four beats _{respectively.}

Itis not only _{annoying but absolutely fatiguing to see}

a conductor _{go through}all

manner

ofcontortionsin

try-ingto give a separate beatto each pulse of the measure

in _{rapid tempos;}

and

the effect

_upon

_{the performers} is

evenworsethan

_upon

_{the audience,}forastronger

rhyth-mic reaction will _{always be} stimulated if the

_rhythm

is

felt in _{larger units rather}than in smallerones.

But

on

the other hand, the

tempo

is sometimes so _{very slow}

that no sense of _continuity can be aroused

_by

_giving

only one beat for each pulse; hence, as _{already noted,}

it is _{often best to give double} the

number

of beats

in-dicated

_by

the measure sign. In general, these

two

ideas

_may

be

summarized

in the _following rule:

As

the

tempo becomes more rapid, decrease the number of beats;

but as it becomes slower, increase the number, at the same

time elaboratingthe beatso as to _express more _tangibly the

idea of a _steady forward movement.

In order to _clarify these matters still further another

series _{of figures} is here _{supplied, these giving the}

more

highly elaborated

movements employed

inslower tempos.

As

in the case of the _{diagrams on pages 23}

and

24 these

figures are intended to be suggestive only,

and

it is not

expected that

any

onewill_copytheindicated

movements

ESSENTIALS

SHALL

WE

BEAT

In this

same

connection, theamateur

HYTHM

OR

may

perhaps raise_{the questionas to} whether it iswiseto beat the

_rhythm

or _{the pulse} in such a measure as J J"3J J . In other

words, is it well to _give a

down

-beat on 1,

two

small

beats toward the left for 2, while 3

and

4 are treated in

the ordinary

way?

This _question

_may

be answered

_by

referring to therulegiven

on

page25, but perhapsitwill

besaferto

make

the_application

more

specific

by

advising

the

_young

conductor to adhere fairly closely to beating

the pulseunless a

much

slower

_{tempo makes}

extra beats

necessary.

The

additional

movements

may

beof

some

service in certain cases, but in _{general they tend} to

con-fuse rather than to _{clarify, this being especially true} in

the case of _{syncopated rhythms.}

The

_{only exceptions}

to this _principle are:

1. When a _{phrase begins} with a tone that ison afractional part of

the beat; e.g., if the preceding phrase ends with an _eighth, thus: IJ J J J^J* I <J

^

I; forin thiscase the phrasing cannot be

indi-cated clearly without dividing the beat.

2. Whenthereisariiardandoanditbecomesnecessary to givea larger

numberofbeats in order toshowjusthow muchslowerthe_tempois tobe.

The secondpointisofcoursecoveredbythe_{general rule}alreadyreferredto.

The

conductor

must

train himself to _{change instantly}

from

two

beats in the measure to four or six;

from

one

to three, et cetera, so that he

may

be able at

any

time

tosuitthe

number

ofbeatstothe characterofthemusic

at that _{particular point.} This is_{particularly necessary}

in _places where a ritardando

makes

itdesirable from the

standpoint of _{the performers} tohave a_larger

number

of

beats.

Although covered in _generalby

the precedingdiscussion,it

_may

perhaps be well to state

specifi-callythat the

compound

measures6-8, 9-8,

and

12-8are