Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects
Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects
2001
The stated goals and purposes of Christian schools and the
The stated goals and purposes of Christian schools and the
reasons parents give for choosing them
reasons parents give for choosing them
Cecelia Ruth Short
College of William & Mary - School of Education
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Short, Cecelia Ruth, "The stated goals and purposes of Christian schools and the reasons parents give for
choosing them" (2001). Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects. Paper 1539618873.
https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.25774/w4-279q-z364
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of C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l s a n d the Rea s o n s
P arents G ive for C h o o s i n g T h e m
A D i s s e r t a t i o n
P r e s e n t e d to
The F a c u l t y of the S ch o o l of E d u c a t i o n
The C o l l e g e of W i l l i a m a n d M a r y in V i r g i n i a
In Partial F u l f i l l m e n t
of the R e q u i r e m e n t s for the Degree
D oct o r of E d u c a t i o n
by
C e c e l i a R. S h o r t
May, 2001
Copyright 2001 by Short, Cecelia Ruth
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R E A S O N S P AR E N T S G I V E F O R C H O O S I N G T H E M B y C e c e l i a R. S h ort A p p r o v e d May, 2001 R o b e r t J. Hanny, C h a i r m a n of Disse R o b e r t J. Hanny, Ph.D. C h a i r m a n of D i s s e r t a t i o n C o m m i t t e e J i l l D. Burfuss, Ph.D
/J
J a m e s H. Stronge, Ph.D i i .A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s ... v i . List of T a b l e s ... vii. A b s t r a c t ... v i i i . H a l f - T i t l e P a g e ... ix. C h a p t e r 1: T h e P r o b l e m ... 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 1 The P r o b l e m ... 2 N e e d for the S t u d y ...2 S t a t e m e n t of P u r p o s e ... 6 R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s ... 6 D e f i n i t i o n of T e r m s ... 7 L i m i t a t i o n s ... 9 C h a p t e r 2: R e v i e w of the L i t e r a t u r e ... 11
Par e n t s a n d the C o n t r o l of the E d u c a t i o n of T h e i r C h i l d r e n ...12 W h y P r i v a t e E d u c a t i o n ? ... 12 W h y R e l i g i o u s S c h o o l s ? ... 13 W h y C a t h o l i c Sch o o l s in A m e r i c a ? ... 13 W h y H e b r e w S c h o o l s in A m e r i c a ? ... 14 W h y P r o t e s t a n t Sch o o l s in A m e r i c a ? ...14 W h y R e l i g i o n a n d R e l i g i o u s I n s t r u c t i o n in P u b l i c S c h o o l s ? ... 16 The C h r i s t i a n S ch o o l ... 18 B a s i s for C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l s ... 19 W h y P a r e n t s C h o o s e C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l s ... 21 i i i .
D e s i g n ... 25 S t a t e m e n t of R e s e a r c h e r B i a s ... 25 R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s ... 26 P o p u l a t i o n / S a m p l e ... 28 Data C o l l e c t i o n ... 29 Data A n a l y s i s ... 31 C h a p t e r 4: R e s u l t s ... 33 R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s ... 33 P r e s e n t a t i o n of Data ... 34 Data S u m m a r y ... 4 8 C h a p t e r 5: C o n c l u s i o n s ... 50 L i m i t a t i o n s ... 50 S u m m a r y of F i n d i n g s ... 51 I m pl i c a t i o n s of Fin d i n g s ... 55 I m pl i c a t i o n s for P r a c t i c e ... 63 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for F u r t h e r S tu d y ... 65 R e f e r e n c e s ... 67 A p p e n d i x A: I n t e r v i e w P r o t o c o l (Administrator) ... 72 A p p e n d i x B: I n t e r v i e w P r o t o c o l (Parent) ... 73 A p p e n d i x C: Pare n t I n t e r v i e w Q u e s t i o n #4 ... 7 4 A p p e n d i x D: D e m o g r a p h i c Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ... 75 A p p e n d i x E: S a m p l e L e t t e r of R e q u e s t to A d m i n i s t r a t o r ... 76 A p p e n d i x F: S am p l e L e t t e r of R e q u e s t to A d m i n i s t r a t o r ... 77 A p p e n d i x G: S t a t e m e n t of M i s s i o n ... 78 A p p e n d i x H: S t a t e m e n t s f r o m the P r o f e s s i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e ... 79 A p p e n d i x I: R e l e v a n t S t a t e m e n t s f r o m S c h o o l D o c u m e n t s ... 82 iv.
v.
I w i s h to e x p r e s s s p e c i a l thanks to the f o l l o w i n g
i n d i v i d u a l s for t h e i r ro l e in the c o m p l e t i o n of this work:
> Dr. Jill B u r ru s s a n d Dr. James S t r o n g e w h o s e r v e d on m y d i s s e r t a t i o n c o m m i t t e e > Dr. R o b e r t H a n n y w h o s e r v e d as the ch a i r of m y d i s s e r t a t i o n c o m m i t t e e a n d as m y f a c u l t y a d v i s o r t h r o u g h o u t m y d o c t o r a l p r o g r a m at The C o l l e g e of W i l l i a m a nd M a r y > The a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d p a r e n t s w ho ga v e of t h e i r time to be i n t e r v i e w e d
> The a d m i n i s t r a t o r s of ACS I m e m b e r s c h o o l s in V i r g i n i a who
s u p p l i e d d o c u m e n t s for dat a c o l l e c t i o n
>• J e n n i f e r C a n n o n a n d D e b b i e V a n B u s k i r k w h o a s s i s t e d w i t h
t y p i n g a n d e d i t i n g
> L a v o n n e B a k e r w h o a s s i s t e d a n d e n c o u r a g e d in c o u n t l e s s
ways
> M y m o t her, D o r o t h y T. Sh o r t and o t h e r f a m i l y m e m b e r s and
friends who s u p p o r t e d a nd e n c o u r a g e d me t h r o u g h o u t this
t a s k .
I d e d i c a t e this w o r k to the m e m o r y of m y father, C e y l o n C.
Short, Sr., w h o i n s t i l l e d in m e the i m p o r t a n c e of e d u c a t i o n , who
i n s p i r e d me to b e g i n this project, w ho d i d not live to see its
completion.
v i .
T a b l e 1. C a t e g o r i e s D e v e lo p e d t h r o u g h T h e m a t i c R e d u c t i o n of A C S I L i t e r a t u r e ... 34 T a b l e 2. C i t a t i o n s of E m e r g i n g T he m e s in the P r o f e s s i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e ... 36 T a b l e 3. C a t e g o r i e s D e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h T h e m a t i c R e d u c t i o n of C o d e d S t a te m e n t s from the P r o f e s s i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e . . 37 T a b l e 4. C a t e g o r i e s D e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h T h e m a t i c R e d u c t i o n of
C o d e d S t a t e m e n t s from the P u b l i s h e d D o c u m e n t s from the
S a m p l e Sch o o l s ... 40 T a b l e 5. A g r e e m e n t and N o n - a g r e e m e n t of E m e r g e n t C a t e g o r i e s in the P r i n t e d S o u r c e s ... 42 T a ble 6. C a t e g o r i e s D e v e lo p e d t h r o u g h T h e m a t i c R e d u c t i o n of C o d e d S t a t e m e n t s from the A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ... 43 T a b l e 7. A g r e e m e n t and N o n - a g r e e m e n t of A d m i n i s t r a t o r S t a t e m e n t s and P u b l i s h e d D o c u m e n t s ... 44 T a b l e 8. C a t e g o r i e s D e v e lo p e d t h r o u g h T h e m a t i c R e d u c t i o n of C o d e d S t a te m e n t s from the P a r e n t s ... 45 T a b l e 9. A g r e e m e n t and N o n - a g r e e m e n t of P ar e n t S t a t e m e n t s and P u b l i s h e d Do c u m e n t s ... 47 T a b l e 10. A g r e e m e n t a n d N o n - a g r e e m e n t of P a r e n t S t a t e m e n t s and A d m i n i s t r a t o r S t a t e m e n t s ... 48 T a b l e 11. A g r e e m e n t and N o n - a g r e e m e n t of D ata S o u r c e s ... 49 v i i .
A N D THE R EA S O N S P A R E N T S G IVE FOR C H O O S I N G T H E M
A b s t r a c t
The p u r p o s e of this s t u d y w a s to ide n t i f y the c u r r e n t s t a t e d
p u r p o s e s of C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s a n d the reasons par e n t s g ive for
c h o o s i n g to s end t h e i r c h i l d r e n to these schools. The m e t h o d o l o g y
was e s s e n t i a l l y a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s of m u l t i p l e sources.
D o c u m e n t s from the A s s o c i a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n Sch o o l s I n t e r n a t i o n a l
( A C S I ), the p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r ature, a n d the sample sch o o l s were
a n a lyzed. A d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d p a r e n t s from s e l e c t e d C h r i s t i a n
s c h o o l s were i n t e r v i e w e d a n d t h e i r s t a t e m e n t s w ere also analyzed.
C o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s was u s e d to reduce the c o de d s t a t e m e n t s
to e m e r g e n t themes a n d t hen to c om m o n categories. C a t e g o r i e s that
e m e r g e d were: 1) f a i t h / s p i r i t u a l develo p m e n t , 2) c h i l d / s t u d e n t
de v e l o p m e n t , 3) h o m e / f a m i l y , 4) scho o l a c a d e m i c enviro n m e n t , and
5) school n o n - a c a d e m i c e n v i r o n m e n t . C o m p a r i s o n s w ere m a d e acro s s
the c a t e g o r i e s to d e t e r m i n e a g r e e m e n t or n o n - a g r e e m e n t .
The res u l t s of this s t u d y w e r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e a r l i e r
fin d i n g s in the p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r ature. N e w to this s t u d y w e r e
q u e s t i o n s r e f e r e n c i n g p o s s i b l e l e g i s l a t i o n to retu r n school s p o n s o r e d p r a y e r a n d B i b l e r e a d i n g to p ub l i c schools. C E C E L I A RUTH SHORT S C H O O L O F E D U C A T I O N THE C O L L E G E O F W I L L I A M A N D M A R Y IN V I R G I N I A v i i i .
O F C H R I S T I A N S C H O O L S A N D T H E
R E A S O N S PARENTS G IVE
FOR C H O O S I N G T H E M
i x .
C h a p t e r 1: T he P r o b l e m
I n t r o d u c t i o n
A m a j o r f u n c t i o n of an e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n is to
p r e s e r v e a n d p e r p e t u a t e the v a l u e s y s t e m s of the c u l t u r e in w h i c h
it e x i s t s (Butts & Cremin, 1953). F r o m its inception, the
A m e r i c a n p u b l i c s c h o o l has b e e n m o l d e d a n d a l t e r e d to r e s p o n d to the e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d ne e d s of a r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g s o c i e t y that is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n c r e a s e d c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y , a k n o wl e d g e e x p l o s i o n e n h a n c e d b y t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d vances, a n d a p o l i t i c a l ar e n a that is s a t u r a t e d w i t h s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s (Spring, 1991).
In the past, so m e d i v e r s e a nd s p e ci a l i n t er e s t g r o u p s have
r e s p o n d e d to th e s e forces w i t h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of p r i v a t e a l t e r n a t i v e s to p u b l i c scho o l s . P i e r c e v. S o c i e t y of S i s t e r s (1925), w h i c h u p h e l d the r i g h t of p a r e n t s to s e n d c h i l d r e n to p r i v a t e s c h o o l s (Palmer, 1974), b e g a n a s e r i e s of c h a l l e n g e s to p u b l i c edu c a t i o n . T h e e m e r g e n c e of s c h o o l s to p r e s e r v e the re l i g i o u s v a l u e s tha t h a v e p e r m e a t e d A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y has c o n t i n u e d as p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s c o n t i n u e to r e d e f i n e the b o u n d a r i e s of s e p a r a t i o n of c h u r c h a n d st a t e r e g a r d i n g p u b l i c
e d u c a t i o n . In the las t t h r e e decades, b e g i n n i n g w i t h Ci v i l
R i g h t s l e g i s l a t i o n in 1964, a n d c o u r t d e c i s i o n s i n c l u d i n g Engel v. V i t a l e (1962), A b i n q t o n v. S c h e m p p (1963), a n d M u r r a y v. C u r l e t t (1963) , i n v o l v i n g s e p a r a t i o n of c h u r c h a n d state, there has b e e n r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t in p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n (Carper, 1979). M a n y p a r e n t s ha v e c h o s e n p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n for t h e i r c h ildren. P u b l i c s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t d e c r e a s e d 12% in the 1970s (Turner,
1 9 8 1 b ) . E n r o l l m e n t in P r o t e s t a n t f u n d a m e n t a l C h r i s t i a n schools
i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g the same time period, w i t h r e p o r t e d cla i m s of
two (Rose, 1988) to f our (Turner, 1981a) n e w s c h o o l s b e i n g
e s t a b l i s h e d daily.
The P r o b l e m
Now, in the 2 1 s' century, some 30 years a f t e r the " C h r i s t i a n
Sch o o l M o v e m e n t " , P r o t e s t a n t f u n d a m e n t a l C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s are
c o n s i d e r e d a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e to p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n in A m e r i c a
(Rose, 1988). W h y do C h r i s t i a n schools c o n t i n u e to o p e r a t e today?
Are the r e a s o n s g i v e n b y p a r e n t s for c h o o s i n g to e nr o l l their
c h i l d r e n in C h r i s t i a n sch o o l s in a g r e e m e n t w i t h the s t a t e d
p u r p o s e s of t h e C h r i s t i a n sch o o l s they h a v e c h o s e n ? A r e these
r ea s o n s s i m i l a r to t h o s e c i t e d in stu d i e s d o n e in the late 1960s
a n d e a r l y 1970 s ? A r e the C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s p r o v i d i n g the
e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t that parents
want for t h e i r c h i l d r e n ? The a b ove q u e s t i o n s h e l d by this
r e s e a r c h e r led to this study.
N e e d for the S t u d y
In the e a r l y y e a r s of our c o u n t r y ' s e x i s t e n c e , e d u c a t i o n a l
needs w e r e d e f i n e d b y class w i t h s p e c i f i c g o a l s t h a t w o u l d
p r e s e r v e the l i f e s t y l e of that class (Good, 1947). The elite
w ere e d u c a t e d in E u r o p e or by p r i v a t e t u t o r s to b e p r e p a r e d to
f u n c t i o n as e l i t e in society. A p p r e n t i c e s h i p , the e a r l y form of
v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n , p r e p a r e d the " w o r k i n g class" to f u n c t i o n
w i t h s p e c i f i c job skills.
As the c o u n t r y de v e l o p e d , the idea of the c o m m o n school or
e d u c a t i o n of the m a s s e s took h o l d (Kraushaar, 1972) . W i t h
i n c r e a s e d i m m i g r a t i o n a n d the e x p a n s i o n of the w e s t e r n
territ o r i e s , the c o n c e p t of e d u c a t i o n for e v e r y o n e grew. This
c o n c e p t was i m p l e m e n t e d in a v a r i e t y of ways d e p e n d i n g u p o n the
d e m o g r a p h i c , g e o g r aphic, a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s of the
c o m m u n i t y .
D i v e r s i t y of c u l t u r a l a n d r e l i gi o u s valu e s c au s e d i n d i v i d u a l
g ro u p s to f o r m their o w n s c h o o l s in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n their
c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y a n d to ins u r e that t h eir c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s
val u e s w o u l d be p r e s e r v e d (Kraushaar, 1972). This was e v i d e n t in
the g r o w t h of r e l i g i o u s d e n o m i n a t i o n a l schools.
O t h e r issues h a v e a lso c o n t r i b u t e d to the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of
p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . S o m e t i m e s the issues of
q u a l i t y a n d g o v e r n a n c e have b e e n factors, as c e r t a i n ci t i z e n s
w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y h a v e d e s i r e d an e m p h a s i s on e d u ca t i o n a l
o b j e c t i v e s o t h e r t h a n t h ose h e l d b y the masses.
In the 1960s, t h e r e w e r e two e v e n t s w h i c h m a y have e f f e c t e d
the n a t u r e of e d u c a t i o n in A m e r i c a (Swomley, 1968). One of these
e v e n t s was the p a s s i n g of m a j o r C i v i l Rights l e g i s l a t i o n that
p l a c e d new m a n d a t e s on the p u b l i c sch o o l system. This
l e g i s l a t i o n r e q u i r e d the a c c o m m o d a t i o n of s t u d e n t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t
racial and e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s as w e l l as st u d e n t s w i t h spe c i a l
e d u c a t i o n a l needs a n d p h y s i c a l li m i t a t i o n s . The o t h e r e v e n t was
the c o urt cases, c i t e d in the i n t r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h p l a c e d a
r e n e w e d e m p h a s i s on s e p a r a t i o n of c h u r c h a n d state and w h ic h
p r o m p t e d law suits r e s u l t i n g in c o u r t d e c i s i o n s that c h a n g e d
p o l i c y t o w a r d r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s a n d c e l e b r a t i o n s in p u b l i c
s c h o o l s .
As P a r s o n s (1987) indica t e s , t h ese p o l i c y c h a n g e s c o i n c i d e d
w i t h a n e w p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n as the C h r i s t i a n Sch o o l M o v e m e n t .
This M o v e m e n t l e d to the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n e w s c h o o l s that
b r o a d e n e d the a r e n a of p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n in A m erica. T h e s e
schools, s p o n s o r e d b y a v a r i e t y of e v a n g e l i c a l P r o t e s t a n t
churches, d o u b l e d in e n r o l l m e n t f rom 1970 to 1980 (Parsons,
1987). N e w s ch o o l s w e r e r e p o r t e d l y b ei n g e s t a b l i s h e d at the rate
of two (Rose, 1988), thr e e (Flight F rom Publ i c Schools, 1980), or
four per d a y (Turner, 1 9 8 1 b ) . This g r o w t h spu r t p r o m p t e d studies
to d e t e r m i n e the r a t i o n a l e a n d p u r p o s e for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of
th ese schools. T h e s e a f o r e - m e n t i o n e d stu d i e s also i n c l u d e d the
reasons for the p e r c e i v e d s u c c e s s of the C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l
M o v e m e n t in v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t the country.
H o l m e s & H i a t t (1984) a n d T u r n e r (1981b) i n d i c a t e d a m o n g
p e r c e i v e d r e a s o n s for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of these s c h o o l s was the
r e m o v a l of s ch o o l s p o n s o r e d p r a y e r a n d B ib l e r ea d i n g f r o m p u b l i c
schools. It was a lso p e r c e i v e d that, w i t h this removal, a
p h i l o s o p h i c a l c h a n g e h a d t a k e n p l a c e w i t h i n p u b l i c s ch o o l s that
is no l o n g e r c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the f u n d a m e n t a l i s t C h r i s t i a n
w o r l dview. It was a l s o d e t e r m i n e d , c o n t r a r y to h y p o t h e s i s , that
w h il e s e g r e g a t i o n was a v a r i a b l e in a few instances, it was not
s i g n i f i c a n t to the o v e r a l l p icture. W h i l e some p a r e n t s c i te d
small class size, s e l e c t i v e a d m i s s i o n s , safety, a n d a n u r t u r i n g
e n v i r o n m e n t a m o n g the r e a s o n s for c h o o s i n g the C h r i s t i a n school
for t h e i r c h i ldren, t h e s e w e r e v i e w e d b y p a r e n t s as b y - p r o d u c t s
or u n e x p e c t e d b e n e f i t s in s o m e cases. The p r i m a r y r e a s o n c i t e d
was to m a i n t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n the v a l u e s of the home a n d
the v a l u e s t au g h t at school.
T h e C h r i s t i a n C o a l i t i o n , a n o r g a n i z a t i o n f o u n d e d by Pat
R o b e r t s o n in 1989 for the p u r p o s e o f w o r k i n g to e l ect C h r i s t i a n
c a n d i d a t e s to p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e a n d to t r a i n p o t e n t i a l candidates,
b e c a m e a r e c o g n i z e d force in the c u r r e n t A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c a l a re n a
(Arocha, 1993). M e m b e r s h a v e a l s o l o b b i e d for l e g i s l a t i o n that
e n d o r s e s the v a l u e s of the C h r i s t i a n co m m u n i t y . A m o n g its
c o n c e r n s is the i s sue of s ch o o l s p o n s o r e d p r a y e r a n d Bible
r e a d i n g in p u b l i c schools. P o l i t i c a l o f f i c e h o l d e r s and
c a n d i d a t e s h a v e b e e n c r e d i t e d w i t h t a l k of p r o p o s i n g l e g i s l a t i o n
a n d p o s s i b l y e v e n a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A m e n d m e n t to r e i n s t a t e s uch
p r a c t i c e s .
T a l k of s u c h a p r o p o s a l r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s for this r e s e a r c h e r
a b o u t the futu r e of the f u n d a m e n t a l i s t C h r i s t i a n schools. If the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h ese s c h o o l s was a r e s p o n s e to the rem o v a l of
s ch o o l s p o n s o r e d a n d B i b l e r e a d i n g in p u b l i c schools, w hat impact
w o u l d the r e i n s t a t e m e n t of t h e s e p r a c t i c e s have on the future of
t h e s e s c h o o l s ? If s uch r e i n s t a t e m e n t w o u l d not impact their
f u t u r e s u r vival, is this a n i n d i c a t i o n that the reasons for the i r
e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d / o r o p e r a t i o n h a v e c h a n g e d o v e r the last 30 y ea r s ? Do p a r e n t s c ho o s e to s e n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n to C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s b e c a u s e t h e y a g r e e w i t h the v a l u e s y s t e m of the C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l a n d d e s i r e the e d u c a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t that is p e r p e t u a t e d in the C h r i s t i a n school, or do t h e y s e n d t h e m b e c a u s e of d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h the v al u e s y s t e m a n d d i s l i k e of the e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t is p e r p e t u a t e d in the l o cal p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s t e m ? T h e r e is
also the q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r the a g e n d a of the C h r i s t i a n School
M o v e m e n t has c h a n g e d o v e r the p a s t 30 years, a n d if so, how?
S t a t e m e n t of Purpose
The p u r p o s e of this s t u d y was to i d e n t i f y the c u r r e n t sta t e d
p ur p o s e s of C h r i s t i a n s ch o o l s a n d the rea s o n s p a r e n t s c u r r e n t l y
give for c h o o s i n g to s e n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n to t h ese schools. This
s t u d y s y n t h e s i z e d a n d i n t e r p r e t e d d ata from p r e s e n t l y e x i s t i n g
p r o f e s s i o n a l li t e r a t u r e , i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d from g o v e r n i n g
d o c u m e n t s of s e l e c t e d schools, and i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
and p a r e n t s of s e l e c t e d schools. The res u l t s of this stu d y
pr o v i d e s i n s i g h t t hat w ill a i d in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c u r r e n t tre n d s a n d issues that are i m p o r t a n t to
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d p a r e n t s in the s e l e c t i o n of the a p p r o p r i a t e
e d u c a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t for their children. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n m a y
also be v a l u a b l e in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p o s s i b l e f u t u r e trends
in the C h r i s t i a n S ch o o l Mo v e m e n t . R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s 1. W h a t are the s t a t e d p u r p o s e s of C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s ? a. W h a t are the p u r p o s e s of C h r i s t i a n e d u c a t i o n as d e f i n e d b y A CS I ? b. W h a t are the p u r p o s e s of C h r i s t i a n e d u c a t i o n as s ta t e d in the p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e b a se?
c. W h a t are the s t a t e d p u r p o s e s of the s a m p l e sch o o l s in
this stu d y ?
d. Is t h ere a g r e e m e n t of p u r p o s e a c r o s s the v a r i o u s
s o u r c e s ?
2. W h a t are the p u r p o s e s the a d m i n i s t r a t o r s of s c h o o l s in
the s t u d y g i v e for t h e i r s c h o o l s ?
a. W h a t are the p u r p o s e s the a d m i n i s t r a t o r s of s c h o o l s in
the s t u d y give for c h e i r s c h oo l s ?
b. A r e these p u r p o s e s in a g r e e m e n t w i t h the p u b l i s h e d
d o c u m e n t s ?
3. W h a t are the reasons that p a r e n t s g i v e for c h o o s i n g to
s e n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n to C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s ?
a. W h a t are the r e a s o n s that p a r e n t s give for c h o o s i n g to
s e n d th e i r c h i l d r e n to C h r i s t i a n schoo l s ?
b. A r e th e s e reasons in a g r e e m e n t w i t h the p u r p o s e s
s t a t e d in the p u b l i s h e d d o c u m e n t s ?
c. A r e these reasons in a g r e e m e n t w i t h the p u r p o s e s g i v e n
b y a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ?
D e f i n i t i o n of Te r m s
A g r e e m e n t - W e b s t e r ' s E n c y c l o p e d i c U n a b r i d g e d D i c t i o n a r y of
the E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e (1996) d e f i n e s a g r e e m e n t as "the act of
a g r e e i n g or of c o m i n g to a m u t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t ; the state of b e i n g
in accord; an a r r a n g e m e n t that is a c c e p t e d b y all p a r t i e s to a
t r a n s a c t i o n ; u n a n i m i t y of opin i o n ; h a r m o n y in feeling." For the
p u r p o s e of thi s study, a g r e e m e n t w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d if the same
c a t e g o r i e s are m e n t i o n e d in e a c h d a t a s o u r c e tha t is b e i n g
c o mpared. A l t h o u g h themes m a y not be e q u i v a l e n t , for the p u r p o s e
of this study, a g r e e m e n t of c a t e g o r i e s m a y h e l p the r e a d e r
u n d e r s t a n d t he b i g g e r p i c t u r e that is b e i n g examined.
A s s o c i a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l s I n t e r n a t i o n a l (ACSI) - an
i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n d e s i g n e d to p r o v i d e s e r v i c e a n d
1995). A C S I a l s o p r o v i d e s an a c c r e d i t a t i o n process, t e a c h e r c e r t i f i c a t i o n , a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n for s chool o r g a n i z a t i o n . M e m b e r s c h o o l s m u s t be B i b l i c a l l y based, e v a n g e l i c a l , a n d p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e that t h e y do not s u p p o r t or e n d o r s e the W o r l d or N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of Chu r c h e s . C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s - s c h o o l s e s t a b l i s h e d by i n d i v i d u a l c h u r c h e s to be g o v e r n e d b y the i n d i v i d u a l c h u r c h r a t h e r th a n the
d e n o m i n a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e (Potvin & Parsons, 1986; Rose, 1988 ;
Turner, 1 9 8 1 b ) . T h e s e s c h o o l s o p e ra t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y a n d are
p r i m a r i l y e v a n g e l i c a l . T h e y m a y v i e w t h e i r p u r p o s e as an
e v a n g e l i c a l o u t r e a c h to the c o m m u n i t y or as an e x c l u s i v e m i n i s t r y
to t h e i r o w n c h u r c h c o n g r e g a t i o n . Th e i r g o v e r n a n c e is self-
c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l school or c o ng r e g a t i o n . In this
study, C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s r e f e r s to those s c h o o l s who are m e m b e r s
of the A s s o c i a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n S c h ools I n t e r n a t i o n a l (ASCI).
P r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n - e d u c a t i o n f u nded by m o n i e s o t h e r t h a n
p u b l i c funds (Kraushaar, 1972). P r i vate e d u c a t i o n i n c l u d e s all
those s c h o o l s n o t f u n d e d w i t h p u b l i c m o n i e s r e g a r d l e s s of
p h i l o s o p h y , purpo s e , g o v e r n a n c e , or c u r r i culum.
R e l i g i o u s / P a r o c h i a l S c h o o l s - s c h ools e s t a b l i s h e d and
g o v e r n e d by a s p e c i f i c d e n o m i n a t i o n (Kraushaar, 1972) . The
g o v e r n a n c e of t h e s e s c h o o l s is n ot i n d e p e n d e n t to t he i n d i v i d u a l
school, b ut is u n d e r som e f o r m of c e n t r a l c o n t r o l a n d / o r support.
T h e s e s c h o o l s w o u l d i n c l u d e t he C atholic, E p i s c o p a l , a n d H e b r e w
s c h ools f o u n d e d e a r l y in A m e r i c a to p r e s e r v e or p e r p e t u a t e a
t h r e a t e n e d c u l t u r e or v a l u e system. L utheran, Amish, a nd
M e n n o n i t e sch o o l s t hat w e r e f o u n d e d to p r e s e r v e e t h n i c val u e s
w o u l d a l s o be included.
L i m i t a t i o n s
The g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y of this s t u d y is l i m i t e d to C h r i s t i a n
s c h o o l s that are i n d e p e n d e n t of d e n o m i n a t i o n a l g o v e r n a n c e as
p r e v i o u s l y defined. The s a m p l e i n c l u d e d o n l y schools that are
m e m b e r s of the A s s o c i a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n Sch o o l s I n t e r n a t i o n a l
(ASCI) in the C o m m o n w e a l t h of Vi r g i n i a . D i v e r s i t y of s p o n s o r s h i p
of t h e s e s c h o o l s c o n t r i b u t e s to the d i f f i c u l t y of i d e n t i f y i n g a
t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample. T h ose s c h o o l s that are m e m b e r
s c h o o l s of ACSI d e m o n s t r a t e a d e s i r e a n d w i l l i n g n e s s to n e t w o r k
w i t h o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t share t h eir p h i l o s o p h y .
T h e y are m o r e l i k e l y to a t t r a c t a m o r e d i v e r s e p o p u l a t i o n of the
C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y t han t h o s e s p o n s o r e d by chu r c h e s w i t h a m o r e
i s o l a t i o n i s t p h i l o s o p h y . However, s i n c e these schools do
network, t h e r e is l i k e l y to be a bias in that the p u b l i s h e d
d o c u m e n t s m a y s t ate i n s t i t u t i o n a l p u r p o s e s in lan g u a g e that is
d e s i g n e d to be a c c e p t e d b y A CSI and m a y not be the c o n s e n s u s of
the g o v e r n i n g b o d y or the p a t r o n s of the i n d i v i d u a l schools.
The p a r e n t s w e r e c o n t a c t e d a n d i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e b y the
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the school. Since this s e l e c t i o n was not
c o m p l e t e l y u nd e r the c o n t r o l of the resear c h e r , bias m u s t be
c o n s i d e r e d . Also, p a r e n t s m a y have b e e n c o n c e r n e d as to how
t he i r r e s p o n s e s m i g h t a f f e c t t h eir f u t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the
s ch o o l a n d h o w the r e s e a r c h e r p e r c e i v e d them. The r e s e a r c h e r
t r i e d to r e m e d y this b y i n f o r m i n g the p a r e n t s of w i t h d r a w a l
p r i v i l e g e s , the v o l u n t e e r n a t u r e of t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a n d t hat
no n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s w o u l d r e s u l t from t h ei r p a r t i c i p a t i o n or
n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
S i n c e p a r e n t s w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d or. a v o l u n t e e r basis, bias
m a y a lso h a v e b e e n a factor. Parents who a g r e e d to be
i n t e r v i e w e d w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to have s t r o n g o p i n i o n s a n d m a y not
h ave b e e n t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of all p a r e n t s of n e w enrollees.
However, s i n c e the i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l a l l o w e d for r e s p o n s e s that
w e r e s p e c i f i c a n d open-ended, a n a l y s i s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by the
r e s e a r c h e r s h o u l d a c c o u n t for such p o s s i b l e bias.
R e l i g i o u s / p a r o c h i a l schools w e r e not i n c l u d e d in the sample
sin c e t h e y w e r e in e x i s t e n c e p r i o r to the p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s
that g ave b i r t h to the C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l M o v e m e n t . The q u e s t i o n s
in this s t ud y a r o s e as a r e s p o n s e to the C h r i s t i a n School
M o v e m e n t that e m e r g e d in the late 1960s. The l i t e r a t u r e
i nd i c a t e s t h a t this M o v e m e n t was a r e s p o n s e to s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c a l
a c t i o n s (Swomley, 1968).
C h a p t e r 2: R e v i e w o f the L i t e r a t u r e
The r e v i e w of the l i t e r a t u r e p r e s e n t s sources that lay the
f o u n d a t i o n for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the C h r i s t i a n School M o v e m e n t
in A merica. I n c l u d e d are r e f e r e n c e s that cite the b a s i s for the
following: Parents a n d the C o n t r o l of the E d u c a t i o n of t h e i r
Ch i ldren, W h y P r i v a t e E d u c a t i o n ? , W h y R e l i g i o u s Schools?,
R e l i g i o n and R e l i g i o u s I n s t r u c t i o n in Public Schools, The
C h r i s t i a n School, B a sis for C h r i s t i a n Schools, a n d W h y Parents
C h o o s e C h r i s t i a n Schools. S p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e is g i v e n to the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of C a t h o l i c a n d H e b r e w Schools. As i n d i v i d u a l
P r o t e s t a n t sects p e r c e i v e d t h e i r v a l u e systems to be t h r e a tened,
t h e s e sects e i t h e r e s t a b l i s h e d i n d i v i d u a l sch o o l s or r a i s e d
c o n c e r n s r e l a t i n g to r e l i g i o n a n d r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n in p u b l i c
schools. T h e s e issues r e l a t i n g to r e l i g i o n and r e l igious
i n s t r u c t i o n in p u b l i c s c h o o l s g ave rise to the C h r i s t i a n Sch o o l
M o v e m e n t a d d r e s s e d in this study. T h e s e same issues also
r e s u l t e d in the r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the g o als and
p u r p o s e s of C h r i s t i a n s ch o o l s a n d t h e reasons p a r e n t s are
c h o o s i n g to s e n d t h eir c h i l d r e n to t h ese schools.
This r e v i e w of the l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e d sea r c h e s in ERIC,
D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s , a n d the L I O N t e r m i n a l at S w e m L i b r a r y at
the C o l l e g e of W i l l i a m a n d Mary. S o u r c e s w e r e also o b t a i n e d f r o m
the R e g e n t U n i v e r s i t y library, the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of H a m p t o n
C h r i s t i a n Sch o o l s (ACSI m e m b e r ) , a n d the Internet. The r e a d e r
w i l l n o t e the a b s e n c e of r e c e n t r e s e a r c h s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t i n g to
C h r i s t i a n schools. R e s e a r c h s p e c i f i c to the q u e s ti o n s in this
s t u d y r e l a t e d to C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s is limited. This a b s e n c e of
r e c e n t s o u r c e s is a fur t h e r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d on the p u r p o s e s of a n d r e a s o n s for c o n t i n u e d o p e r a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n schools. H a i d l e (1995), a f t e r r e s e a r c h i n g reasons s t u d e n t s c h o o s e C h r i s t i a n h i g h schools, r e c o m m e n d e d f urther s t u d y to d e t e r m i n e r e a s o n s p a r e n t s c h o o s e C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s for their children.
Par e n t s a n d the C o n t r o l of the E d u c a t i o n
of T h e i r C h i l d r e n
The d i r e c t role of A m e r i c a n p a r e n t s in the e d u c a t i o n of
t he i r c h i l d r e n has v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g to d e m o g r a p h i c and c u l t u r a l
s t r u c t u r e s (Hauser & Mackey, 1993). S u c h c o n t r o l i n c l u d e d
p r i v a t e t u t o r s in the e a r l y S o u t h e r n c o l o n i e s , e t h n i c and
r e l i g i o u s s c h o o l s in the e a r l y m i d - A t l a n t i c colonies, and the
c o m m o n s c h o o l s of the e a r l y N e w E n g l a n d co l o n i e s .
C o m p u l s o r y sch o o l a t t e n d a n c e laws in 1918 w e r e an e ff o r t to
keep c h i l d r e n out of the fac t o r i e s (Hauser & Mackey, 1993).
S i n c e t h e s e laws h ave b e e n enacted, p a r e n t s h a v e a c c e p t e d v a r i o u s
levels of d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s education.
P are n t s h ave c h a n g e d the i r e x p e c t a t i o n s of the scho o l to inc l u d e
the p r o v i d i n g of i n t e r v e n t i o n s in s oc i a l i s s u e s as well as p r o v i d i n g a c a d e m i c i n s t r u c t i o n ( C a r r a s q u i l l o & Clement, 1993). W h y P r i v a t e E d u c a t i o n ? H i s t o r i c a l l y , A m e r i c a n s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s i n g l e - t r a c k s y s t e m o p e n f r e e l y to all, b u t c o n t r o l l e d by d e m o c r a t i c m e t h o d s , l e a v i n g f r e e d o m for p r i v a t e a n d re l i g i o u s
e d u c a t i o n (Butts & Cremin, 1953). B u t t s a n d Cremin, (1953)
s t a t e :
In c o n t r a s t to o t h e r nations, p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n in the
U n i t e d S t a t e s has b e e n g i v e n w i d e l a t i t u d e to
e x p e r i m e n t a n d to d e v e l o p d i s t i n c t i v e p r o g r a m s of
e d u c a t i o n so long as the m i n i m u m r e q u i r e m e n t s of the
stat e s are m e t w i t h r e g a r d to the c o m m o n v a l u e s of
c i t i z e n s h i p a n d s oc i a l unity. D i v e r s i t y has b e e n c o n s i d e r e d to be a v a l u e to be p r i z e d in a free a n d o p e n s o ciety, (p. 565) W h y R e l i g i o u s S c h o o l s ? W h y C a t h o l i c s c h o o l s in A m e r i c a ? A c c o r d i n g to K r a u s h a a r (1972), the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of p a r o c h i a l C a t h o l i c sch o o l s in the 19’r' c e n t u r y was a r e s p o n s e to the a n t i - C a t h o l i c f e e l i n g p r e v a l e n t
in c e r t a i n p a r t s of the c o untry. C a t h o l i c i m m i g r a n t s had
d i f f i c u l t y a s s i m i l a t i n g i nto A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y due to e t h n i c
d i v e r s i t y a n d l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s . The d e c i s i o n was m a d e e a r l y to
m a i n t a i n the c h u r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n a m o n g g e o g r a p h i c r a t h e r than
e t h n i c lines. However, m a n y e a r l y C a t h o l i c s c h o o l s r e f l e c t e d the
needs of e t h n i c s u b c u l t u r e s w i t h i n the church.
In 1884, the T h i r d P l e n a r y C ou n c i l of B a l t i m o r e a d d r e s s e d
the r e l a t i o n s h i p of C a t h o l i c i s m to A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y (Hunt &
Kunkel, 1984). As a r es u l t of this m eeting, one g oal was for
e v e r y C a t h o l i c c h i l d to be in a C a t h o l i c School. T h e p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l w a s seen as a n e c e s s a r y i n s t i t u t i o n to p r e s e r v e the C a t h o l i c w a y o f life in a s o c i e t y w h e r e m e m b e r s of the C a t h o l i c c h u r c h w e r e r e g a r d e d as a s u s p i c i o u s m i n o r i t y (Kraushaar, 1972) . B y 1925, the C a t h o l i c p o p u l a t i o n h a d s e c u r e d a m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s p l a c e in the n a t i o n h a v i n g s u r v i v e d the o v e r t
h o s t i l i t y of P r o t e s t a n t A m e r i c a (Hunt & Kunkel, 1984). By I960,
the S e c o n d V a t i c a n C ou n c i l o p e n l y p r o m o t e d C a t h o l i c schools and
o t h e r forms of education. However, from 1965 to 1975, e n r o l l m e n t
in C a t h o l i c s c h o o l s in A m e r i c a d e c l i n e d 40% w h i l e e n r o l l m e n t in
f u n d a m e n t a l i s t P r o t e s t a n t s c h o o l s e x c e e d e d one m i l l i o n in 1979
(Turner, 1 9 8 1 a ) .
W h y H e b r e w scho o l s in A m e r i c a ? The n e e d to c o u n t e r feelings
of a n t i - S e m i t i s m in p u b l i c sch o o l s gave rise to some H e b r e w
s c h o o l s in A m e r i c a (Kraushaar, 1972). W h i l e some small Jew i s h
sch o o l s h a d e x i s t e d s i nce C o l o n i a l days, t hey were at a m i n i m u m
w i t h p r i v a t e tutors b e in g m o r e p r e v al e n t (Rauch, 1984). From
1881 to 1920, a p p r o x i m a t e l y two m i l l i o n Jews e m i g r a t e d from
E a s t e r n Europe. The i m m i g r a n t s w e r e u s u a l l y g i v e n r e l igious
i n s t r u c t i o n a f t e r p u b l i c s c h o o l h o urs (Gartner, 1969).
However, sch o o l s a c q u i r e d a p la c e of g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e as a
r es u l t of the Nazi g e n o c i d a l war, the inf l u x of J e w i s h im m i g r a n t s
to the U n i t e d States, the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the n at i o n of Israel,
a n d the i m p r o v e d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c status of Jews in A m e r i c a
(Kraushaar, 1972). W h ereas, e a r l y i m m i g r a n t s w a n t e d to
a c c e l e r a t e a s s i m i l a t i o n into A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e b y s e n d i n g their
c h i l d r e n to A m e r i c a n p u b l i c schools, the i n t e r n a t i o n a l threat to
the J e w i s h c u l t u r e s p a r k e d a r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t in a n d r e f o r m of
the H e b r e w a l l - d a y sch o o l s (Gartner, 1969; Kraushaar, 1972).
W h y P r o t e s t a n t s c h o o l s in A m e r i c a ? P r o t e s t a n t d e n o m i n a t i o n s
i n i t i a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d sch o o l s in A m e r i c a in r e s p o n s e to a v a r i e t y
of c o n d it i o n s a n d to a s s i s t w i t h a c c l i m a t i z a t i o n to A m e r i c a n
s o c i e t y (Kraushaar, 1972) . A m e r i c a n E p i s c o p a l schools h a d a
u n i q u e o r i g i n in that t h e y m a i n t a i n e d p o l i t y w i t h the p a r e n t C h u r c h of E n g l a n d a n d c o n t i n u e d the E n g l i s h t r a d i t i o n of p a r i s h s c h o o l s in s m all s e t t l e m e n t s in V i r g i n i a a n d M a r y l a n d . T h e e a r l y L u t h e r a n schools, p r i m a r i l y e s t a b l i s h e d b y G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n i m m i g r a n t s , s o u g h t to p r e s e r v e the m o t h e r t o n g u e as well as r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s a n d c u l t u r a l c u s t o m s (Jahsmann, 1960; Kr a u s h a a r , 1972).
The S e v e n t h Day A d v e n tists' p h i l o s o p h y e m b r a c e s c o n c e r n s of
l i f e st y l e t hat i n c l u d e d i e t a n d h e a l t h concerns, w o r k ethic, and
an e t e r n a l s e a r c h for t r u t h (Knight, 1984). For m a l S e v e n t h Day
A d v e n t i s t a c a d e m i e s f i rst a p p e a r e d in the late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p u r p o r t i n g a p r o g r a m of c h a r a c t e r d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h i n c l u d e d s t e a d y w o r k habits, s e r v i c e to man, a n d n o n c o m b a t a n t s er v i c e in w a r (Kraushaar, 1972). T h e s e a c a d e m i e s w e r e g e n e r a l l y r a c i a l l y integrated, s m a l l in en r o l l m e n t , a n d m a i n t a i n e d a c u r r i c u l u m b a s e d on B i b l i c a l r e v e l a t i o n and c r e a t i o n i s m .
The Amish, in r e s p o n s e to the rise of an i n d u s t r i a l society,
e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r o w n sch o o l s in the late 1920s. The p r i m a r y
p u r p o s e of t h ese s c h o o l s was to p r e s e r v e the r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s
of the p e o p l e w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g a l i f e s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the
rural f a r m i n g c u l t u r e (Kraushaar, 1972; S p indler, H o s t etler, &
Hu n t i n g t o n , 1992). T h e A m i s h s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a l l e n g e d local
c o m p u l s o r y a t t e n d a n c e laws r e s t r i c t i n g t h e i r s c h o o l i n g to o n l y
e i g h t years. T h e y a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r o w n p u b l i s h i n g c om p a n y
in the 1950s in r e s p o n s e to n e w p r o g r e s s i v e t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s
a n d t e c h n i q u e s in the p u b l i c school s y s t e m s (Newcomb, 1988).
However, m a n y m a i n l i n e d e n o m i n a t i o n a l P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s
s u p p o r t e d p u b l i c schools, w h e r e the v a l u e s h e l d b y t h e i r c h u r c h
p r e v a i l e d in the g o v e r n a n c e a n d i n s t r u c t i o n of the s c h o o l s
(Kraushaar, 1972). B a p t i s t s , M e t h o d i s t s , a n d P r e s b y t e r i a n s , w h o
d i d e s t a b l i s h a c a d e m i e s in s ome p a r t s of the country, w e r e
f r a g m e n t e d t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y to the d eg r e e that p u b l i c school
s y s t e m s t hat e m b r a c e d P r o t e s t a n t v a l u e s or m o r a l v a l u e s w e r e not
trusted. It was g e n e r a l l y felt that the c h u r c h - r u n S u n d a y s c h o o l
p r o v i d e d s u f f i c i e n t r e l i g i o u s t r a ining.
W h y R e l i g i o n a n d R e l i g i o u s I n s t r u c t i o n in the P u b l i c S c h o o l s ?
Up u n til the m i d 1 9 " century, m o s t P r o t e s t a n t s s u p p o r t e d
p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n s i n c e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n was p e r c e i v e d as
p r o m o t i n g P r o t e s t a n t v a l u e s (Carper, 1979). T h e r e was a h i s t o r y
of c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s d a t i n g b a c k to C o l o n i a l
ti mes (Michel, Smith, V i c k e r s , & Brown, 1994) . In the 1640s, the
first p u b l i c s c h o o l s in the M a s s a c h u s e t t s c o l o n y h e l d as their
m a i n p u r p o s e to t e a c h c h i l d r e n to r e a d the B i b l e a n d thus e s c a p e
the " O l d D e l u d e r Satan" (Stoker & Splawn, 1980). In 1787, the
N o r t h w e s t O r d i n a n c e s u p p o r t e d C h r i s t i a n m o r a l i t y b y g r a n t i n g 1/16
s e c t i o n s of l and in e a c h t o w n s h i p to the church. In 1889, the
Il l i n o i s S t a t e S u p r e m e C o u r t r u l e d in M c C o r m i c k v. B u r t that the
s c h o o l was not l i a b l e for e x p e l l i n g a s t u d e n t for b e i n g u n r u l y
d u r i n g r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e s (Michel, et al., 1994). E v i d e n c e of
c o o p e r a t i o n c o n t i n u e d in the 2 0 " c e n t u r y w h e n the t e a c h i n g of
e v o l u t i o n was r u l e d i l l e g a l in 1927 in Sco p e s v. S t a t e , a n d
righ t s for r e l i g i o n c l a s s e s w e r e u p h e l d in 1948 in M c C o l l u m v.
B o a r d of E d u c a t i o n (Michel, et al., 1994).
In 1962 a n d 1963 the o u t l a w i n g of m a n d a t o r y p r a y e r and
d e v o t i o n a l B i b l e r e a d i n g b a s e d on d e c i s i o n s in E n gel v. Vit a l e
(19 6 2 ) , A b i n q t o n v. S c h e m p p (196 3 ) , a n d M u r r a y v. C u r l e t t ( 1 9 6 3 ) ,
c o m p l e t e d a h a l f c e n t u r y of d e p r o t e s t a n t a t i o n of p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n
(Carper, 1979) . T h e r em o v a l of p r a y e r in the e a r l y 1960s was
seen by the f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s as a m a j o r step in s e c u l a r i z a t i o n of
p u b l i c s p a c e (Neuhaus, 1985).
In the 1960s, s e v e r a l m a j o r p o l i t i c a l e ve n t s c h a n g e d the
face of p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n in A m e r i c a (Swomley, 1968). The p a s s i n g
of m a j o r C i vi l R i g h t s l e g i s l a t i o n c h a n g e d the m a n d a t e of p u b l i c
e d u c a t i o n to i n c l u d e g r o u p s who h a d f o r m e r l y b e e n e x c l u d e d
e n t i r e l y or i s o l a t e d w i t h i n the system. This led to the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of " s e g r e g a t i o n ac a d e m i e s " in the S ou t h a n d e ven
the t e m p o r a r y c l o s i n g of s o m e local p u b l i c s c hools. It also led
the w a y to the r e g u l a t i o n of Federal fun d i n g w h i c h i m p a c t e d the
q u a l i t y of p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n in some l o c a l i t i e s . For some groups,
f ederal a n d s ta t e m a n d a t e s i m p o s e d r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s w h i c h c r e a t e d c o n f u s i o n a n d q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the a b i l i t y of the p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s t e m to e d u c a t e a d e q u a t e l y a n d a p p r o p r i a t e l y . The p o l i t i c a l a r e n a g a v e rise to a d e c a d e of c o n f u s i o n as the c o u n t r y e x p e r i e n c e d the a f t e r m a t h of p o l i t i c a l a s s a s s i n a t i o n s , rac i a l tensions, a n d e c o n o m i c u n c e r t a i n t i e s
(Rose, 1988). A m e r i c a was s e e k i n g to r e - d e f i n e its p o s i t i o n as a
g l o b a l power. P a r t i c i p a t i o n in the w a r in V i e t n a m c r e a t e d
c o n t r o v e r s y b o t h at h o m e a n d abroad, c o n t r i b u t i n g to the
c o n f u s i o n o v e r A m e r i c a n v a l u e s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . T h e s e
t e n s i o n s w e r e r e f l e c t e d in the e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s as
e s t a b l i s h e d g overnance, cu r r i c u l u m , a n d goals w e r e c h a l l e n g e d .
S u c h c h a l l e n g e s f or c e d r e - e v a l u a t i o n a n d r e s t r u c t u r i n g of " t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t " in p u b l i c ed u c a t i o n .
The C h r i s t i a n School
The C h r i s t i a n Day S c h o o l was v i e w e d as an e m e r g i n g
a l t e r n a t i v e to p ub l i c e d u c a t i o n b y the e n d of the 1970s (Carper,
1979). C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s r e p r e s e n t e d w i d e s p r e a d s e c e s s i o n from
p u b l i c schools. A c c o r d i n g to V a n B r u m m e l e n (1988), the r a p i d
g r o w t h of e v a n g e l i c a l P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s m a y be
c o n s i d e r e d the m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t in A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n
in the last three d e cades. Baldwin, e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f the
F u n d a m e n t a l i s t C i t i z e n s for E d u c a t i o n a l F r e e d o m in W a s h i n g t o n ,
D.C., c i t e d the g r o w t h of C h r i s t i a n sch o o l s as t h ree p e r d a y o v e r
a three year p e r i o d b r i n g i n g the total in 1980 to 8,000 s c h o o l s
w i t h an a v e r a g e of 175 p up i l s p e r sch o o l (Flight from P u b l i c
Schools, 1980) . This c r e a t e d a p u b l i c to n o n - p u b l i c r a t i o of
8:1. B a l d w i n p r e d i c t e d that this rate of g r o w t h w o u l d c a u s e
p r i v a t e sch o o l s to o u t n u m b e r p u b l i c s c h o o l s by 1990.
S up r e m e C o urt r u l i n g s u p h e l d the removal of school s p o n s o r e d
p r a y e r a n d B i ble r e a d i n g f r o m the p u b l i c sch o o l s (Rose, 1988).
T h e s e rulings are c r e d i t e d w i t h the s ud d e n g r o w t h of " C h r i s t i a n
Day Schools" e s t a b l i s h e d b y f u n d a m e n t a l P r o t e s t a n t c h u rches.
T his e n s u r e d that c e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t i e s w e r e p r e s e r v e d and
that C h r i s t i a n val u e s w o u l d be p a s s e d o n to children.
Basis for C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l s
E d u c a t o r s in the c o n t e m p o r a r y C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l M o v e m e n t
j u s t i f y t h e i r e x i s t e n c e f r o m a p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s r o o t e d in the
P u r i t a n e t h i c at the c e n t e r of e d u c a t i o n in C o l o n i a l A m e r i c a
(Maffet & Dye, 1985). T h e r e is f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e of the C h r i s t i a n
e t h i c at the c e n t e r of p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n in the e a r l y c o m m o n
sch o o l s on the A m e r i c a n frontier. T h e r e is c o n c e r n t o d a y that
a c c e p t a n c e of f e d e r a l or s t a t e f i n a n c i a l a i d will b r i n g w i t h it
p u b l i c e m p l o y m e n t , control, and s u p e r v i s i o n of s e r v i c e s r e s u l t i n g
in a c o m p r o m i s e in p h i l o s o p h y .
T h e d e c i s i o n of the S u p r e m e C o u r t in M a y 1980 to not rev i e w
K e n t u c k y v. R u d a s i l l f ur t h e r e s t a b l i s h e d the legal s t a b i l i t y of
f u n d a m e n t a l i s t P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s (Turner, 1 9 8 1 a ) .
This case d e n i e d the s t a t e of K e n t u c k y the r i g h t to r equire state
a c c r e d i t a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n schools. The issue of free e x e r c i s e
of r e l i g i o n v e r s u s c o m p e t i n g sta t e i n t e r e s t has f o s t e r e d
a d d i t i o n a l l i t i g a t i o n (Wiley & Dunquette, 1984). Courts
g e n e r a l l y h a v e h e l d t h a t the s t ate can impose:
1) s t u d e n t r e p o r t i n g 2) h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s 3) c o r e c u r r i c u l u m 4) i n s t r u c t i o n a l time requi r e m e n t s . However, c o n t r o v e r s y r e m a i n e d w h e r e sta t e s a t t e m p t e d to i n t e r v e n e in the a r e a s of: 1) p r e s c r i b i n g t e x t b o o k s e l e c t i o n 2) t e a c h e r c e r t i f i c a t i o n 3) zoni n g
4) l i c e n s i n g
5) e x p a n s i v e c u r r i c u l u m r eq u i r e m e n t s .
It is the " C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l M o v e m e n t " that b e g a n to g a i n
m o m e n t u m in the m i d 1960s t hat g a v e rise to c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s
c o n c e r n i n g the f u t u r e of e d u c a t i o n in A m e r i c a (Rose, 1988). As
s t a t e d earlier, t h e s e s c h o o l s w e r e g r o w i n g at one time at a
r e p o r t e d rate of two to four n e w s c h o o l s p e r day. This m o v e m e n t
w a s c i t e d as a r e s p o n s e to the r e m o v a l of r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e s f r o m the p u b l i c schools. F u n d a m e n t a l i s t P r o t e s t a n t s c h o o l s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c u r r i c u l u m a n d t e a c h e r s t h a t e m p h a s i z e a s p e c i f i c type of m o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l i n s t r u c t i o n (Turner, 1 9 8 1 b ) . A c c o r d i n g to P o t v i n & P ar s o n s (1986), the p h i l o s o p h y of C h r i s t i a n e d u c a t i o n that d r i v e s t h e s e s c h o o l s is b a s e d on b e l i e f that:
1) the scho o l is an e x t e n s i o n of the home
2) the scho o l is the c r o s s r o a d s of the b at t l e b e t w e e n a
C h r i s t i a n a n d a s e c u l a r w o r l d
3) d i s c i p l i n e s h o u l d i nc l u d e beh a v i o r , a c c o u n t a b i l i t y for
actions, a n d a c a d e m i c work.
A c c o r d i n g to C a r p e r (1979), the c e n t r a l i t y of C h r i s t a n d the
B i b l e are p r e d o m i n a n t . However, i n d i v i d u a l sch o o l s d i f f e r in the
a c t u a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e i r m i s s i o n . C h r i s t i a n sch o o l s are
f o un d to:
1) h a v e d i v e r s e f a c i l i t i e s f r o m the m o s t m o d e r n to the m o s t
m a k e s h i f t
2) r a nge in e n r o l l m e n t f r o m 50 to 2,000