TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGES
TITLE i DECLARATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vi ABSTRACT vii ABSTRAK viii TABLE OF CONTENT ix
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATION xvii
LIST OF APPENDIX xix
1 INTRODUCTION ... 1 1.1 Background ... 1 1.2 Problem statements ... 4 1.3 Objectives of research ... 5 1.4 Significance of study ... 5 1.5 Scope of study ... 6
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ... 7
2.1 Introduction ... 7
2.2 Background of aerated aggregates (Pumice aggregate) ... 9
2.3 Classification of lightweight concrete materials ... 10
2.3.1 Low density concrete ... 10
2.3.2 Moderate strength concrete ... 10
2.3.3 Structural concrete ... 11
2.4 Comparison between the three types of lightweight aggregate ... 13
2.5 Application of lightweight concrete ... 14
2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of lightweight Concrete ... 15
2.7 IBS concrete block production methods ... 16
2.7.1 Fully Prefabricated Construction Method ... 17
2.8 Characteristics of Precast Concrete beams and blocks ... 18
2.8.1 Aerated Concrete Blocks ... 19
2.8.2 Stability of IBS pre-cast beams ... 20
2.9 Basic Beam behavior ... 20
2.9.1 Beam tension behavior ... 21
2.9.2 Beam compression behavior ... 22
2.9.3 Beam behavior with two different forces direction. ... 23
2.10 Micro-structural behavior for aerated concrete aggregate beam and block 24 2.10.1 Compressive strength ... 24
2.10.2 Modulus of elasticity (E) ... 25
2.10.3 Splitting tensile strength ... 26
2.10.4 Tensile and Flexural tensile strength ... 27
2.10.5 Deflections ... 27
2.10.6 Density ... 28
2.11.1 Ordinary Portland cement content ... 29
2.11.2 Water content ... 30
2.11.3 Sand ... 30
2.11.4 Admixture ... 31
2.11.5 Super-plasticizers ... 31
2.12 Aerated structural lightweight aggregate concrete related tests ... 32
2.12.1 At fresh state ... 32
2.12.2 At hardened state ... 33
2.13 Behavior of reinforced concrete blocks and beams with lightweight infill 34 2.14 Role of infill walls in response of moment-frame buildings ... 35
2.15 Structural lightweight concrete behavior ... 36
2.15.1 Fire Resistance and spall Defect to L.W.C ... 36
2.15.2 Freezing and thawing ... 36
2.15.3 Abrasion resistance ... 37
2.15.4 Chemical attack ... 37
2.15.5 Acid resistance ... 38
2.15.6 Alkali aggregate resistance ... 38
2.15.7 Carbonation and corrosion ... 39
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE ... 40
3.1 Introduction ... 40
3.2 Experimental procedures (Program) ... 42
3.3 Experimental materials used ... 44
3.3.1 OPC Cement ... 44
3.3.2 Sand ... 45
3.3.3 Aerated aggregates ... 45
3.3.5 Plasticizers ... 48
3.4 Experimental specimens preparation... 49
3.4.1 Mix composition (concrete mix) ... 49
3.4.2 Mould & ready formwork ... 49
3.4.3 Lightweight concrete mix design mixer... 51
3.4.4 Concrete transportation and placing processes ... 51
3.4.5 Concrete vibrating ... 52
3.4.6 Curing samples ... 55
3.4.7 Test methods ... 56
4 RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS ... 65
4.1 Introduction ... 65
4.2 Compression test ... 66
4.3 Experimental tests analysis ... 67
4.3.1 Splitting test ... 67
4.3.2 E-value test ... 69
4.4 Frame analysis ... 73
4.4.1 Load versus Deflection Relationship ... 73
4.4.2 Load and deflection relationship at cycle 1 ... 74
4.4.3 The maximum load verse deflection at first cycle 1 ... 75
4.4.4 Load and deflection relationship at cycle 2 ... 75
4.4.5 The maximum load verse deflection at second cycle 2 ... 76
4.4.6 Load and deflection relationship at cycle 3 ... 77
4.4.7 The maximum load verse deflection at the three cycles ... 78
4.4.8 The maximum load verse deflection at the cycle 3 ... 79
4.4.9 Load verse deflection at point load 1 ... 80
4.5 Comparison between lightweight concrete and a normal concrete in-fills
results ... 82
4.6 Mode of failure and cracking outline ... 85
4.6.1 Cracking outline ... 86
4.6.2 Mode of failure ... 90
4.7 Manufacturing Problems ... 94
4.8 Assembly and erection problems ... 95
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 97
5.1 Conclusion ... 97
5.2 Recommendations ... 99
REFERENCES ... 100
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
2.1 Pumice aggregate properties ... 9
2.2 Chemical analysis of pumice aggregates ... 10
2.3 Comparisons between the three types of lightweight aggregate ... 13
2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of lightweight Concrete ... 15
4.1 Load verse deflection at point load 1 ... 81
4.2 Load verse deflection at point load 2 ... 82
4.3 Frame Load verse deflection measure at point load 1 ... 83
4.4 Frame Load verse deflection measure at point load2 ... 84
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
1.1 IBS lightweight concrete block ... 6
2.1 Aerated aggregate ... 12
2.2 Connection of beam and block-work ... 12
2.3 Compressive Strength ... 15
2.4 IBS block production methods ... 17
2.5 Fully prefabricated construction method ... 18
2.6 General beam action behavior... 21
2.7 Beam tension behavior ... 22
2.8 Beam compression behavior ... 22
2.9 The forces behavior on beam ... 23
2.10 Beam shear force and bending moment ... 24
2.11 Splitting tensile strength vs tested compressive strength ... 26
2.12 Deflection graph for frame load ... 28
2.13 Lightweight concrete infill wall ... 35
2.14 Schematic representation of carbonation process ... 39
3.1 Laboratory work flow ... 42
3.2 OPC cement ... 44
3.3 Sand ... 45
3.4 Aerated aggregates ... 46
3.5 Water ... 48
3.7 Cylinder cube mould ... 50
3.8 Beam ready formwork ... 50
3.9 Electric motor powered reverse concrete mixer ... 51
3.10 concrete transportation and placing process ... 52
3.11 concrete vibration process ... 53
3.12 Fresh Concrete after Casting ... 54
3.13 fresh cylinder cube samples ... 54
3.14 curing process of IBS blocks & beam ... 55
3.15 curing process of cylinder cubes ... 56
3.16 The compression test machine ... 57
3.17 splitting test ... 58
3.18 E-value test ... 59
3.19 The flexural test (push-off test) setup ... 60
3.20 The test specified point loads ... 61
3.21 Test hydraulic jack and portable data logger ... 62
3.22 The deflection gauges ... 63
3.23 Frame failure and deflection base ... 63
3.24 5-Gauges of Deflection reading ... 64
3.25 Crack marking, reading and recording ... 64
4.1 Cylinder cube extension fracture in the loaded diametral plane ... 68
4.2 30% of expected load ... 69
4.3 100% of expected load (Failure mode) ... 70
4.4 100% Load verse time (failure) ... 72
4.5 load verse deflection with 5-gauges at cycle 1 ... 74
4.6 Maximum deflection at Cycle 1 ... 75
4.7 Load verse deflection with 5-gauges at cycle 2 ... 75
4.8 Maximum deflection at Cycle 2 ... 76
4.9 Load verse deflection with 5-gauges at cycle 3 ... 77
4.10 Maximum deflection at the three cycles ... 78
4.11 Maximum deflection at cycle 3 ... 79
4.12 Load verse deflection at point load 1 ... 80
4.13 Load verse deflection at point load 2 ... 81
4.14 Frame Load verse deflection measure at point load 1 ... 82
4.16 Frame Load verse deflection measure at point load 3 ... 84
4.17 First crack pattern appearance... 86
4.18 The cracks pattern appearance on connection B ... 87
4.19 The cracks pattern appearance on connection A ... 87
4.20 The cracks pattern appearance mid-span ... 88
4.21 Crack reading and marking ... 88
4.22 Frame after mode of failure from other side ... 89
4.23 Crushing mode ... 89
4.24 Spalling mode ... 90
4.25 Mode of the beam failure ... 91
4.26 Failure of a right-side the beam anchorage connection ... 92
4.27 Overall failure of the system ... 92
4.28 View of point failure ... 93
4.29 Cut-off links and resist of anchorage re-bars ... 93
4.30 Aerated lightweight concrete blocks production defect ... 94
4.31 compaction difficulties and errors ... 95
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
IBS - Industrial Building System AAC - Autoclaved Aerated Concrete OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement
ALC - Autoclaved Lightweight Concrete MOR - Modulus Of Rupture
PA - Pumice Aggregate CA - Crush Aggregate
SCC - Self-Consolidating Concrete LWRC - Lightweight Reinforced Concrete RC - Reinforced Concrete
L.W.C - Lightweight Concrete
APPENDIX
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
A British mix design form calculation 102
B Experimental test procedures captured photos 107
C Experimental results of the three cycles 109