1877-0428 © 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.449
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 9 (2010) 2074–2082
WCLTA-2010 CAIRO
Statistical and mathematical models for the analysis of educational
processes in the intercultural school
Rina Manuela Contini, Antonio Maturo
*Department of Social Sciences, University of Chieti-Pescara, via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
Abstract
Lately sociology of education has had to deal with complex challenges and the rise of new social phenomenon: the impact of migration processes and global fluxes in the different contexts of instruction, the strategies for social inclusion, the demand of citizenship expressed by the “new generations”.
Citizenship is in the current context multiform meaning on the social and individual and is tied both to the matter of the formation of the citizen in the rights and duties, and on the matter of the right to education and of recognizing the full dignity of everyone, the right of difference and diversity. The essential knot of citizenship is given by “equal opportunities”.
The contribution suggest the results of a research carried out - with the administration of a questionnaire - to Italian preadolescents and foreigners attending secondary schools of first degree in the Abruzzo Region (Italy). Different aspects concerning scholastic success, creation of social relations and building of citizenship and living together were taken into consideration.
The data obtained from the answers to the questionnaire are analyzed with the tools of the multivariate statistics in order to have information on the latent sociological trends of the multi-cultural society in Italy.
© 2010 Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Multi-etnic Society; Social Cohesion; Intercultural Education; Mathematical Models of Social Sciences.
1. School and social cohesion in a multiethnic society
In the ambit of the current debate on the matters suggested by the growth of a multiethnic and multicultural character of western societies (Featherstone, 1998; Geertz, 1999; Kristeva, 1991; Beck, 2003; Sassen, 2007) and on the ways of answering the problem of interethnic living together is considered through the growing intercultural model.
Interculturalism tries to overcome the limits of assimilationism (Alba, Nee, 1997; Brubacker, 2001) and differentialism and it underlines the necessity to conciliate the recognition and respect of cultural differences while sharing a nucleus of common values (Bauman, 2000; Cesareo, 2004). Intercultural perspective is different from multiculturalism because it suggests a dialogue among cultures. Whereas multiculturalism highlights cultural differences, interculturalism is based on a two way exchange of different cultures, that are called to share a nucleus of fundamental values (Cesareo, 2008).
Interculturalism represents also the direction towards which Europe is moving, that proclaimed 2008 “European year for cross-cultural dialogue” (Decision n. 1983/2006/EC), with the intent to promote a deep dialogue between cultures that gives the necessary competences to develop a European citizenship open to the world, and respectful of
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
the cultural and based on European common values (Commission of the European Communities, 2008; Commissione europea, 2010a; 2010b).
«Intercultural dialogue is a necessity for our times. In a increasingly diverse and insecure world, we need to talk across ethnic, religious, linguistic and national diving lines to secure social cohesion and prevent conflicts. […] Intercultural dialogue is a “work in progress ” - a new step on the road towards e new social and cultural model adapted to a fast-changing Europe and equally fast-changing world. […] Intercultural dialogue is understood as a process that comprises an open and respectful exchange of views between individuals and groups with different ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds and heritage on the basis of mutual understanding and respect. […] Intercultural dialogue contributes to political, social, cultural and economic integration and the cohesion of culturally diverse societies» (Council of Europe, 2008: 5; 17).
School is a key institution to promote social cohesion, to obtain human capital, for the development of necessary competences for economic and political integration of the future’s citizens (Ambrosini, 2008). Through formative and socializing processes in the educational system, the access to the public space and social resources is foreshadowed (Zhou, 1997; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001).
“New generations” of immigrant origin, born or grown up within western societies, have become acculturate to the receiving life styles and have absorbed elements of the value system of the destination society, as the hierarchy of desirable values and the importance of consumption for social integration. This “new” youth presence leads to themes of equality of treatment and opportunity of social promotion (Besozzi et al., 2009).
Therefore reflecting on the “new generation” has become a privileged area to discuss the future of multiethnic and culturally different societies (Kymlicka, 1995; Bloemraad, 2009).
With the awareness that the scholastic institution is a benefited place where to develop intercultural competences, intercultural teaching is seen as central within the Italian regulations (C.M. 73/94) and in European orientations (Council of Europe, 2008; Nesse Network, 2008; EriCarts, 2008; De Wenden, 2008). Intercultural education is aimed at promoting the ability to learn and respect cultural diversities and the research of social cohesion, in a new vision of citizenship suitable for current pluralism in which most attention is focused on building a convergence towards common values (MPI, 2007; Giovannini, 2008).
Migration con be a precious resource on a cultural and economic level and can contribute to the development of the destination society, reducing the risk of social opposition, if the destination society offers equality in the opportunities of social promotion and if the “new generations” are integrated in a process of continuous intercultural dialogue.
2. A statistical analysis of educational processes in the intercultural school
The theme of the construction of living together in a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society è has been dealt with through the analysis of the scholastic experience of foreign and autochthonous pre-adolescents in a school undergoing transformation characterized by plural experience and by the intercultural project. In the ambit of a research carried out among preadolescents attending the second and third year of first degree secondary school in Abruzzo (Italy) - through the administration of a questionnaire - 1314 students, of which 881 Italians, 317 foreigners and 116 children of mixed couples have been interviewed.
Different aspects of the scholastic experience of these adolescents have been investigated: - school as a place for cognitive development;
- school as a place where to build social relations; - school as a place where to build citizenship.
Scholastic success has been analyzed taking into consideration: Regular attendance;
Self-evaluation of scholastic performance; Commitment to school work;
Formative aspirations.
To investigate the dimension of the school as a place where to build on social relations the following elements were taken into consideration:
Extra-scholastic friendship (majority of Italian or non Italian friends; associating of boys and girls with a different citizenship; associating primarily with boys and girls of the same citizenship);
Relation with school friends.
The dimension of the school as a place where to build citizenship has been investigated by noticing cross-cultural relations and the idea of citizenship:
Teaching the Italian Constitution; History teaching at school;
- Culture teaching at school; - Religious teaching at school.
The variables considered are: Citizenship (Italians, foreigners, children of mixed couples); gender (male, female); parents degree of education. For the foreigners also the age of immigration (students born in Italy or that arrived under six years of age; students that arrived in Italy over seven years of age) and areas of provenience (Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, Other) have been considered.
2.1 School as a place for cognitive development
As regards scholastic success, from the analysis of the data it is evident that Italian and children of mixed couples students have a higher inclination than non Italian students at declaring their scholastic success and they are more committed to scholastic work, while more foreigners than Italians admit their scholastic failure and they show a scarce commitment to scholastic work. Besides, Italian students as a whole have higher results in all the subjects taught than non Italian (Figure 1).
The factor of the time spent in Italy acts in favor of a better scholastic performance but, to confirm what has already been investigated in other researches on the theme (Portes, 2004; Portes and Rumbaut, 2005; Barbagli, 2006; Dalla Zuanna et al., 2009), is not a sufficient element to guarantee a performance level the same as the Italians: the Italians and - even if in a lower measure- children of mixed couples continue to present a level of scholastic performance higher than the one of students born in our country or that arrived during the first years of their lives.
A significant gap between Italians and foreigners has been registered in the delay of the scholastic path. The delay situation is due to repeating the scholastic year - that are more frequent among the foreigners - or due to the integration to new arrival students in classes that do not correspond to their age. From the gathered data there is a consistent number of foreigners - almost two thirds - that have not attended all the schools in Italy, and of these over a third has been integrated in a class that is inferior to their age (Figure 2).
The age of immigration, therefore, plays a fundamental role in accentuating the risk of accumulating one or more years of scholastic delay, in the sense that with the time spent in our country the percentage of foreign students that loose a scholastic year diminish significantly, as well as the possibility to be placed in a class that does not correspond to their age.
How do you get on at school
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Well or very w ell 29% 14% 18% 25%
Quite w ell 61% 60% 69% 61%
Quite bad 9% 20% 10% 12%
Bad 1% 5% 3% 2%
Italian Non italian Mixed
couples Total
Have you ever repetended the school year
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% No, never 97% 82% 91% 93% Yes,once at primary school 0% 3% 0% 1%
Yes, once at middle school
3% 11% 7% 5%
Yes, more than once 0% 4% 2% 1% Italian Non italian Mixed couples children Total
Above all, from the analysis a higher inclination of Italian and children of mixed couples students in continuing their scholastic career by attending a grammar school and then university is evident, while the preferences of non Italian students are concentrated mainly around professional formation and a rapid entrance in the world of work Figure 3; Figure 4).
Wath kind of school do you ate nd
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Gram mar school 43% 27% 41% 39% Artistic institute 8% 7% 5% 7% Technical institute 21% 16% 18% 19% Profess ional institute 17% 31% 21% 20% Other high school 8% 11% 10% 9%
None 4% 10% 5% 5%
Italian italianNon Mixed couples children
Total
Do you think of going to University
0% 20% 40% 60% Yes 42% 29% 42% 39% No 23% 31% 33% 26% Do not know 35% 40% 25% 35%
Italian Non Mixed Total
Figure 3. Orientation regarding the choice of high school (citizenship) Figure 4. Inclination at enrolling in University (citizenship) From the research it is evident that gender difference and family characteristics strongly influence scholastic success.
In fact, girls, on a whole, appear to be more motivated in studying, they have better scholastic paths than boys the same age, they clearly show a higher inclination at attending grammar schools and then university. These results confirm what other studies have already investigated (Besozzi, 2003; Besozzi, Colombo, 2007), that is to say that during preadolescents gender differences are more important than differences between Italians and foreigners.
In line with the studies on the theme, it is evident in a clear way that also transversality of the positive action that a higher title of studies of the parents and a stronger family support with homework influence the children’s good scholastic performance (Bourdieu, 2001; Kao, 2004; Besozzi, 2005; Coleman, 2005). In fact, it is above all students that have parents with a medium high title of study perform higher scholastic results, and are oriented at choosing a grammar school and then continuing studying at university (Figure 5; Figure 6).
What kind of school would you like to attend
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Grammar school 23% 45% 56% 27% 39% A rtistic institute 9% 7% 4% 9% 7% Tecnica institute 21% 19% 21% 14% 19% Prof essional institute 29% 19% 9% 27% 20% Other secondary school 10% 8% 7% 14% 9% None 8% 3% 3% 10% 5% Compu lsory Secon dary Univer sity Do not know Total
Do you think you w ill attend university
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% Yes 24% 44% 60% 25% 39% No 36% 23% 12% 33% 26% Do not know 39% 33% 29% 41% 35%
Compuls Second Universit Do not
know Total
Figure 5. Orientation regarding the choice of high school Figure 6. Inclination at enrolling in University (Parents’ educational title) (Parents’ educational title)
Among the factors that influence scholastic success and formative expectations it is evident the importance of the family support, in terms of help preadolescents receive to carry out their homework - that can be considered as a
form of internal family social capital (Coleman, 1988) - and as interest of the parents towards the scholastic results of their children.
The preadolescents that receive help at home with homework, particularly from parents, and that have parents that are interested and informed on their scholastic development are the ones that have a good scholastic outcome, perform better in the scholastic work, have better scholastic results, are more determined to going to a grammar school and later to university. As regards the parents’ interest on scholastic performance, if citizenship is considered, it is significant the clear percentage gap between Italians and students with a foreign parent on one side and foreigners on the other, because the parents of the latter ask their children about their day at school less frequently than the parents of the former two groups. Besides, the Italians and the children of mixed couplet receive help at home with a higher percentage than the foreigners. The difference is even more highlighted if the help from parents is considered. Finally, to confirm what has already emerged in other studies (Kao, 2004; Dalla Zuanna et al., 2009), help at home and parents ‘interest grow sensibly with the increase of the cultural level of the family.
2.2 School as a place where to build social relations
The process of scholastic integration concerns not only the acquisition of knowledge and abilities, but also the richness and intensity of relations with peers and adults, scholastic and non scholastic (Dubet and Martuccelli, 1996; Mpi, 2007; Council of Europe, 2008). From the reading of the data it is evident that almost three quarters of the preadolescents interviewed has made friends mainly within the scholastic institution. It is noticeable, furthermore, an internal differentiation of subgroups, because the percentage of Italians that meet their friends above all at school is higher than the foreign ones. This data can be attributed to the Chinese component that , with a higher percentage to those coming from other countries, declared to meeting their friends among the National group of the family.
As regards the meeting of friends with a different citizenship than theirs, from the data it is evident that almost a third of Italian preadolescents and children of mixed couplet interviewed do not mix the same age group with a different citizenship from theirs. Another interesting data is the one relative to a priority or less associating of people of the same age with the same citizenship, as half of the non Italian students mixes above all with boys and girls with the same nationality.
In the group of foreigners the influence of the factors of age of immigration and macro-area of provenience is relevant. Above all the students that arrived in our country a little older have met their friends in extra-scholastic environments and, particularly, among the group with the same nationality. More time spent in Italy is favorable to more frequent relations with the Italians and with boys and girls with different citizenship than their own, even if the percentage of foreign preadolescents that associate with people of the same age with the same citizenship is high also among those who have been in Italy longer or always. As regards the factor macro-area of provenience, among the foreigners there is an isolated position of students from Asian countries, that show a higher inclination than other groups at making friends mainly among people the same age with the same National group, at developing friendship with non Italians, at associating above all with boys and girls with the same citizenship. This inclination can be attributed to the fact that the most consistent number of nationality of the group of Asians is the Chinese one and in literature it is known as “closed group” of the Chinese community and the tendency of the Chinese to associate with boys and girls from their own community. The closure within the ethnic group of young Chinese is evident also according to their inclination to feel better in the company of non Italians. As regards gender differences, there is a more openness of girls than boys to associating within the scholastic environment and associating with Italian and non Italian friends.
So, school has an important role in socializing and producing social capital in the group of peers, furthermore at the same time - a sit has already been highlighted in literature (Coleman et al., 1966; Bourdieu, 1980; Giovannini, Queirolo Palmas, 2002; Ambrosini, Queirolo Palmas, 2005; Besozzi, 2005) - it is evident that not always the relations that are formed within the social scholastic space continue outside of it.
2.3 School as a place where to build citizenship
As regards the theme of the school as a place where to learn the images of the world concerning the construction of citizenship and of living together in a plural society (Kymlicka, 1995; Commission of European Commission,
2008; Bloemraad, 2009), the careful examination of the preadolescents experience has allowed to focus on an articulate framework.
Almost all the students interviewed has developed the idea of the opportunity of teaching the Italian Constitution: the Italian, the children of mixed couples and the foreign students substantially agree on the fact that in the school all students study the Italian Constitution, that is to say that they should know the fundamental principles and the regulations that regulate the civil living together (Mpi, 2007) (Figure 7). Besides, it is evident in all the groups and the three subgroups a strong inclination towards teaching the history of all populations instead of a strong euro-centered proposal (Figure 8). As concerns the opinion of the preadolescents interviewed on the teaching of only Italian and European culture or a multicultural teaching, there is a strong inclination, but less evident than the one noticed about the teaching of history, towards the idea that the objective of the school is to teach the culture of all the populations (C.M. 73/1994). As regards this it is evident that there is also an internal differentiation in the subgroups, in the sense that the Italians are more inclined than foreigners towards a didactic open to more cultures (Figure 9). The number of foreigners that thinks that all cultures should be taught at school is near to the ones of the Italians in the case of students born in Italy or that arrived during the first years of their lives.
Is it correct to teach the Italian Cons itution in the Italian s chools to all students?
88% 85% 86% 88% 12% 16% 14% 12% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% 105% Italian Non italian Children of mixed couples Total No Yes
Figure 7. Teaching of the Italian Constitution (Citizenship)
In the Italian schools they should teach
24% 20% 23% 23% 76% 80% 77% 77% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% Ita lia n N on i tal ian chi ldr en of m ix ed coupl es T ot al
The history of all the nations and population Only Italian and European History
The objective of the Italian school is to:
26% 32% 29% 28% 74% 69% 71% 73% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% It al ia n N on ita lia n chi ldr en of m ix ed c oupl es Tot al
Spread the culture of all countries of the world
Spread the Italian and European culture
Is it correct to teach the Italian Consitution in the Italian schools to all students?
82% 88% 90% 88% 87% 18% 12% 10% 12% 13% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% compulsory education
high school university do not know Total
yes no
In the Italian schools they should teach
25% 23% 16% 28% 23% 75% 77% 84% 72% 77% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% compulsory education
high school university do not know Total
The history of all the nations and population Only Italian and European History
Figure 10. Teaching of the Italian Constitution (Parents’ educational title) Figure 11. Teaching of History (Parents’ educational title) In the current debate one of the themes most discussed is the value of a cross-religious dialogue as a multicultural education (Mpi, 2007; Mentasti and Ottaviano, 2008; Council of Europe, 2008). Considering the importance of the religious dimension in an intercultural ambit, the opinion of students has been investigated upon the religious teaching in the public school. The data show a certain difficulty for the students to consider school as a space for a possible cross religious dialogue. Only 40% of the preadolescents interviewed thinks that at school they should be taught all religions, less than half think that they should be taught “only the catholic religion”, and about 13% “no religion”.
By breaking up the data into citizenship, differences within the three subgroups are evident. More than half of the Italian preadolescents is inclined to the teaching of “only the catholic religion”, while the majority of foreigners thinks that in the Italian school “all religions” should be taught. The students with a non Italian parent are in between the Italians and the foreigners and substantially their opinions are situated around the two possibilities of teaching only the catholic religion or all religions (Figure 12).
Considering only the foreigners, the opinions on teaching religion are different according to the macroarea of provenience. Above all the preadolescents from Asian countries affirm that in school no religion should be taught and, in a lower measure compared to other groups, think that all religions should be taught. Preadolescents that come from African countries are more inclined than other nationalities towards teaching all religions, while considering those from eastern European countries, little more than half answered “all religions” and the highest number of subgroups considered answered “only catholic religion” (Figure 13).
In the Italian school they should teach:
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Only catholic religion 52% 36% 44% 48%
All the religions 36% 48% 42% 40% No religion 12% 16% 14% 13%
Italian Non italian Children of
mixed couples
Total
In the Italian school they should teach:
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Only catholic religion 41% 22% 39% 25% 36%
All the religions 52% 64% 22% 57% 47%
No religion 8% 14% 39% 18% 17%
Eas tern
Europe Africa Asia Other Total
The orientations so different between Asians and Africans on the teaching of religion in the school can be explained also by looking at the importance of religion in the country of provenience: the preadolescents from Africa mainly come from countries where religion has an important role , while the Asians mainly come from China, a country where religion is not favored by the (Dalla Zuanna et al., 2009). This consideration can be confirmed by the answers given by the two groups to the question aimed at detecting the importance given to religion: religion is considered very important for the African students and not at all important for the Asian ones.
Considering the degree of education of the parents, in line with the questions on the teaching of the Italian constitution and of history, it is evident that there is a major inclination of children of parents with a degree to an intercultural teaching and towards the idea of the school as a place where to open the students mind in a multireligious key.
3. Final considerations
In recent years sociology of the education has had to deal with complex challenges and the rise of new social phenomenon: the impact of migration processes and global fluxes in the different contexts of instruction, the strategies for social inclusion, the demand of citizenship expressed by the “new generations”.
Citizenship is in the current context multiform meaning on the social and individual and is tied both to the matter of the formation of the citizen in the rights and duties, and on the matter of the right to education and of recognizing the full dignity of everyone, the right of difference and diversity. The essential knot of citizenship is given by “equal opportunities”. The analysis of the scholastic experience of Italian and foreign preadolescents in a plural school shows a composite picture.
First of all there is a gap between the scholastic success of Italian and foreign students: as a whole Italians reach better scholastic results than foreigners, they perform better at school, they engage more in their schoolwork and show a higher preference in continuing studying in a grammar school and university.
Besides, scholastic success is highly influenced by the characteristics of the family: on one hand by the degree of education of the parents, from the support received at home and from the family interest on scholastic performance of the children (Bourdieu, 1980; 2001; Kao, 2004; Portes and Rumbaut, 2005).
It is also evident that preadolescents start to form intercultural relations, but the path is only at the initial stages. Therefore, the Italian school has to promote further actions to give all students equality in education paths, allowing the acquisition of cultural and human capital that gives the bas is to participate fully in the economic, political, social and intellectual life of the society in which they live (Coleman, 1968; 1988; Kao, 2004).
Furthermore, there is the question of intercultural education as transversal and interdisciplinary, but also as specific curricular space that takes on the form of a new education to citizenship that implies the recognition of individual rights and universal values and that can favor social cohesion. In this sense a contribution can be given by scholastic subjects, that give an occasion of intercultural formation, the construction of a worldwide con science, an approach to European and extra-European cultures, and allows the presentation of the principles of the Constitution and of community and International institutions (Kymlicka, 1995; De Wenden, 2001; Bloemraad, 2009).
Religious pluralism, that characterizes European educational institutions, can be valorized through the adoption of a praxis of knowledge and dialogic comparison, aimed at widening the students’ view in an interreligious key (Mentasti and Ottaviano, 2008; Besozzi, 2008).
The educational challenge takes on a central role in the ambit of the matter of social cohesion, because the failure of the scholastic path can impede the active participation in the social life and to develop feelings of belonging (Coleman, 2005).
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