HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING
HISTORY OF PLUMBING
The history of plumbing has special significance to all who arc involved in the design and installation of plumbing systems. It provides depth of knowledge, broad objectivity, helpful guidance, needed cautions, and informative records of plumbing performance and adverse experiences. Recognition of past mistakes and learning from them provides an ele-vated basis for plumbing system design and installation.
The progressive development of sanitary standards in America evolved from very primitive and rude beginnings. Intolerable health conditions and epidemics of waterborne diseases caused strong health protection measures to be adopted in highly populated metropolitan areas. Extcnsive disastrous tires in congested city rcgions led to construc-tion of large public waterworks sy~lems used for both fire-fighting pur-poses and for potable water supply to buildings.
Introduction of plumbing systems in buildings brought with it unique problems related to public health, personal hygiene, building design, plumbing- materials, advanced techniques, and governmental regula-tions. As these problems evolved during a revolutionary period of indus-try, the solutions den'loped were intimately related to new materials, methods, standards, and standardization.
HislOry provides a clear record of many mi~lakes, bad practices, shoddy materials, and insanitary installations which were made in the introduction of plumbing systems into buildings. In each case, appropri-ale corrections had to be made and precautions prescribed for the future. Performance required of building plumbing systems gradually became a recognized subject, and a long list of plumbing principle~ was devel-oped and published. The broad performance objective is to provide
2 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
reasonable safeguards for sanitation in and adjacent to buildings to pro-tect the public heahh, safety, and welfare against the hazards of inade-quate or insanitary plumbing installations.
ANCIENT PLUMBING
In ancient tImes, plumbing and sanitation wen: not alwavs pnmltive. Human beings elevated them to significant levels in past ages. HislOry reveals that one of lhe hmdamental diHerences between civilization and barbarism is related tu the imtallation of piping systems for providing an adequate, pressurized supply of safe drinking water, sanitary disposal of sewag-e, and efficient, unobjectionahle disposal of storm water. This is evidenced by the fad that those peoples who enjoyed high ('ivili/.ations
in the past had developed plumbing- systems for protening healrh. Confirmation un this matter is provided in the reports of discoveries by archeologists while dig-g-ing in various parts of the world where ancient civilizations were known to have Hourished. For example, the ruim of a plumhing svstem estimated to be from 3000 to {iOOO years old were {(lUnd in excavations in the Indus River valley in India. In Egypt, sections of copper waler pipe estimated to he about .1500 years old were un-earthed along with palace apartments in which each bedroom apparently bad btTH provided with a !>;lthroom.
In the ancient empire of Balwlonia, a nation centered in lhe general area between the Euphrates and the Tigris Rivers, the science ofhydrau-lie engineering- seems to have had its beginning. A nctwork of canals, all skillfully planncd <llld regulated, covered the area. Large brick draill-ag-e sewers with access holes were imtalled in Babylon. Greek writers told of the I Ianging- Gardens of B;lhylon; from this, il fIlay be inferred that some means for pumping water to considerahle heights had been developed at thaI time.
From Babylonia came [he Hammurabi Code, a code onaws regulating business <lTl{l cmlOffi. Il is reported to have been drawn up prob;lbly by Shulgi, second king- o!" the third tTr dynasty, in the period between 2400 and 21~0 II.C. Included in this code were regulations governing
the construction ofbuTidillgs. This period evidently was a vcry !()fmative one In the organization o!" society and the progress of civilizalion in
Bab~lonia.
On the island of Crete, the remains of a plumbing system at least 3000 years old were unearthed ill excavations on the site of an ancieTlt palace at hlll)SSOS. Evidence was found of plumbing fixtures, a water
supply system, a sanitary drainage s\'stenl, and a heating system. One of Ihe fixtures was a bathtub made of hard pottery and 5 ft (J.5 Ill) in length. It wa~ a Aoor-standing model wilh an integral base,
resembling-HISTORICAL Dl::Vf-LOPMENT or PLUMBING rNGINF[RING 3
in shape the ust-iron bathtub-on-base widelv installed
ill
America in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Another fixture was a waler closet, abo ofh<lrrl pottery. It showed evidence of having been equipped with a W<lter closer seat and a Hushing device. Found intact were long .\cTtions of clay drain pipe of the bell-<lnd-spigOI Iype. Pipe leng·ths "ere shon, and branch fittings wcre providt'Cl with T and Y ronnenionsadja-rent 10 the bells or hubs.
OJ";lll the am'ient peoples, the Romans carried sanitalion to the highest and broadest degree of development. From their language, Latin, have rome such words <lslomlallOn and plumbrr, the latter being derived from
arliji:\" pl,UIlIJOJlw, meaning a worker in lead. Roman aqueduds still grare the Italian countryside and tank among the world's engineering tri-umphs. Extensive large undcrg:round sewer systems, public and privare baths, lead and bronze water piping:- systems, and marble fixtures with gold and silvcr Iittings have come to be symbolic of the civilization of Ancient Rome. An especially signifIcant feature of progress Illay be cited ;lS being the fact that much o!" the underground public water supply
svstem was constl"lKtecl of standardized caSI lead sections.
Public bathing colonies dolled the Romall Empire. Some rovercd as milch as a square mile. One of them, the bat hs of Diodetiall, an:omHlO-dated 3200 uathers. Balhs and batbing pools were lined wilh ceramic glazed tile. In re~idenccs, bathtubs often un:upied an entire room and were supplied with unth hot and rold water. Hot water was provided by means of lead or uronze piping:- which conveyed water anoss open fires. Bathtubs often were clrvcd from solid marble or lined with ceramic glMed tile <lnd equipped with gold or silver Iittings.
Aher almosr a thousand H'<lrS of world rule, the empire of Ancient Rome crumbled. III tbe fifth century, it was subjected to successive inva-. . siolls bv Goths and Vandals. barbaric tribes from the nonh of Europe_ In 4:18, Vandals swept south through Rome. sacked it of all things of value including any metals that rould be removed, and destroyed its public \\·orks. With the destruction of Rome, its civilizalion rapidly de-caved, and sanitary standards regressed almost to the vanishing point. The following 10 centuries have been historically termed the nark
:lgP5. For many centuries, people in general paid liule al1el11ion TO per-sonal cleanlilles.~ alld other domestic sanitarv needs involvmg the usc of watet. Bathing:- was frowned upon by persons of influence and nol tdken seriously even by members of the ruling dass, mallV of whom preferred to use perfume. Plumbing fixtures fell into disuse. including watet closets which had been developed and widely used during the founh and hlih centuries in Rome. They were not used again until about the twelfth century, and even then their usc was extremely limited. During tile !I.)llrteenth cenlUry, Europe was ravaged by disease.
Hu-4 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
bonic plague swept the continent and England reponedly killed 25 mil-lion people. To improve sanitary conditions in Paris in 1395, the authorities ordered a stop to the practice of throwing sewage out of building windows onto the streets below. But this was a common practice that continued unabated in other cities.
As late as the <-'ady part of the eighteenth century, European cities had not been equipped with sanitary sewage disposal hl.Cilities. The mor-tality rate in many (:lties eXC('eded the birth rate. When building owners were ordered to install domestic sewage vaults, considerable opposition was raised. It was not until the latter part of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth centuries that European cities started to provide public sewer systems beneath city streets. Slowly people began to use the convenient public sewer facilities for the disposal of sewage from buildings and to develop progressively higher sanitary standards.
EARLY AMERICAN SANITATION STANOAROS
Although America has become a symbol of high standards in plumbing and sanitation, these evolved from very primitive and rude beginnings. Along the Atlantic Coast, firmly established settlements developed local industries and conducted trade with Europe. Among the numerous early settlements were several whkh later became major pon cities, such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. Each faced the same general sanitation problems and progressed in developing sanitary stan-dards almost simuhaneously.
Available reports of the progressive development of sanitary standards in New York may be cited as typical. Following settlement of the porl area in 1626, houses were built. None had within them any water supply or sewage disposal facilities. Drinking water was used sparingly as it had to be carried from springs or wells, or purchased by the bucket from water peddlers who traveled through the streets selling water from wooden barrels on horse-drawn trucks. Outdoor earth-pit privies were used as toilet facilities. Wastes from dishwashing, clothes washing, and bathing were disposed of outdoors by dumping them onto the ground adjacent to buildings. Rainwater from roofs also was disposed of onto the ground. As the population of the settlement increased with the arrival of new immigrants, conditions deteriorated. Shallow wells became pol-luted by seepage from earth-pit privi<-'s, areas around homes became excessively fouled from sewage and refuse dumped onto the ground, and streets were quagmires of mud long after rainstorms ended.
Heahh conditions became intolerable in time and forced organization of a Common Council in 1675. The council appointed a health officer in charge of sewage and refuse disposal and other health matters.
Water-HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 5
tight privy vaults began to be installed instead of earth-pit privies as toilet facilities. S~avenging regulations governing tht-, disposal of privy-vault w<lstes were put into effect in 1676. Publil.: wells were pn~ie~ted
in 1677 and completed in 1686. Street gutters were installed in built-up areas in 1687, and homeowners were ordered to pave sidewalks. In 1700, a sanitary ordinanl.:e was adopted prohibiting the dumping of scavengers' barrels of vault wastes into the street gutters. In 1703, an open-ditl.:h public sewer or sewage canal was constru~ted, and city sur-veyors were appointed to establish street and sewer g-rades. Complaints arose about the uns<lnitary conditions created by the open-ditch publil.: sewer, and in 1717 the sewer was extended to empty into New York Bay. In 1728, the first underground sewer was laid under the streets of New York. The first water supply reservoir was constructed in 1776. II I.:ollected water from wells and ponds and distributed water through a supply system consisting of hollow wooden logs laid under principal streets.
Epidemics ofwaterborne diseases occurred in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other population centers along the Atlantic Coast. Public pressure developed as complaints to authorities mounted regarding the unsanitary disposal of sewage and the lack of an adequate, available supply of safe drinking water. To improve conditions, boards of health were established, Phlladelphia organizing a board in 1794, and Boston in 1797.
As a health protection measure, communities began to install all public sewcn undergl UUlld aud to extend them to buildings, although many
people considered the sewers merely as a means of eliminating unsighdy conditions. These early underground sewers wt-'re constnlCted with flat stone tops and bottoms and brick masonry sidewalls. They were intended to serve just for stonn water drainage from streets and buildings. But they soon became loul and odorous from sewage and garbage dumped into street gutters. [n 1831, catl.:h-basin traps were installed in street gutters to interet-'pt solids conveyed by storm water draining into the public sewer.
In 1830, after numerous serious fires had demonstrated the need for an adequate, available supply of water for fire fighting, New York City installed its first public waterworks. This consisted of a large above-ground water supply tank into which water was pumped from shallow wells, and from which water was supplied through two 12-in cast-iron underground water mains to fire hydrants installed along several of the main streets where business buildings were located. But this system proved to be totally inadequate when a severe fin' hroke nnt nn Decem_ ber 16, 1835. A total of 530 buildings were destroyed overnight.
6 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
action and led to developments of great significance and benefit. Peopk-became aware of the ne(:essity for having an adequate pre,surized water supply system readily and constantly available for fire lighting in built-up areas. They also realized that there was great need, both as a sanitary measure and as a laborsaving convenieIKe. fur having an adequate pres-surized water supply system from which sale drinking water could be piped directly to buildings. Soon after the fire, plans were proje(:ted for providing a large public water supply system which would satisfy both of these Il('eds.
This p[(~ject was completed seven years later, in 1842, at whidl time the original Croton Aqueduct System was placed in operation. In this system, water from th(' Croton River was collected in Croton Reservoir, 40 mi north urthe city, and supplied tlu:,refrulll through ,m und(,rground piping system to two distribution resel"\'oiL~in the city, one at42d Street and another in Central Park. From these reservoirs, water was di~tributed
through a system of cast-iron water mains installed underground in city streels, and fire hydrants were installed on ~idewalksat appropriate loca-tions along the curb. Building owners were permitted to have water service connections made to the public main, and water service piping extended therefrom to supply laucets or hydrants in building cellars or yards. At that time, the population of the city of ;'\Jew York was about
:~OO,OOO.
PLUMBING SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS
The installation 01" pressurized water services into building cellars and yards in New York City in 1842, upon u)mpletion of the (:rotoll Aqueduct System, marked the start of a radical change in building comtrunion-the imtallation of plumbing systems in bui ldings. Pres;;urized water sup-ply piping systems made it possible to satisfy, at the turn of a faucet, the need of building ol:(:upants for a safe and abundant supply of watet for all domestic purposes and to eliminate the drudgery, lahor, and inconvenience of having to carry water Irom the source. No plumbing fixtures had been installed within buildings prior to this time, except for a few nude sink installations reportedly made in kitchens and pro-vided with water supply by meam of adjau:,nt hand pumps that drew water from shallow wells.
As late as HH5, records indicate that buildings were not provided with interior drainagt-" piping systems. Most buildings were equipped with exterior leaders which conveyed storm water from roofs to pave-ments and sidewalks from which the water ran into street gutters. In some cases where branches had been installed !i'om the public sewer to buildings, the exterior leaders discharged directly into slH:h branches
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 7
or building sewers. Before fixtures could be installed with water supply and drainage piping systems, building sewers had to be installed first so as to ~onvey sewage away from the buildings lo a suitable disposal terminal, such as a publi(: sewer system. To satisfy this need in New York City in 1845, sanitary building sewers were permined to be con-nected to the existing public sewer system which originally had been provided just for storm water disposal. These building sewers, and the main drains installed underground in buildings at the time, were con-structed with Hat stone tops and bo{{oms and brick masonry sidewalls. By 1850, plumbing fixtures had been installed in a number of New York City homes. These were principally private residences owned by wealthy people who could afford to alter their buildings to accommodale such bH:ilities. Provision had to be made to protect the fixtures and
piping against frost damage by means of healing equipment, or insula-tion, or both. Earliest installations consisted of woodell and sheet-metal sinks in kitdlells, wooden washtubs in kitchens or in cellar or basement laundry rooms, and sheet-metal bathtubs in special bathrooms or closets. For Ihese early installations, waler supply and drainage piping were attached to building walb and either left expo.~ed in rooms or concealed in boxwork. A bandmade trap was installed in the drain of each individual fixture to prevent escape of obnoxious odors and sewer gases from fixUlre wasle outlets. However, these traps often losl their water seals owing to siphonag-e <llld b<lck-pressure conditions in the drainage system, and this caused fouling of the atmosphere 01 rooms
in
which fixtures were placed. Check valves and Illanv specially designed traps wen~ in-stalled in efforts to prevent loss of trap seal, but such devices were found to be lotally ineffective. At that time, the principle of ventingfixture drains to protect lrap seals was unknown.
Neverlheless, progress was made in the installation of plumbinR" sys-tems in building~. Fixtures were pla(:ed in locations where they would not be too objectionahle. Sinks and washtubs were put in kitchens and basements. Lavatories and bathtubs were lucated on various Hoors and connecled to separate sta(:ks. Long hopper water dosets, so named be-cause of their funnel or 10nR hopper shape, were installed in toilet rooms or compartments <IlTcssible only (i'om oUldoors, becausc it was nmsid-ered hazardous (0 health for rooms which hOllsed such odorous fixtures to be directly ac(:essible limn the interior of huildings. This type of water closet was installed so as lO be relatively frost-proof by placing
the trap and water supply valve below the Hoar level.
In the late 1850s, people bccame more and more aware of lhc' need for improving sanitary standards in and adjacent to buildings. Widening-reulgnition was given to the fact that plumbing systems in buildings could provide adequate safe water for- drinking, rooking, hathing, and
8 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
for Hushing fixtures and also could safely and efliciendy dispose of sew-age and other wastes from buildings. Extensions were built on many homes specifically to provide bathrooms at the upper stories of existing buildings. Lavatories, bathtubs, and water closets were installed in these extension bathrooms, many of which were also provided with heating equipment. Double doors were placed in passageways between extension bathrooms and the main building in order to prevent bathroom odors and sewer gases from entering the living quarters.
Dire(:tly f()llowing the Civil War, immigration swelled the populations of industrial cities in the eastern part of the country. In many cities, rows of attached three- and lour-story tenement houses were built to
take care of the additional population. These buildings were provided just with yard hydrants for drinking water supply, while toilet facilities consisted of rows of privies built above watertight privy vaults located in the backyards of the buildings. Extremely objectionable, unsanitary nmditions soon devt'loped under such circumstances. Health authorities had to take stringent action to hah the spread of dise'lse. To protect the health of building OCCUp'lnts, the public was alerted to the necessity of equipping buildings with 'ldequate means for supplying safe drinking water for domestic purposes and with adqu'lle facilities for sanitary dis-pos'll of sewage. Health amhorites advocated the installation of plumhing systems in buildings, and as 'l result this became a subject of re!!;ulation in sanit'lry codes.
In the early I H70s, water-supplied kitchen sinks came into general use in private homes and other small buildings. Fireboxes of coal-tired kitchen ranges were equipped with water backs and water fronts, and circulation piping was installed between these water-heating units and hot water storage t'lnks so as to make pressurized hot water available in volume at Jixtures. The use of outdoor privies and privy vaults for private homes was discontinued gradually 'lS indoor water dosets, di-rectly connected to building drains, were installed in toilet rooms an:essi-hie from backyards.
A major stymie to more rapid introduction of plumbing systems in buildings was the fact thaI, as latc as I H74, no way was known for prevent-ing fixture trap seals from beprevent-ing lost because of siphonage and back-pressure conditions in the drainage systern. Where fixture trap seals were lost, objectionable odors and sewer gases escap<-'d Irom the system at fixture outlets and f"{mIed the atmospher<-' of rooms in buildings. A significant instance of this occurred when a plumbing system was in-stalled in a large new private dwelling in New York City in 1874. Soon 'lfter occupying the building, the owner complained to the plumbing contractor that the sten<-·h of sewer gas from fixtures in the building was unbearable.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 9
After receiving this complaint, the plumbing contraClor discussed it at a conkrence with other New York City master and jounleymen plumbers. At this conference in 1874, the theory of protecting fixture trap seals by means of vent pipes was originally proposed. The theory was that air pressure in the drain at the outlet of a fixture trap had {() be in relatively exact balance with the atmospheric pressure at the inlet of the trap, and this balance could be maintained by means of a vent pipe connected to th<-' drain at the trap outlet and extended to atmo-spheric pressure outdoors so that aIr could How freely into or out of the drain in response to pressme variations in the drdin. This theory was tested by contraClors and journeymen in the field on numerous installations, and it was proved to be correct. However, numerous details of vent-piping installation and sizing had to be determined by further testing and field experienlT before continuous, satisfanory performance of vent piping was assured, Neverthelc:ss, the principle of venting sanitary drainage systems by means of attendant vent pipes, to protect fixture trap seals against loss by siphonage and back pressure, was established. The way had been found to prevent objectionable odors and sewer gases from escaping <It fixture waste outlets and fouling the atmosphere in buildings.
News of the development of the principle of venting sanitary drainage systems spread rapidly to all parts of the country. Detailed information on vent-piping installation, test reports, and experience with systems in service were carried in trade publications, association reports, and newspapers at the time. A major breakthrough h<ld been achieved in knowledge of the design of plumbing systems in buildings which made it possible {() locate plumbing fixtures inside without fouling the atmo-sphere. Objections to installing plumbing systems in buildings rapidly vanished, and plumbing installations proceeded at a greatly accelerated pace.
Within a few years, kitchen sinks were installed in each dwelling- unit in tenement houses. Owners of private homes began to have kitchen sinks put in, followed soon after by laundry trays, then bathtubs, and later by lavatories placed in appropriate locations for convenient use. About 1880, the use of privies and privy vaults in the backyards of tenement houses was discontinued, In their place batteries of hopper-type water closets, directly l"onnened to building drains, were installed in either backyards or cellars. Similarly, at schools privies and privy vaults were removed. They were replaced by installations of trough-type water closets. known as
school sinkJ,
directly connected to building drains, These fixtures were provided in s<-'par,He schoolyard toilet build-mgs,10 SIAN[)AHO PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
III buildings were dearly recognized by health ollicials in Cities. Prior
{O this time, in New York City, 90 percent of <Ill human wastes had to
be disposed of by removing such wastes from privy vaults and transport-ing them through buildtransport-ings, along city streets to docks, and then out
to sea where Ihey were dumped. This method of sewage disposal was a severe health hazard and had [() be eliminated for this reason. Sanitary plumbing- systems in building-s were the answer. People ill cities knew this from hard experiellce. They beg-an to rely upon plumbing- facilities for improved sanitary condilions, and to reduce their daily work and increase their enjoyment of living-. For economy in installation, sinks and laundry trays were grouped tog-ether i.n kitchens; and water closets, bathtubs, and lavatories wefe grouped together in bathrooms. This was possible to do in cities with public walel- supply and sewage disposal systems. But in rural areas, having no such public systems available for building connection, homes had no plumbing facilities. The only sanitary provisions lor building occupants in such areas were an outdoor earth-pit privy and a well. Portable washtubs and bathtubs were llsed either indoors or under an outdoor shed in most such areas.
In the IH90s, two important fixture developments, combined with newly available gas and dedric public" utility systems laid under city streets, aided in further expanding- the use of plumbing systems in build-ings. The firS[ water closet design considered to be really sanitary was introduced about I~90 with the development of the washdown water closet. Almost simultaneously, the free-standing, white-enameled ("asl-iron bathtub appeared, They were hailed as important new sanitary ad-vances, as they were reasonably priced, mass-produced fixturc's whi<:h homeowners desired. Doctors and health aUlhonties advocated the ex-pand<'d use (lfhot water as a sanitary measure and proclaimed the health benefits of balhing. The ready availability of (1)blic utility gas supply systems, whidl had been newly laid under city streets, aided in expanding the use of hot water supply systems in buildings and the installation of gas-fired water hc:aters. The availability of public utilty systems for supplying dt'nri<:ity for light and power in buildings made possible the installation of ellicient electric pumps for pumping water to plumbing fixtures at allY height. It was at this time that skyscraper-type office buildings were first ere("{ed in !'\ew York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, and other major cities. These buildings \·vere equipped with plumbing systems that performed satislactorily and unobjedionably, and suitable kinds and numbers of fixlUres were provided in convenient locations for building on:upants.
At the start of the twentieth century, laws had already been enaded in many areas of the country requiring the installation of plumbing sys-tellls in buildings and the provision of suitable kinds and numbers of
tltSTOrllCAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBtNG cNGINF!,-RING 11
fixtures in lonvenient locations for the use of building- on:upants. In general, .~llCh areas were larg-e municipalities where public water supplv and public sewer sy~tems were available for building- connertions. In areas beyond the limits of public sptems, it was deemed unreasonable to require insTallations of plumbll1g- systems and fixtures. Nevertheless, people desired sanitary plumbing hICilities and sought to equip their buildings with appropriate sntellls. Hol water supply was especially de-sired as manufacturers publicized their new ckvdopments in W,Her heater equipmelll. Coal- and g-as-fired sidearm water healers <lppeared on the scene. Automatic controls were developed to eliminate the dangers asso-ciated with ilIanual operat ion of water heaters. and range-boiler manufac-turers introduced tanks made of several different kinds of materials with greater durability.
\1any new tenemelLts were ('[ected iu large industrial cities to house the swelling populations. These buildings had sinks and laundry trays in each dwelling unit. but water do sets were provided in toilet compart-ments an:essible from the public hallways 011 each floor. In many cases,
more than one family used the samc toilet ClCilities. 11 soon was apparellt that such arrangements \'ITT"(' inadequate and objectionable and fostered
unsanitary conditions. lledlth authorities put new reguiatiulls intu effect requiring thdt water closets ue installed in toilet rooms or bathrooms in each dwellillg unit, dnd strelluous e/fl)rts were made to bring existing building facilities up lo the revised standards.
Following World War 1 and continuing through The earlv 1920s, the large industrial cities expanded tremendously. "Jew hOllsing develop-ments were uuilt on Ihe fj-inges of cities, and public waH"r supply, sewer, and llIility systems were extended to serve the new buildings. All these were equipped with the musl modern plUlllblllg systems dnrI hxtures of the day. Complete bdthroolJl instalL-lIiOIlS, consisting- of a water doset, lavatory, and bathtuh with an ovcrhcan shower were provided in each dwelling unit along with modern btchen sinks and laundry trays. The growing importance ofsanirary plumbing systems in buildings was shown by large-scale plumhing installations in hotels, ollice buildings, factories, food processing plants. and dairy buildings. \-fost buildings were pro-vided with more plumbing equipmellt than was refJ\lin~d by law. \fulti-story residential buildings in great mUllber-s were erected in the central parts of cities where land values were relativcly high. They too were fully equipped with complete bathroom, kitchen, and laundry fixlures of mudern, sanitary design. Many were equipped with colored plumbing fixHlres which were introdu(:ed in the middle 1920s. But tbis tremendous new building: COllstrunion wave re<lchcd its peak in 1929 and calTle to a sudden halt in 1930 when the severe business depression occurred. During the I930s, relatively lew new buildings were erected until
12 STANDARD f1LUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
the laner part of the decade. This period was devoted principally to the correction and modernization of plumbing systems and equipment in existing buildings. Many buildings with inadequate plumbing facilities were improved by the installation of additional, new plumbing fiX{lJres and the replacement of old, obsolete types. lmportantcorrenions were made in the potable water supply systems of huildings to diminate all water supply piping connections and fixture supply connections which were recognized as potential sources of contamination. This drive for correction of systems was led by health, water supply, and building of~
ficals so as to avoid a repetition of the amoebic dysentery epidemic which occurred in the city of Chicago during its World's Fair in 1933. Other imponam improvements were made in the hot water supply sys~
terns in existing buildings. Many were equipped with modern, automati-cally controlled hot water heaters designed for use with gas, oil, or electricity as the source of heat. During this period, the public utility systems around the country extended their electric supply lines into a great portion of the rural area. This provided a soun:e of power for pumping water from wells and for supplying plumbing systems with all the water needed to maimain the same sanitary standards that were
eI~oyed in the cities. Private sewage disposal systems were provided by means of undergT(mnd septi(: tank and leaching field installations in appropriate locations. In this way, modem sanitary plumbing systems and fixtures became available even in remote regions of the country. In the latter 1940s, following World War II, and continuing through the 1950s, 1960s, and imo the 1970s, there was a tremendous expansion of housing developments and industrial plant construction outside the cemral areas of cities in the United States. New buildings were erected along new principal highways, and public water, sewer, gas, and electric systems were provided for building service needs in most areas. Private systems were utilized in many areas where public systems were not availa-ble. All such buildings were equipped with modern plumbing systems conforming to sanitary standards elevated to a higher level than ever
previously el~oyed by people. In the central areas of cities, many old buildings were removed, and in their places large skyscraper office build-ings and residential buildbuild-ings were erected. They too were equipped with modern plumbing systems designed in accordance with the higbest sanitary standards in history in order [ 0 serve the gr~'atest occupancy loads of all time.
Tower building LOllstruetiorl aCLelerated in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and necessitated changes in design to meet changing conditions. Increased building heights and increased water usage, including water for air conditioning, required water supply tanks so large that they caused significant space problems and were uneconomical. To meet the
chang-HIS rORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 13
ing conditions, desig-n was changed to provide tankless, automatic con~ stant-pressure booster-pump systems which required a minimum of valuable building- space and which also provided a sealed-in supply of potable water from the source of supply to the plumbing fixture outlet.
In 1966, a critical shortage of copper occurred in the United States because of stoppage of shipments frolll foreign sources of supply. Inven-tories of copper UWV tube and fittings were rapidly exhausted. Large developments of single family residences were halted for most of 1966 hecause of the unavailability of copper DWV piping which had originally heen planned to be installed. This urgent need was soon filled by nonme-tallic, plastic DWV pipe and filling-s, which were then introduced into use for building- plumbing systems under carefully prescribed installation conditions.
A most significant change in the design of buildings used by the public began in 1961. The object of the chang-e was to make all buildings and facilities, including plumbing, used by the public accessible lo, and functional for, the physiully handicapped, lo, through, and within their doors, without loss of function, space, or facili ty where the general public is concerned. The changes were set forth in the American National Stan-dards Institute standard, Specifications for Making Buildings and Facili-ties Accessible to and Usable by Physically Handil'apped People, originally issued as A117.1-1961 (Reaffirmed 1971) and recently super-seded by A 117.1-1980. By 1971, governmental regulations were enacted mandating the necessary changes including many related lo plumbing systems in buildings.
Since 1974, when the supply of foreign oil to the United States was interrupted and oil prices rose sharply, ways to conserve energy have been a constant concern. Some important conservation measures relate to the design of plumbing systems. Elimination of water waste, limitation of water use to a reasonable minimum, limitation of hot water supply temperature and rate of flow from hot water faucets, insulation of hal water heaters, tanks, and piping, and use of heat reclaiming systems and solar heating systems are some of the conservation measures to
be applied in the design of plumbing systems for buildings.
FIXTURE DEVELOPMENT
The modern sink, laundry tray, lavatory, bathtub, water closet, and other fixtures did not evolve overnight. Their development extended over a period exceeding 130 years. Even after appropriate fixture designs were achieved, public demand for them had to be stimulated. Expressions such as "Cleanliness is next to Godlinl'ss," were adopted and popularized to induce people to practil:e sanitary habits. Fixtures were sold more
14 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEI:f-lING DESiGN
on the basis of the comfort, convenience, and privacy they afforded to
u~ers than on health protection benefits.
Portable fixtures were used at first. In bedrooms, a wooden washsland and toilet set were provided. The top of the wa~h~talld was usually covered with a marble sbb on wbi(:b were placed a glazed pouery washba-sin and large water pitl'heL Other items included a glazed pottery slop jar and a chamber pOI, which were generally concealed in a compartmenl in lhe lower part of the ~tand. Towcl~ were hung from bars attached to the sides of til(' stand. Portable wooden wa~htub~ and wooden and
~heel-metalhathtubs were commonly u~ed. One oflhe early sheet-metal tubs used in France ,,'as shaped like a ~lipper. The bather ~al upon a seat in the "hed" and extended his feel into the "toe" of the tub, Beneath the heel was a grill upon which charcoal wa~ burned to heat water in the tIIb.
For all sucb bcilities, water had to be carried 10 them, and wa~les
and sewage had to be carrico aW(ly co (In appropriale plal:e lor disposal. The lahor and inconvenience inw)lved thereby were lactors which influ-enced many people against adopting and practicing sanitary habits, It
gradually became evident that in order to raise sanilary standards and protect heahh, it was nece~~ary to provide pressurized water ~upply
piping systems to convey an adequate, safe supply of water direcdy to fixtures and to provide sanitary drainage piping systems {() convey sewage directly from hxture~ to an unobjectionable lermiual for dispo~al.
In the 1840s, pressurized w,Her ~Llpply systems and ~allitary drainage svstems were first introduced into buildings in the United Slates. There-after, plumbing fixtures began to be installed with connections to such svstems, and the development of plumbing fixtures proceeded al a rapid pare to salisfy a constanTly increasing- demand. The first fixtures to be installed in buildings reportedly were kitchen sinks and water dosets. Shortly afterward, wa~htubs, bathtubs, and lavalories were installed.
Earl\' wa~htubs were Ill<lde of plain, bare wood while sinks and bath-tubs were mereh' wooden frames or wooden boxes lined wilh sheet metal. Sheet lead was used at first for lining~, then sheet zinc, and later sheet copper. Showers were provided abO\T some of the early bathtubs. Although these fixtures were llsable, they had many objeclionable fea-tures. Linings were easily dented and damaged; they developed leaks
al seam~ and at waste and overHow connections and became un~ightly
owing- to corro~ion.To improve the appc<lrance of bathtllb~,it was u)m-man pra<:tire 10 paint the exposed surfa(:l' of zinc and copper linings with white or cream-colored paint and to ["epaint them again and <lgain
as the paint chipped or peeled off.
~lore durable sinks of black rast iron were devdoped. They soon gained popularity over sheet-metal-lined wooden-frame sinks. The
cast-HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEeRING 15
iron sink was of the rectangular flat-rim type and was installed on a supporting wooden frame or was placed against the wall with the rear rim resting on a wall cleat while tbe front was supported from the Aoor by means of two cast-iron legs inserted into slots on the front of the sink. Often a cast-iron splash back was fastened to the wall above the rear rim of the sink. A single hole was provided in the center of the
.~plash back so as to permit a faucet to be connected there and firmly fastened above the sink. Later models of splash backs were provided with two holes to permit installation of both hot and cold water faucets. Early lavatory installations evolved from the old wooden w<lshst<lnd and pottery toilet set. A gl<lzed pottery w<lshbasin, either round or oval ill shape, was installed beneath a large opening in a marble slab and all<lched to the underside of the slab bv me<lIlS of bolts. Holes wen" drilled through the slab to permit long-shank IdllcetS 10 be att<lched
{hereto with spouts project inp; <lbo\'(' the basin. An opening in the botlom of the basin was equipped with a waste plug outlet filling for direct connection to Ihe drainage piping system. The joint between the top of the basin and underside of the nwrblc slab was sealed bv means of, plaster of p<lris. lhuatly the marhle slab and washbasin assembly was installed against a wat! and supported by wooden framework. Drip trays ohen were installed 011 the Hoor beneath washbasins beGlUse of the
incidence of leakage dcvelopment at the plaster joint between basin and slab.
One early improvement in washbasin design was the provision of an overflow lining on Ihe side of the bowl so that an overflow pipe could be imtalled between the overflow fitting and the dram just below the waste-om let plug. This was followed by another improvement, an integral overHow built into one side 01 the glazed pottery washba~ill.
The first of the early water closets was known as the l!ah'e rlose!. It
was devdoped by Joseph Hramah, an English inventor, about l7H8. As the original model did not work too welt, it \\'as improved later by
the addition of a Hushing rim. The deep bowl of this do~et was flushed and relilled with water by means of a valve controlled by an air cylinder adjusted in an·ordance with the water pressure provided by a Bramah pump. This type of water closet was used for many years in toilet {'(Im-partments of railroad cal~.
About lR:13, the pan doset <lppeared on the scene, after having origi-luted in England. This type of water closet soon gained prd(:rence, as it was much cheaper than the Bramah valve closet, and continued to be in common ust.' for more than 40 years. The pan closet consisted of a deep lead bowl with a hinged copper pan that held water in the bowl to form a water seal. The hinged pan was dumped by means of a hand crank. The bowl was Hushed hy manual operation of a valve in
16 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
the waterline, supplied directly from an elevated water-storage tank which often was located in an attic. Elevated Hush tanks, installed just about 5 II (1.5 m) above the fixture, were later used to flush pan water closets.
Around 1850, long hopper water closet bowls came into common use. They were made of glazed poltery and shaped like a long funnel or hopper, aller whidl they were named. This type of water closet was instalkd so as to be relatively frost-proof. It discharged into a trap located below the Hoor and was flushed by means of a valve in the water supply piping- which was directly conne("(ed to the bowl of the fixture. Exposed water supply piping was covered with insulation, and the water supply valve was located below the Hoor. This ...alve was operated by a rod conneded to the underside of the water closet seat, so that the bowl was flushed continuously throughout the Jwriod a user sat on the seal. Almost coincidentally, short hopper wakr closet bowls were produced for installations where frost protection was not a problem. These bowls were of glazed pOllery and shaped like a short hopper. This type 01" water closet was designed to be installed on, and attached to, the top Hange of a cast-iron P trap equipped with a Hoor standard. The joim between the bowl and the trap flange was made with pUlly and secured by means of damps. The bowl was Hushed by water from an elevated flush tank.
About 1870, the plunger closet was introduced and gained popularity.
It too originated in England. For about ~() years, it was widely installed in buildings where it was not subject to frost conditions. But it required frequent maintenance and repairs to keep it functioning properly.
In the 1870s bathing became much more popular. This was partly due to the lact that in 1872 the 'Hlcient arts of loullding and enameling were united in the production of the first enameled cast-iron bathtub which featured durable, smooth white-enameled surfaces. Two years later, mass production of such bathtubs was started by a New York manufacturer. This was the beginning
01"
modern enameled cast-iron plumbing fixtures.Soon thereaher, solid procelain bathtubs were imported from En-gland. They had smooth white hard-glazed surfaces which made them easy to maintain in sanitary condition. However, they were prone to crazing and were heavier and more expensive than enameled cast-iron bathtubs. The popularity of porcelain tubs was relatively limited, the enameled tubs being both lower-priced and reasonably durable.
Two-compartment and three-compartment washtubs, made of mill-cut soapstone slabs, were marketed. At first, the installer had to assemble the fixture at the building site, install it on standards, and seal the joints between slab sections with a paste mixture of litharge and glycerin.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 17
Completely assembled soapslOne washtubs were later manufactured to meet the competition of solid porcelain and solid concrete washtubs. About IR80, the first all earthenware w'ater doset, known as the wa.\hout doset, was developed in England. An integral trap was built inlu its design, and it had provision for auaching a toilet seat directly to the top of
the bowl. This lauer feature eliminated any need for installing framework and legs to support a toilet seat above the bowl, as was the case with
all the earlier designs. Sinct: this waler doset was made completely of earthenware, it was easier to maintain in sanitary condition. In addition,
il had better flushing characteristics than any of the earlier water closets.
It was flushed by means of an elevated flush tank located on the wall about 5 ft (1.5 m) above the fixture.
Up until 1880, the desi~pl of plumbing fixtures originated principally in England. Hut, thereaher, developments in plumbing fixture design proceeded independently and at an an~eleratedpace in the United States. Much of this may he attributed to the <:ompletion of new railroads which opened up the western part of the continent, the formation of large industrial corporations to exploit natural f('solln:es of the undeveloped areas, the continuous increase in population due 10 waves of immigra-tion, and the tremendous demand for nt:w homes and buildings to house lhe swelling numbers in industrial centers all over the country.
By 1890, all earlier desiglls of water closets were made ohsolete and relegated to the category of unsanitary lixturt:s with the development of the washdown watt:r closet, which originated in America. This was an all earthenware water closet having an integral S trap and provision for attaching a seat dire<:tly to the lOp of the bowl, features similar to
the washout closet. But the washdown water doset showed such design
advanc('.~ as siphonic action, greater depth of water in the bowl, greater water coverage of interior bowl surfaces, elimination of unventilated spaces, and complel<-· scouring of all interior bowl surfaces with each flushing. These advall<-:es prevented prog-ressive fouling of interior fix-ture SUrfa<-TS and odorous conditions after extended service. When first introduced, the washdown waler closet was lIushed by water frolll an elevated Hush tank located on the wall about 5 ft (1.5 Ill) above the fixture. This Rush tank was designed to hold 8 gal (30 L) of water and was equipped with a siphon-type Hush valve which siphoned from the tank at least 6 gal (22.7 L) of water at each flushing. Several years later, Rushing was also accomplished by means of a Flushometer, the first automatic Hush valve introduced on {he market.
III the 1890s, lhe free-standing, white-enameled cast-iron bathtub on legs enjoyed great popularity as a replacement lor earlier models made of sheet metal and wooden framework. The free-standing bathtub was much more sanitary and durable. However, it was dillicult 10 clean under
18 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
the fixture and between the !LxLUre and the adjacent wall. As a result, many free-standing bathtubs ""'ere later proYidcd with cast-iron bases, rather than short cast-iron legs, m order to keep the floor under the bathtub dean.
By 1900, American pOllery manufaclIlrers had developed glazed vitre-ous chinaware with smooth, impervivitre-ous surfaces. Tbis materi<ll was so well suited to plumbing fixtures that it became a stand<lrd for water closet bowls and was preferred by many individuals for various other fixtures. In view of this, lllallY plumbing-fixture manufacturing firms combined so as to unite the arts of pottery, founding, and enameling under single firms.
Bathtubs, sinks, wash trays, and lavatories made of glazed terra cotta were 1JI,lTlufanured and proved popular for a time. These sinks, wash-trays, and lavatories were relatively heavy and had to be provided with sturdy legs or bases lor support. The bathtubs were designed to be built mto wall and floor constructioIl, a feature which was hailed as an advance of considerable merit from a sanitary view. The popularity of these terra cotta IixHlres gradually diminished with the development of similar designs in enameled cast iron, whidl were lighter and more economical. However, fixtures made of g1<lzed vitreous (:hina continued to (:ompete in terms
01"
weight and (ost with those made of enameled cast Iron.The beginning of the twentieth century saw the development of the water doset as we know it today. \Vater closets designed for wal1-hung installation appeared ahout 1905. In 1915, manufacturers intro-duced the lowdown Hush tank and water closet as a combination unit. consisting of a Hoor-outlet type washdown water closet and a porcelain flush tank designed for installation on the wall just above the top of the water closet. From 1916 to 1920, other advances in water closet desig-n included a reverse-trap model and the use of siphon jets for stronger siphoni{: <lction and a reduction of noise in operation.
During- th(' 1920s, improved design features appeared, such as priming jets in washdown~typeand reverse trap water closets. increased surface area of water in closet bowls, and hlrther reduction of noise in operation. One-piece water closet bowl and flush tank units were introduced in the 1930s. They provided relatively silent operation owing (() a number of design improvements, including the use or a quiet-action ball cock in the flush tank compartment and a bowl design which produced rotary ur vortex movement of water in the closet bowl sullicient to aHord ade-quate scouring action and complete siph<magt· of the cOIltents of the bowl.
Improvements have continued to be made in the design of water cloS(,ts. The most recent has been the introduction in 1960 of a
wall-HISTORICAL DFVFI Of1MENT OF PLUMBING ENGIN[[RING 19 hung water closet allc! lowdown Hush lank combinatioll of simplified design, weighillg leSs. !han the other wall-hung models and provided wIth a light weigh! concealed metal fixtun: carrier of simplified des.ign hv which it can be attal.:hed to stnH'tur;JI elements of walls.
Great improvements have also been made in the design of sinks and laundry trays. Prior to 1900, the A,lt-rim and roll-rim sinks wen: equipped with separate splash backs on whidl se.:parate [mcets \\,er(' mOlllued. But, about that tllne, the.: need fllr improved sanitatIon in kiTchens of dwelling unilS resuh('d in ,1 trend away from the use of Hat-rim sinks,
wooden enclosures heneath sinks, and separate.: splash backs. One-piece roll-rim and apron-type sinks with irllegral splash backs appeared about 1910. and faucets wen: mounted on the vertical back wall of sinks. These one-piece sinh were designed for installation on walls by means of Ilie.:tal bracke.:ts securely attached to the structural clements of the wall and were not provided with legs flU' support from the floor. Larger one-piece roll-rim and apron-lype sink and drainooard combination fix-tures were introduced about 1920. Tbey had integral splash backs and \\Tn' desig'ned to be ins!alled on walls with me!al hrackets, But owing to the gTeater weight and size of the.: combination, thev also had to be supported ftom the floor hy means of two legs set beneath tbe /i'Onl rim of the fixture.
One-pie<'T sink and washrray combination fixtures and two-tompalt-ment sink tomhinatiOIl fixtures were intrllduced abollt 1930, -I'hey were designed willi roll rims or aprons and illlegral splash backs on which cumbinatioJl faucets 'were mounted. Because of !heir weight ;md size, these fixtures were not ouly secure!v att<lche.:d to the wall, but also SIlP-ported from the lloot by means ollwo legs set beneath the Iront rim of the fixture or by: two pedestals, Olle beneath the sink compartment altd the other beneath the wash tray contpartmenT.
In 1940. a shott integrAl .spla.sh back and ledge w"s introduced into the deSIgn of sink alld washtray combinations and two-compartmelll sink combinatiolls. A combination faucet was spetially designed for in-staliatioll on the ledge of the lixture, which was attached to tbe wall by means of metal brackets and additionally supported by a strung metal-lic cabinet with an adjustahle base set beneath the fixture rim.
Soon thereafter, oTie-piece Hat-rim style sink alld washtrAY combiIlA-tiolls aud two-t-ompanment sink combin,Hiol[ fixtures for counter-top installation were introduced. Thcse flat-rim fixtures were installed in waterproof counter tops by means of;j metal frame with a watertight seaL The counter top was provided with" short splash back and installed on top ofa floor-standing cabinel securely attached to the wall by brack-ets. A deck-type COliluitJation fauccl was specially designed for lIlstalla-tion on the countcr top adjacent to the fixture.
20 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
These improvements in the design of sinks and laundry trays were made principally in enameled cast-iron fixtures. However, they were also included in enameled pressed steel fixtures following- their introduc-tion in the late 1920s, In 1950, one-piece lIat-rim counter-top sinks made of stainless steel were imroduced. Thus, improved sanitary design has now been built into sinks and laundry trays in several differem kinds of durable materials,
In the early 1950s, the design of kitchens was changed so as {Q provide
extended counter-top space, with cabinets above and below. This change was utilized to permit the under-counter installation of two household plumbing appliances, the domestic dish washing machine, and the domes-tic automadomes-tic laundry washing machine. In large multistory residential buildings, automatic laundry washing machin<-'s wcre installed in general laundry rooms on each floor or at basem<-'nt or <-Tllar levels.
In 1952, plastic bathtubs, plastic shower stalls, and plastic wall enclo-sures for above bathtubs and shower receptors were introduced by fixture manufacturers, and wen' utilized in many large, new multistory
residen-tial buildings.
STANDARDS FDR PLUMBING MATERIALS
Plumbing systems in buildings are designed and constructed using- the materials currently available in our highly industrialized society. Each system is composed of many diHerent individual p<lrts, pipes, fittings, valves, fixtures, <lnd numerous other items. which arc <lssembled to hm(:-tion and provide the performance required to satisfy the needs of build-ing occupants and to protect the health, safety, and welfare of the people. To s<ltisfy these needs ecunornically, most ufl!le many parts of plumbing systems arc mass-produced by industry.
Since the start of the industrial revolution in England in the mid-1700s, the great change from an agricultural and handicraft economy to a modern industrial economy has prog-ressed hand in hand with new discoveries and inventions <lnd the exploitation of new sources of power and raw materials. Their utilization throug-h exp<lnding mass production of goods to satisfy publi<: demand has wnlUght untold benefits to the people and has revolutionized their way of life.
Standards are at the base of all mass production. Before starting to m<lss-produce any given item, industry must first establish a standard for it, incorporating every feature necessary to satisfy the public demand or need li:)r it, and then proceed to make it <It a cost that will satisfy the consumer. Consequently, standards arc evervbody's business in the broad sense.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 21
Table 1-1
STANDARDS FOR PLUMBING MATERIALS'
A1I2.11.3-1973 ANSI AI12.21.1-1974 ANSI A 112.18.1 M-1979 ANSI WW-S-001913-1975
FS
AI12.6.1-1978 ANSI AI12.5.1-1973 ANSI 816.12-197\ ANSI 301-75 CISPI 310-78 CISPI A21.6-1975 ANSI A21.8-1975 ANSI A21.12-1971 ANSI A2l.1O-1977 ANSI A120-77 ASTM BI6.3-1971 ANSI BI6.14-1971 ANSI AI12.21.2-1971 ANSI Materials Plumbing' fixtures and fittings:Vilreous china Enameled Last iron
Slainless steel, residential use Porcelain enameled formed steel
Gel-coated glass-tiber reinforced
polyes-ter n~sin bathtub units
Gel-coaled glass-fiber reinforced polyes-ter resin shower receptor and shower stall units
Laundry equipment, household Dishwashers, household
Dishwashers, Lommt.'rcial
Drinking fountains and drinking waler coolers, self-contained, mechanically refrigerated
Floor drains
Finished and rough brass plumbing fix-ture fillings
Shower head, hall joint (inlegral volume control)
Supports for off-the-ftoor plumbing fix-tures for public use
Ferrous pipe and filtings:
Cast-iron soil pipe and fittings, extra heavy and service weight
Cast-iron threaded drainage fittings Hubless cast-iron sanitary system pipe
and fittings
Iluhless stainless-sted couplings Cast-iron water pipe, cast-in-metal
molds
Cast-iron water pipe, Lasl-in-sand lined molds
Cast-iron water pipe (2") Cast-iron water pipe linings
Sted pipe, seamless and welded, zinc coated
Malleable iron fitlings. threaded, 150 lb Pipe finings, threaded (bushings,
lock-nuts, and plugs) Roof drains Siandards A1I2.19.2-1973 AI12.19.1-1979 AI12.19.3-1976 AI12.19.4-1977 ZI24.1-1974 ZI24.2-1974 AI97.2-1973 AI97.1-1973 AI97.3-1973 SODrcet ANSI ANSI ANSI ANSI ANSI ANSI ANSI ANSI ANSI
AII2.14.1-1975 Al'\ST WW-\'-58b-1971
FS
WW-N-35IB(I)1970 1'S \\'W-V-53! 0-1973FS
B43-76 ASTM B135-74 ASTM B42-78 ASTM H26.2-76 A:\SI BSS-7M ASTM B306-78 AS1'M BI6.15-78 A:\SI BI6.18-78 A:\"ST B1t-1.2:i·7ii A'S! BI6.24-71 A'SI BI6.26-7.1) A:"SI B16.22-73 A'SI BIG.29-73 Ai'Sl W\V-P-:i25A-191:i7 FS W\V-lJ-516A-1967FS
WW-V-35B-1973 FS \VW -V-.'l4D-1974 1'522 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
Table 1-1 (Continued)
Materials
Ferrous pipe and fItting's (conlmlled) \'<Ilves, hack water
V'.l.h-es, gate, cast iron, threaded and Hanged, 1:!5 and :!50 Ib
Nipples, pipe, threaded
Cnions, pipe, steel or malleable iron Nonferrous pipe and tittings:
Brass pipe Brass tube
Copper pipe, standard pipe size Copper pipe, threadless
Copper waler mhe, types K, t, and M Copper dlalilag-e lube. type OWV Cast-bronze suewed tittings, 1:!5 and
250 lb
CasT-bronze solder joint pressure fittings Casl-hronze solder joint drainage
IIt-tings
Brass or bronze Ibnges .md Hanged fil-ting's, 150 and 300 lh
Casl-hronzl:' IItlings for flared (opper tube
\Vroug'ht-copper and bronzl' solderjoint pressure fittings
\Vroug'ht-copper and wroug'hl.copper-alloy solder joint dr,]inage fillings Lead pipe, bends <J1Jd lraps
lTmolJs, pipe: br,]ss or bronle, :!50 Ib Valves, ball
Valves, bronze, gate
Valves, bronze: angle, check and globe; screwed Ranges, solder; I :!.'l, 150, and 200 Ib
Valves, waler pressure reducing \lonllKlallic pipe ami fittings:
Ashestos-cemem pipe, nonpre%ure (sewer)
Asbestos-cement pipe, prnsure (wOller) Asbestos-cement pipe, perforated
Bituminized-fiber pipe, homogeneous (sewer)
Biluminized-fiher pipe. homogcncous, perforated Standards WW-V-.'lIE-1974 A II:! ,26.2-197.1) C428-7H C400-77 C508-76 01861-73 D2312-73 Sourcet
FS
A),ISI AST~I A\V\VA AS1'M AST~I A$1'MHISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PllJM81NG [NGINEERING 23
Table ,-,(Continued)
Materials Standards Sourcet
Nonmetallic pipe and filtings (mil/inned)
Bitumillized-liber pipe, l<lminatl~owall (sewer)
Bituminizcd-fiber !-_)lpe, laminated wall, pedoraled
Cby pipe, perfor<lted, stand<lrd <lnd ex-tra strength
Compression joints for vitrified cby bell and spigot pipl'
(:oncrele pipe, sewer. llOnrelll[orced Acrdoll itrik-but<ldiene-s t)Tene (A BS)
plastic pipe, schedules 40 <Iud 80
Acrvlonilrik'-but<ldiene-st\Tene (A ns)
plastic pipe filtings, socket type, schedule40
AcrdollitriIc-butad iene-st )Tene (A 1\S)
plastic drain, W,ISIeand venl pil>e <lnd fittings
Solvent cement for acrvlunilrik-buta-dienc-st\Tene (ABS) plastir pipe and fittings
Polyethdene (i'~:) plastic pipe, schedule
40
Plastic Hlsert fiLLings fur pulyethvkne
(PE) plastic pipe
Polyviml chluride (PVC) plastic pipe, schedules 40,HO, and 120
Polyvin;.-l chloride (pVC) plaslic pipe fit-tings, socket type, schedule 40 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic drain,
waSle and vent pipe and fillings' SohTnl cement II)r polYVlllvl chloride
(PVC) plastic pifJe <Iud fillings Backflow prcvcntion deVICes:
Ail g<lpSltl pllllllhing S\"stcms
Vacuum breakers, antisiphon Vacuum breakers, hose nmneu]on Vacuum breakers, prc%u!"c' typc Doubk chcck wilh atmospheric vent Reduced pressure pnnciple ba(:k
pres-SlllT, hackflow preventer
Double check v<llve hack pressurc. hack-How assemblv AI76.2-72 ANSI AI 76..?-7 I ANSI AI06.H-7H ANSI C4~5-77 ASTM C14-78 ASTM 01.?27-77 ASTM D2468-76 ASTM D2661-7H ASTM 1J223.?-76a ASTM 02104-74 ASTM m60Y-74 ASTI\! 01785-76 ASTM 02466·7H ASTi\f 1)2665-78 ASTM D2.?64-71h AST~I AI 12.12-1979 ANSI AI12.I.l-1971 A;\JSI AI 12.1.:1-1976 ANSI AI 12.1.7-1976 ANSI 1012-1971'\ ASSE 1013-1971 ASSE IOI.''i-197R ASSE
24 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN
Table 1-1 (Continued)
Materials
Miscellaneous materials:
Cleanom.~,metallic
Calkill~ lead, type I Cement lining
Coal-tar enamel, protective coatlllgs for steel water pipe
Fixture setling compound Grease inteneptors
Hose damps
Hydrants for utility and maintenance use Pipe hangers and supports
Rdiefvalves, pressure and temper<ltllre, and automatic gas shutolr devices for hot waler supply systems
Rubber gaskets for asbestos-cement pipe Rubber gaskels for cast-iron soil pipe
and fittings
Rubber gaskets for concrete sewer pipe Water hammer arresters
Water heaters, automatic storage type \\later heaters, electric, storage lank W<lter he<ltcrs, instantaneous
Water meters, cold, displacement type Water meters, cold, current type
Water meters, cold, compound type Sheet copper
Sheet le<ld, grade A Soft solder Standards AI12.36.2 QQC-40(2}-1970 A21.4-1974 C203-78 n"-p-OO 1536-1968 GIUI WW-C-140B(2) 1973 Al 12.21.3-1976 WW-H-17ID-1970 Z21.22-1979 Dl869-78 C564-76 C443-78 AI12.26.1-1975 Z21.10.1-1975 W\"l-H-196H-1971 WW-H-19IB-1970 C700-71 C701-70 C702-70 B152-76 QQL-20IF(2) 1970 QQS-571E-1972 Sourcet ANSI FS ANSI AWWA FS POI FS ANSI FS ANSI ASTM ASTM ASTM ANSI A:-JSI FS FS AWWA AWWA AWWA ASTM FS FS
•Sl~n<l~n.h h,wd in lhis lable an, lh,' latest ~,'ailable ~t publica,ion of ,hi, book A, stan<lard. arc cnlSed ~nd updaled regularly, cefcrcnu' 10 standards m contracl specificalions should be made to
,he late" edilion in each e~,,,
t Abhc""ialion' used ;Il thi, ,~ble to"uka' .. Ih..,ou"", of ,'a,'hp~r1Kubr."~n,bcdcde<:1<>
tI",
f()lIo",ing",ulllg org~o"~lIons:
AKSI Amencan National Slandards [m';lut", I·no R<:o~dw~,'.N"", Yock, '\IV lOOill.
ASSE A,n"ri~~n Society of Sanitary Engin"ering, 960 IlIunlln~,ingBltildi"g. Ck,'d~nd.OH 44 113, ASTM Am"rie~nS"ci",y foc T"sttng ,md Ma'<>cials, 1'tl6 Ran' S',",'"l, Philaddphia, PA 1'1103. AWWA Am"rican WaleI' Wocl<> A,.">c;~';,,n. 6666 W Qum~y A'Tnu". D,·nHT. CO 80235. CISI'I Ca" Iroo Soill'ipe Institute, 2029 K S,reet, ~.W.. Washington, DC 20405.
I'D! Plumhmg ~nd Ilrainage [""titUle, 5342 ROllle\'~rJpt., Indianapulis, It--.· 46208.
FS F"d"ral Supply Serv;ce, Standards Division. General Senic". Administration (standards are oblain-abl., from lhe Supcnn'endent of Documents, Government Print;nR Office, WashinRtOn, DC 204(2).
24 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DFSIGN
Table 1·1 (Continued)
Materials
Miscellaneous materials: Cleanuuts, metallic Calking lead, type 1 Cement lining
Coal-tar enamel, protective cuatings for steel water pipe
Fixture setting compound Grease intercepturs
Hose damps
Hydrants for utility and maintenance use Pipe hangers and suppons
Rdiefvalves, pressure alld temperature, and automatic gas shutoff devices lor hot waler supply systems
Rubber gaskets for asbestos-cement pipe Rubber gaskds for cast-iron soil pipe
and fillings
Rubber gaskets for concrcle sewer pipe Water hammer arreSlers
Water healers, automatic storage type Water healers, electric, storage tank Water heaters, instantaneous
Water meters, cold, displacement type Water meters, cold, current lype
Water meters, cold, compound type Sheet copper
Sheet lead, grade A Soft solder Standards A112,36.2 QQC-40(2}-1970 A21.4-1974 C203-78 TI"-P-OO 1536-196H G101 WW-C-440B(2) 1973 .'\112.21.3-1976 WW-H-171D-1970 Z21.22-1979 Dl869·78 C564-76 C443-78 AI12.26.1-1975 Z21.10.1-1975 WW -11-19611-1971 WW-H-19IB-1970 C700-71 C701-70 C702-70 B152-76 QQL-20IF(2) 1970 QQS·571E-1972 Soured ANSI FS ANSI AWWA FS POI FS ANSI FS ANSI ASTM ASTM ASTM ANSI A:.JSI FS FS AWWA AWWA AWWA ASTM FS FS
• Standards hsted In thi., t"bl<' arc the latest a"ailable at publication 01 tins book As 'tandards arc revi,,,d and up,dmcd rel(Ularly. refcrcn'T to ,t1ndard' In conlra("( 'peuh.-"tion, ,hould h" made 10 the latcst edition in each case,
t Abbrc"i"'i",,, ,,'cd in lhis table tu irrdi""te the ,ourn' of"".-I,par' Kubr "an,L,rd rd"r 10 !he !"II"winl\ ISSUIllI\ o"galn,a"on"
AKSI Ameriean N,,'ional Standards [mritute. 1430 Broadwa\'. New York. ~y 10018.
ASSE American Suciety 01 Sanilar)' 1'."l\incer;,,!\". 9UU Itlrll";,,atin!\" BlI;ldinl\. Cle,'etand. OH 44II.~. ASTM American Sueiet)' lorT"'hog "od Male'nab, 1911i Ibn' S'«·"'. Plnbddplll". PA 19103. AWWA Am,·";mn Water Works A"o";a,ion. 66li6 W Quiney A,'enue. Denyer. CO 110235, CIS!'I Cast 11'00 Suil Pipe Institute. 2029 K Street. N.W .. Wasl!inl\ton. DC 20405,
P\)J Plumbin!\" amll)",inage Institute, 5342 Bouleyard !'\.. tndianapolis. IK 16208.
t·S Federal Supply S,'nl<"e. Standards Ilivision. General Se ... ices ,\dm;nistr"t;on (standards are "b",;n-"hie lrom the Superintend"n' of I'k>ntmeot'. Guyernment Pnnting Office. Washing",n, I)C 20402).
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 25
by individual manufacturers for their products in England in the early 1800s. Similar standards wert applied in th(' United States by manufac-turers in the production of pipes, fittings, and fixtures, which reportedly began about IH42. Prior to this time, plumbers had to make their own lixtures, traps, and Iitlings. The trend toward manuhtctured piping and fixtures gained momentum coincidtllt with the installation of public water supply systems ill large (:ities. Clay, cast iron, and lead were the earliest kinds of materials 1l1anufactured for plumbing systems, followed shortly thereafttT by wrought iron, brass, and copper in the 1850s. Cast or factory-made traps became available abollt 1871.
The development of standards for plumbing materials may be classi-fied gcnerally into four stages:(1) by individual wmpanies;(2) by indus-trial associations, technical societies, and government bureaus; (3) on a national scale; and (4) on an illlernational scale. From one stage to the next, the importance of, the difficulties involved in, and the number of organizations interested in a given standard increase grcatly. Usually, two or more stages develop simultaneously as the result of a significant and apparent need to resolve many problems which affect numerous diverse industries and require a common solution. In this Wt,ly, standards are vitally necessary to establish the best way known for produl'ing any given item. Generally at:cepted standards fal·ilitate the integrating pro-cesses necessary for large-scale production and distribution and for satis-fying the demand of the ultimate consumer or user.
National standards for plumbing materials began to appear during and shortly after World War L In the 19~Os,such standards were devel-oped rapidly to embral'e most of the range of plumbing materials. Since then, these standards have been changed in accordance with evident needs, and new standards have been developed coincident with the intro-duction of new materials and new methods and with changing conditions. Since World War II, the use of new materials, methods, and techniques for plumbing systems has resulted in a broad advance in the development of new standards and the updating 01" old standards to meet current needs. Standards for the principal kinds of plumbing materials currently used in building construction are listed in Table 1-1.
PLUMBING SYSTEM REGULATIONS AND STANDARDIZATION
Every stale has police power to protect the health, safety, and welfare of its people. Many states exercise such power directly through state agencies, while some states delegate specific powers, duties, and respon-sibilities t.o mllTlicip<llities established under slate law_ Regulations lo protect drinking water supplies against the hazards 01" pollution and contamination and to provide lor safe, sanitary disposal of sewage are
