Health education, with special reference to Christchurch schools

Nith

[; p~; C IA L REF ERE Nli~ to

by

~~ .

.

-A Thesis 'ubmitted in Conformity with the RequircmGnt~ for th D gr e f ~Qoter

of Arts (in gducation) in the 7Tni versi ty of New Zealand

CliAPr,,;R I.

II.

III.

Q

_{---_-.-}

0

!

T E _...

1i

_{_--}

1:

£i.

PART ONE.

HlTROD'rCT LOI :

Choice of Subject

·

...

_{• ••} Aims of the St.udy _{• •• • ••}

c:

cope of the tudy .

.

..

_{• ••}

Method _{• ••}

· .

.

Gome Gorn)'!}on Cpit.tctsms _{• • •} 1. I-H -.;;1 toh in New ~e8land _{• • •} r.)om· Limit.ations

·

..

·

..

HEALTH EDUC TION

Deyelopment of rublic Health Medical Development _{• • • • • •} Henl tll Bd.lC ticn in ,3ehoolo _• • • Itu lJ ve_o.pment in !11m! Zeal nd Develop, lent f the Meo.ieal Side

PART T >/0.

ITS PU ilT Ol'1 IN 'CLIi: SCHOOLS TCDAY: Repli s by Headteac.ers of Primary

and Intermediate chools ••• Replies by Heudteachers of

Post-PI'lmary Gchool.... • •• Health Habits f Form II Pupils Health d' 'bi t of Form V. ~ pilo

CRAPrER

III.

IV.

v.

Heulth Knovrl clgc of Form II Pupils _{• • •}

IJoal th Kno \1'1 (lee f B'nrm V' Pupilt:l _{• • •}

DATA OB'rALNED: a. b. c. d. e. f.

F'pom ~'eplicc' b r Reudteoch .... rs ot 2t'imo.ry : Intermediate Schools

Fr-:>m 11 plies by Fe .dtcachers of P06t-~rimary Dchools

Fr01I1 Hep1ies by b'orm I 1 I'Upi1~

t

o

,uE:ctionnnirf.)

"

A

"

Froll1 l-~elJlieu by Porm \T. Punilv to .ucstionnaire

"A"

From Re lies by Form II Pupils t Q.UcstiOll.l~.i:ce liB"

Prom Hepllee by Form V "upils to Questionnaire "B'I

Action by ~duection Department _{• •}

_•

School Buildinos _{• • • • •• • • •} Gymnasia _{• • • • • • • •• • ••}

Grounds

_•

_{• • • • • • •} • • ••

• •

•

• ••

·

..

• • • • •• • • • • • •

·

...

· ..

• •• Games & Sports _{• • • • • •}

·

.

.

.

...

Training of T schers

Itinerant Specialists

·

.

.

·

.

.

"eeondary S ello 1 Spociali st.s

Food 11'-b1 t ""' _{• •• • • •} School Luncte'" _{• ••}

·

..

Patent .···U 6

·

..

_{• • •} I stent Iled1cincG

·

. .

_{• • •}

Tho Doctor

·

.

.

_{• • •}

• •• • ••

·

..

·

.

.

·

.

.

. ..

·

..

·

..

• ••

·

..

• •• • • •

·

..

· .

.

·

.

.

PAGE

-• -• • 159

• •• • • • • • • • ••

·

..

·

.

.

• •• • •• • • • • •• • • • • • •

·

..

• •• • • •

·

..

·

.

.

• • • • •• 196

245

246 252 256 260 265

276

CHA.i>TER _~

v.

CllCLn~c of r.lE.lth

a.

_{••• • • •}

_•

_•

_•

·

..

₂₉₇

)hy:-;i r.~ 1 ~~ tarrdards _{• • • • • •}

_•

_•

_•

_{• • •} 298

Need of a "'~ew Oour'se

_•

_{•• • • • • • •} 302

Need of ... ". NevI Depalo t,lIlen t, _{• • • • • • • • •}

·

306

Hopes for' the }l'uture _{• •• • •• • ••} 307 Need of' l«'urther Reuearch _•

_••

_{• •• • ••} 308

Ct-.. {!SICIJU 1, N.l.

CHOICE OF SUBJECT:

The last t 10 decades especially have seen

considerable changes in the outlook and in the ch' racter

of education. No longer is the child considered a mere

receptacle for knowledge. Physical, mental and emotional

differences have to be taken into consideration if the

child is to I' ach its fullest development. This goes far

beyond the achievement and knowledges in the so-called

"tool subjects".

II fe have left behind the conc pt that the School's

1 •

only respOBsibility is to teach facts, and have arrived at

the concept that ~he School's responsib1lity is to train for

citizenship ith due consideration of the child's phyoical,

mental and emotional welfare", says Turner

*

.

Nunn points out that to limit the idea of individuality

to the things of the mind is to take far too narrow a vie 'I of

its scope. Individuality is an affair of the whole organism

or body-mind ¥.

These utterances are typical of the educators of our age.

We have the English Board of Education in ""ueuestions

for the Consideration of Teachers - 1937", defining the

aims of education as

follows:-(1) To provide the right kind of environment which is

best suited to individual and social development.

'.' Turner, C.E. "Principles of Health Education", New York, Heath, 1916.

Nunn, T.P., "Education, Its Data and First Principles",

(2) To stimulate and guide healthy growth in this environment.

(3) To enable children to acquire the habits, skills,

knowledge, interests and a tti tudes of mind which they wi,ll need

for living a full and useful life.

The President of the Board of Education in discussing the

"Suggestions" says:- "In 1918 the order was English, Arithmetic,

Science, and so on, with physical training dealt with in the

last two pages. Today health and physical training come first,

followed by music and practical subjects, and then by

intellect-ual subjects ending with mathematics. The order in short

follovs the organ1c development of the child - first the

physical; then the concrete; finally the abstractlt

•

*

No doubt Dr. Cyril Norwood had this in view hen in discussing "The Ne Conception of Physical .b.:ducation" at the

N. '.F. Conference held in New Zealand he set out the new

conception of education as containing three provinces: first the training of the body to health and fitness: second the

training of the eye, hand and ear, by art, music and handicraft: third academic training for life and citizenship.

A British Offici 1 Wireless Messag from Rugby, 17th July, 1943, tated that the Minister of Education ( .'r.t . • Butler) had

presented a White Paper to Parliament proposing the complete

reorganisation of the present elementary schools. It stated,

inter alia, that the curriculum cov red physical training

.,. Quoted from Kandel, "Conflicting Theories of Education",

Macmillan Coy., 1938 •

3.

instruction, he lth, hygiene, training in expression, together

with education in the broad meaning Ol cit1zen~hip . nd its

responsibilities.

The ord I' in which the subjects are mentioned appears to

leave no doubt as to th emphasiS that will be laid on

physical education.

One of the results of the vJhi t louse Conference on Child

Health and Protection

(

1930

)

was the Children'~ Charter which

included these vords: "For every child from birth through

adolescence promotion of health including health instruction

and a health progratmne, vholesome physic 1 and mental

recreation and lead rs adequately trained. 1t

Our latest New Zealand "Qyllabus of Instruction -

1928",

g1 ves outlines of' lessons in Hygiene and l" irst Aid, Temperance

and .!Jhyslcal E ucation, although the first t ,o are really

included in .Phycical l':duc tion. 'fhe efini tion of physical

education as accepted by the Physical Education Cont' rence

h ld in ellington in April,

1937

includes:-(a) Instruction concerning the nature and ne s of the body.

(b) Training in the principl,s of h alth.

(c) Training and development through phy'~ical acti vi ties.

The importance of the subj ct is emuhaGizE:d.

"Good physical habits", it says, Ilonc fixed, profoundly

affect character an" health, and as these are the most important

factors in compl te living, this phase of education 10 considered

to be of th high,st importance. The ~ducation Act requires

that at lea.t 15 minutes per day shall be given in every scheme".

regarded as important as ny other p rt of the curl'lcull,lItl,

and should be taken as seriously nd s cientificallJ as

mathematico.

Ii thin recent tirneo di<:>cussiom on Health b:duc tion hav;e

been held by both 'econdary nd Primary teachers. L'st year

the Christchurch Branch of the New Zealand ~ducational Institute

met the 8chool Ledical Officers an other interested organisations

to discu s health problems in the Jchools. The result of the

local Conference will be d1scuoaed later in this thesis, suffice

it to say now that the net result seemed to be the p csing of

hopeful resQlutions and thE) disbandm nt of the Committee. This

year (1943) a. Conference is noVi s1 tt1n in ffelllngton to d' cuss

Health I dllcation for Prlmar'Y Schools. The New Zealand

Institute has just issuea a policy (. ugust, 1943) to fit in with

post-lar reconstruction.

~lIeal th and the Child".

The econd p ragra~ de Is ·ith

It 1s quite evident that the importance of liealth r.:ducation

has been recognised. ~11th the reorganisation of uchoo1s rnd

Curricula at pr s nt dvocated it seems un 'ortun' te th~t the

problem should be consider d by Primary and 8econdu Y uchools

separately.

Educational resear ch into the state of Health B ucution in

the Schools at present seems a necessary basis befo~e indic tion

can be given as to {hat chang 6 would be desirable nd

practicable in the future.

tiTUDY:

The first aim of this enquiry is to find out wh t is

5.

"Any progralTll~e of He 1 th .b:duc tion should be based upon actual

needs as shown by incontrovertible facts rather than upon

general theories".

That there 1s so much concern by th Educational

uthori ties regarding Health l,ducation, ~1Ould point to the

fact that the importance of the subject is not being recognised

in the b chools. ~vidently it 1s belrig felt tnat Headtc chers

are not giving it its proper emphasis, tIe time devoted to it

is unsatisfactory, or the metflod of treatmc:-nt lnudequat.c.

Secondly in this study I will nde vour to ive SOl e

indication of ~hat hubit and knovledge the pu_il pooces

(a) on leaving the PriDoY'Y t'chool; (b) on leaving the

llchool.

con ary

If through different channels of' di --ect and indirect

Health 1'eaching suff1cinnt kno ledge is gained -by the pupils

to ct e.G a guide for future life much Inore cannot be hop d

for.

Thirdly it i s hopod in thin research to colI ct

in1o'matlon 1hich may be of som slight use for future

consider tion in Health ~ducution, and what needs to be done

or undone in the Ii ht of recent educational thought •

. IIealth gducation, Report of the Joint Committee on

'COPE Or' TH ': uTUDY:

The'Uchoolo of Christchu ch nd its environs rere

t ke'n as a meane of obtaining what it is hoped may be

re sonable perspective as to the stat of lIe lth ";ducut on in

New Zealand. From p reon I exp rl nce ano fro'11 enquires

made triking dift r nces in other ditltrlcts have not been

found.

THOD:

To obtain the necessary inforr'lation as quickly an as

concisely as possible questionnaire were sent to teach rs of

both Primary and of Secondary Schools, including the frivate

Schools, as 7ell as to the pupils of Form II and Form V in

some of those ~choolu.

6.

The questionnaire to the headteachers obtaine chiefly the

amount of time spent on either direct or' indirect Health

Instruction as w 11 as their criticisms of the present state of

thing and their ideas for the future.

A double questionnaire was sent to some puplls, the first

to obtain the h £lIth habits of the pupils, while the second

~as to ascertain the pupils' knowledge of health.

~ here special interest in these topics lau shown in

cer'tain 'chools, nd where headteachers in ' icuted. willingness,

s personal interview 71th the hesoteacher wa'" arranged to

supplement the knowle ge sained.

The average person is quite satisfied lith tIe state

of health in N w Zealand. It is a country 'ichly endow d by

of the world's most import nt exporters of animal food tuffs.

ts population 13 small in proportion to ito re ources. "he

healthy climate, the lack of laree smoky cities, the prowess

of the "All Black" Teams, the abilities and coura e of 6ur

soldiers, tho lo ~ d ath-rate are all spoken of rea'sur1ng1y.

Perfect men nd ~omon cannot be hoped for, it is stated, so

it would be 1i~c to 1 ave well alone. - 'hero can be little

scope, it is aB~erted for Health ~ducati~n.

The vital statiotico in .he New Zealand Year Book (1942)

show a pI SSQnt plctur as r"go do the deuth-r te of

New Ze land:

Country.

l ether 1a.nds

Ne 1 ~el:llund

Uni ted G tat-es

witzerland

Germany

England &> -dales

Italy

France

J pan

Egypt

BIRTH L!~:

Period. Death-rate 1 ,000 Popu Ter ation.

1935 - 1939 8.7

1936 - 19L~0 9.2

1935 - 1939 11.0

1935 - 1939 11.6

;935 - 1939 11.9

1935 - 1939 12.

o.

19.'35 - 1939 13.8

1935 - 1939 15.6

1934 - 1938 17.4

1934- - 1938 27.4

But the death rate of any country io influenced

partly by h birth rate because of tht! greater risk of death

upon infants. The fewer the infants t'er are th less the

•

8.

The following Tables h lp to show th p06iti0n in

New Zealand:

Births per Deaths Eer

P riod. 1 .00 POEulation. 1.000 °Eulation.

1906 - 1910 27.06 9.75

1911 - 1915 25.98 9.22

1916 - 1920 24.32 10.73

1921 1925 ?2. 22 8.62

1926 - 1930 19.76 8.60

1931 - 1935 16.98 8.23

1936 1940 18.36 9.20

Th~ graph shows this tendency more clear ly, the rise in

the deuth rate in the 1916-1920 period being d~e to ar

~

I

ct

l

V) 0::

w

co

L

::l Z

22

21

11

10

9

190'il' 1910

19li

1915

GRAPH SHOWING CONNECTION

BETWEEN DEATH RATE.

AND BIRTH RATE_

hnother factor that is vLry clo ely r luted to the

general death r t is the death rate amon~ infants, for as a

rule th 10ler the infant mortality, the 10 or tIl Gcnl.ru1

death rate.

nfant orts1i ty of I ew ::ealand as compare ';\ i th

oth · ; ountries:

10.

D th. of Infants

Country. Period. un er 1Yr. Eer

1

.000 Births.

New Zco.l"nd

1935 -

193

9

32

Netherlands

₁

₉₃₅

_{- 1939}

₃₉

Swi tzerland

₁₉₃

_{5 -}

₁₉₃₉

₄₆

Englan and \~ales

₁₉₃

₅

_-

₁₉₃₉

₅₅

United citate

₁₉

₃₅

₁₉₃₉

₅₆

Germ flY

₁₉₃₅

_-

₁₉₃₉

₆₅

France

₁

₉₃₅

_-

₁₉₃₉

₆₇

Italy

₁₉₃₅

_-

₁

₉₃₉

102

Japan

_{1934 - 1938}

114

Egypt

_{1934 - 1938}

₁₆

₃

.'teredi th in her' book "Hygiene" stat s that ~he

Director 01' General Health for the Un1 ted utr tea clains a

record length of life for 1 ts p ople vho have an ver '.:.Le

expectation of life of

64

years.

*

New Zealand; according to the l~ te t st tisticB howe

the 10110 ring to be the average expGctation of l·ife in

New Zealand:

1ales

Pemales

65 Years.

68 Years.

giving a mean average of

66.5

years.

Again the infant mortality rate is intimately re.1ated

to the average exp ctation of life. In any country the

average life perla rises with a fall in the r te of

infantile mortality.

D~TB RATg FROM 'rUBERCULOJUS:

11.

New Zealand holds a h ppy position as reg rds deaths

from 'l'llber culosus:

De ths from

Countrl· Period. T. B. Eel'

10

,

000.

1.h;w 40 land

_{1934 -}

1940

4.1

Netherlands

₁₉₃₅

_-

₁₉₃₉

_5.3

United "tates

_{1935 -}

₁₉₃₉

_5.4

li:ngland and \Jales

1935

-

1939

7.0

Germany

₁₉₃₅

_-

₁₉₃₉

7.2

Italy

₁₉₃₅

_-

₁₉₃₉

9.1

Gwi tzerland

1935

-

1939

9.2

France

1935

-

1939

12.8

Japan

₁₉₃₄

_-

₁₉₃₈

19.9.

Only the Union of South Africa nd Austr lia shov

better p rcentages than New Zealand.

But unfort nately there is another side ~hich is not so

promising • Let us look at ~he reverse 81 ~ of the picture.

12.

ILL HE·

In the 1941-1942 Heport of the Departm.ent of' Health

(152.563) in-patients 'Jer treated - about 1 in 10 of our

total population.

These were pati nts of the Departments ovn institutlons. If we were to take into account out-patients of the ~o8Jitals (317,315), tho3e wlo r tre ted in private 10sJitals, and

thos who were tre ted in th '1 O'fm homes y doctors for

various forms of illnt3ss the staggering proport'· on to our

population would be at least 1 to

3.

This may not be looked upon necesl:3arily au an evil, but

on the other hand a an encoura.ging foct, that t p.O.L1e as a

hole are becoming more health conscious and talcing Q. vantage

of the ere tly expan eu means and res urces of' .lfect-ive

tr cttmont. j~ pI as'nu feature may be pointed opt th t 2 out

of every 3 are out-patients, illustrating the fuct that

hospitals rc no long~r conduct"d a "rest-houues for the

sick-poor" • !;)i!' George Newman talce3 that point of vie in

his flEnglish Gocial "t!rvlces". '"

But there lurk~ the danger thut th peopl may be

encour8gcd to place their he I th too much in th'! h<;mas of others,

wh n much more could be done by heir Own initiative nd

knowledge. It CU!Ulot be con..,idorcd an unllorthy aspIration to

look for vard to the time hhen hospi tElls r11l be 11 ttle required.

Newman, Georg , "Enelish uocial Jervlceslf

,

13.

STANDARD 01" IfiTNES"

The table set out below l ' baaed 011 m dic 1 grad1ngs

assigned to 13,274 single men xam1ned fter being call d up in

the fifth, sixth and seventh ballots, these being all men so

xamined

up

to the end

of June,

1941:-Distribution ~ointo

~ge Poi ~t

M die 1

Grade

19

21 25 30 35 40 43

~:&

66~

0

54~7

4~.O

4~

.

4

~

_"

I 73.1 32.4

24

.0

Defer. and

Temp. Unfi t

7.!i

10.0 11.5 "0.8 1

o.

5 10.1

9.8

I I

9.5

10.5 13.1 14_.8 15.3 14.6 1!.3

III

6.~ 9.7 15.3 20.5

24

.

8

28.3 33.9

IV

2.8 3.8 5.4

6.9

9.0

14.6 20.0

Al l Grades 100.0 100.0 100.0 -100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Of our Ne Zeal nd munhood, only one in t 0 over the age

of 25 years could be eApect~d to be Grade or fit for active service overseas.

An inter sting comp rison is thu t of a sim11ap table of

-marri men called up in the thirteonth, fourteenth, fifteenth,

Sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth bulloto.

• "Reports of the [fational I ervice Department", 1I-11.J1.,

Wellington, Government P~inter,

1943.

,

14.

Age Point

Medical

Grade 19 21 25 30

35

40

43

% ,f, _{_%} %

4~.l.J.

3'7.9 /'0

I II

69.7 61.7 53.3 30.6

Temp.

Unfit

and Defer. II

9.1 11.1 11 .9 10.6

9.9

8.3

I I

_"

9.0 12.6 15.5 17.4 17.2 16.1

I I I

_"

11.4 13.7 18.2 23.9 JJ.] 40.0

IV II _{0.8 0.9 1.1 1.7}

_3.3

_5.0

Al l Grades

I

_"

100.0 100.0 100.0 -100.0 100.0 100.0 $

The following table gives the percentages placed in each

grade for the whole block aged tw nty-one to forty,

inclusive:-prade T.U. Grade Grao.e Grade

I & Defer I I I I I IV TOTAL

Al l S1ngl

6.6

f n 21-40 Inc 1.t-9.9 11.3 13.8 18.4 100.0

11 ~~e.t> ted

Men 21-40 Inc 48.3 10.9 16.2 22.8 1.8 100. O.

These tables do not sive a state of confidence in the

physical welfare of m :ho ahould be in the pl":trne of life.

n looking down the t~ Ie of main de! cts ~. n in the

recrui t:3, diE;.ol"ders of bones und organs of locom tion l:rere

rcoponr.i ble for 31. 3';~ of the men being not f1 t for Gro. ~e I.

Cardio-Vascular Diseases,

15.7

%

Eyesight D1 orderc, 11.8%

"Reports of the National Service Department", H-11A, liell1ngton, Gov rnm nt Printer, 19L~3.

Mi I NT1~ NANC}:; 0'

From the J.igures of the 1941-1942 Helth epartment's

R turns, th' number of bod in the Department'o Institutions

were 11 ,617. The avepugc cont per lJed wo. L( von at £259.

giving u totul cost 1'01:' ,r.aintonance lone of over 3, 00,000.

The maintenance of tho Mental 1 OGpi tals was ,£4'+2,000.

R member tIll!'" is only th~ Depar tment t ~ InLt tut ions.

Tho cost of the ' chool Dental Clinic~ 1.0 £23,000.

feT.'

19h3-19l.J:L:

Th follov!1ng 1s the estimated e· taunt to be ., aid from

the Sr)ci 1 eC1..!.ri ty O·und for th it rna detailed 0010\.:

-Hospitul B n fits _{• •}

_•

£2,067,000

Medi(;S.l B nefits _{• • •} C1,030,OOG

MatcI'nio"Y "

nef1 ts n

539,000

•

•

• J

Ph rnaceuticel Benefits _{• • •} £-+ 536,000

upplen.en tary Dene f1 t _{• ••} £ 160,000

Adm1nlstrati ve .h:xpeI1ses _{• •}

_•

.{; _{!,i2LJ:I 000}

TCf.CJ L l!i)ll ~Hl'ITURh: _{• • • • • •} !.:~18~61000

Th1~ total exclu"es bout £1, million paun s paid to

invalids and for sickne~s.

y/e muy b sure that ih people of New I.e land in their

e1'forts to pootpone death, to alleviate phyo;>ical suffering,

to cure ill health, and to provide and ca~e for ~ncurables

16.

'::'he 1'011 v'i 19 d 'ntal treatments we'O C~H)! ied. out in

the debool D ntal

Clinicc:-l" illings

b.:xtr ctions

Other Operations

'l'OTiI.L _•••

· .

.

• • •

• ••

·

..

698

,9

2

2

81,299

274.774

1.05h.995

List 'd belo", are 0)/1 of the mt in st tistlc obtained

from tlw l&tcot repor t of the Dil' c~or General of Health:

-NUll1b\~:t of children exumine • • •

52,560

Per'centuge ~!l th der ets _{• •• •}

_••

• • •

55.23%

Defects oth 'r th n Ciental _{• • • • ••} • •

•

32.63%

"ub-normal nutrition _•

_•

_{• • • • • ••}

4.23%

Physical deformities _{• • •}

_•

_{•• • • •} 7.46,%

Dent. 1 Cal'1~s _{• • • • • • • ••}

_•

_•

_•

_•

_•• 30.9510

Bnlerg d tonsils • • • • ••

•

• • • • • 19.061v

Goi tr'e _{• • • • • • • • •} Ki n -.er'lnrten

6.39

/

tt· 11 . 'y 13.41~)lb

Scconoa 'y

_18.53;6

'

n

e comments which folloN this table b ur a pc::.,simistic

tone.

It tateu, int .r alia, th t in the Kinderg rten and

Pre-school ch1l6.r n exam ne ther i s a h1th inci('ent of defect

which houlo. b preventable.

There is a rising percentage of dental caries in

17.

ceased nd 1hero rosponsibility rebtu more on the prrents.

The serlou~ defects seen in candidates tor the teaching profesoion

giV much cause ~or concern.

*

NUTHITION:

'ub-normal nutri tien iC! S:3soar,od at 4. ~)3 . , lev I

which rema one cI'~-;i 'tently cenGtant. t rnu t e noted, thE4t

these are ub-n( rmol and oes not include those bclm"i average

n tap ,rtng to vurds the \Jub-no mal group. (fhe l' POl't ~hows

disappointment that the parents till al ow this just

-below-average nut.ri t 1on, 1hj.ch it is pOinted out 1'" wi thin the power

of the parents to prevent.

"Hany 01 us who go round an EI e the c " Id 'en and l' i n

'Ihat a great numl)er are uur. 'ering from d fRcts which arc not

rev led unle 's ono see vh~ child undre~ ed, reall~e that th .re

is no room fof' complacency wi th x'egrrd t at t OJ. nutri tion

of OUT' ch11dr n in JJe 1 ~e land". sflid D • f,lll'r'iel l'.. Bell (Dunedin) nut i tioniGt to tpe 1 er 1 th _D portrn(~nt.

T. if:' research is an ende vour to find uhat r sjJonsibili t~

if un,V, Ii t tl e door of the cJcho(')~ or 'Ihother QU1" educational

authorities are uv/a e of thi not "'0 Ie sant r;' cJ.e of' the state

of he 1 th in T~e I ,Ze land.

Under' the s b-h adtng, "Gcone of Th 1...; :Jtud,V", it las

potnted out th,t only a certain attea CQuld b. tCl.lted, Jhile the

quos lonna1r '!lethod Ihi. h 1.3 b . j n"" used in thiFl work imposes

further limitations.

18.

IIh t t:> g ined in peed and conc.iseness lith _ue t10nnuires

i lost t times in clarity. a car less filling in of the

qu stionnaire IPaY pres 'nt 0. picture very different from the true 'state of offutrs.

agaiw't thiu.

Jtcps h v to be taknn to guar ~

Thet:' iti sIn t c chan e of pu 11s not b i ng truthful

in their replies, ,s .. eially to the "A" 4,.uest1onnat e on

h i t , hop ng to ,·vo \7hnt. is cor ect r t._ r than ' hat is

true. '

AttemptB helve 'been made to avo:d thiu 'by c cek u(;stions

in the "BIf _(luen _tionn1re, G.~. _{the questton, II"hat tIm" do}

you

eo

to ned'-II is checl<od. by, If~ hat 6e1:'1a18 cio you u ... uully

llst n to?" or; "!lis your bedroom w 11 ventiluted t ni Tht?"

f:3 ch.cked by, 1f~/}le!L \'ould you consider a room vloll vontilated'l"

The ~. lu1In as of the are covered may be critic1~ed

as be1ne: too sn 11 on ,hi.ch to base a ~ asonable jud ement.

But the nobility of th teachers throughout th country, our

centralis d control wystem, plus the \7ri tel"''''' own experience

in several <lirf ).'out types of Schools should do much to

out-w ." g}J !;ilat crl t~cism.

20.

UBLIC H&i .LTH:

The strugryle for knowledge of health and prey nt10n

o

t

sickness has 11th mun become a long and arduous one.

arly belief VUG in emons ~h n a dire illness came upon

him. 1-Timitive man felt tha.t demon had taken up its abode

in him nd h was \'po8sesse ' II by it. Bibli c 1 Ii ter t\..Ll'e,

and literatur of Ancient Gre ce abound in references to them.

Homer in the dyos y tells of a sick man pining aY! y "One

uiJon 1L10m hateful demon had gazed_"• ~'ocratcs sa1 11e had within him continually a demon as his g~ardl n spirit.

Aristotle, too. the Don of a physic1 n, pc kG of demon~ as both harming and also inspiring th po sessed.

The ~ffort to cuus demons to relent ~as th first method of pr v nting and of c~r1ng disen~e.

An

inte l1e nt man of the group w s Ch06 n to furnish suggestions about h w this could be accomplished. n

the pr1 at and th

such person by common consent became both 'rrled1cine man". Thu the practice of

he Ith l!roc dures, has from the earliest times been incorporated in the religious ritual by thc priests.

In all countries, including the Oriental ountries from which inI'Ol'm tion is available, medical pr ctice began 6 pure

magic. In China for example th caus of mal ri w s h Id to

with a hammer with which to knock the head and produce headaches" •

An advanoe in sound knowledge regarding health was found in the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, and es eCially in the

Ebers papyrus and the Smith papyrus : in the tablets of clay

and stone of the Babylonians, and in the Scriptures of the Hebrews.

The ~arly Hebrews knew that man was subject to infestation

by animal parasites visible to the naked eye. Doubtless the

forbiddence of the use of pork as food was due to the observation that swine are often infested with trichin efrom which man may receive the disease known as trichinosis.

The health laws laid down by oses were most rigol ous,

and, considering the conditions under which the twelve tribes

-lived, very lise. In the Book of Levitic~S we read of warnings against eating meat torn by beasts, r of meat left till the third day. The diagnosis and treatment of leprosy is described. "All the days wherein the pIa ue is in him,

he shall be defiled; he io unclean; he shall dwell alone;

without the camp shall his habitation be". The PI' vention of

contagion from running sores is carefully detailed, while

the treatment of emission, sexual intercourse and menstruation

is not overlooked.

r.

any of these laws are repeated again and

again, while the wrath of the Lord is threatened on those

who breaK these laws.

HISTO leAL PEHSffiCTlVE:

(ven the l OGsibility of transfer of disease by

clothing was recognised. If the priest found the garment of

22.

the leper "unclean" the rule was, "he sh 11 therefore burn that garment, whether warp or woof, in woollen or in linen, or anything of skin wherein the plague 1s; for it is a fretting leprosy; it shall be burnt in the fire". From this source we derived the concept of inanimate objects as v hicles of ieesse, and of disinfection of such objects.

The Hebrews may be cons,ldercd uS the IIfath ra of public health". The principles they so early established huvs been

supplemented but not supplanted.

Th Athenians ror shipped Hyge 1 and )anacea.

ideals included splendid posture, balanced living, bodily

training and 'cleanlincsa. The Hellenic Library at :~l xandra, befol's 1 ts destruction, contained advanced studies of anatomy, physiology and hygiene. hese texts w re doubtles .... ly influenced by the great minds of 111ppocro.tes, H rophilus and Era""istratus.

The engineering fats of the omans furtherc the ~tandard

of community hygiene. Bngland b gun to learn the need for

public sani tation in the early days of the 20man OCc'.4pation from 55 B.C. untll410 J.D. ["ome'had pro tined ..,anit tion and hygiene throughout the Empire; the provision of water supplies; the

building of ro dB and hospitals; the control of food; h ouse-heating an ventilation, and the 8VPointment of medical officers.

J1noth r triumphof 'oman engineering skill as their system of public baths. !l;very town and village hGld i tc bath.

','he teaching:::, of Christ appear to lay greater em;·llaois on the con' it i on of 1:h soul than of tha t of th ' body. .l.rTlong the

r ,edi terranean peoples, disease and filth of the body wcr .

23.

The : 1 dIe n.ges rver dark ages indeed s fat> u.b 11· ul th education las concerned - plagues and fevers B eelJ1ng It:urope.

r .ichelet speaks of this per od as a "thouoand years i th(Jut a bath ".

It is though thot the av 'rage length of life could hardly

luve b en more than ~ight yars.

DUJ>ing this epoch the time honoured methods of sani tation

and ioolat1on were used, but vithout much effect since the

knovledge of the bacterial causes of th se iseases as still

laclting. bani tation was directed only toward. visible filth;

persons an things that looked clean were supposed to be clean.

Isolation 1 9 applied more strictly than ever, but not strictly

enough. For' exampl the leper was allowed to go to the

village well and dip his cup into the water. Most of the

indirect modes of transfer of disease ,ere not suspected. The

best learning afforded by the "Seven Liberal rts" contained no reference to the body in health or in illness.

The Renaissance period brought some advance. Hospitals

for isolation were built in many cities. Also quarantine was

used for the first time. At this time cities began to pass

MuniCipal Laws for the regulation of public health concerning

community sanitation, isolation and disinfection, and the newly

developed system of intercity quarantine, which v~s praotised

during epidemics.

Laws in London in the 13th and 14th Centuries required

each hous holder to Iteep the str'e t in 1'ront of his own house

clean, and forbade the throwing of filth and the ~ander1ng of

24.

Edward III forbade the throwing of filth in the Thames while Henry VIII appointed commissioners of' sewers.

Historically the modern period of sanitation 1s thought to have begun about the time

of

the discovery of the printing press but actually a new era did not set in until the 17th

Century when the microscopists found "worms" or "animalcules" in decaying matter, in the blood of those with plagu , and in the excretions of the well. Medicine at that period had done little to curb disease and sickness.

Lady Mary Montague was only partially successful by inoculating the wells with mater1al from the sores of those

suffering with small pox.

When Jenner, in 1798, iscovered the idea of' inocul ting with vacc1nia, a nev era dawned in public health.

Pasteur's proof in 1876 that the anthrax bacillus was

the cause of anthrax laid the foun ation of bacteriology and its companion science immunology.

At each new advance in these sciences health agenci s

seized upon the opportuniti s they afforded for larg scale preventive work, with the result that one by one most of the

pestilences of old have either been banished or brought und r

control.

Even the discovery of "accessory food factors", which we

noVi call "vitamins", has not been lost sight of.

The Ministry of Food in England is doing all it can to educate mothers in the value of milk, fruit juice, cod liv r oil. oranges, eggs and school meals by the in~ert1on of advertisements in women's magazines • •

25.

Th Ministry of Health an the Ministry of Food have combined

to make av ilable this ,inter free supplies of cod liver

011 compound, and black currant julc and puree (later orange

juice from America) to all children unGer two years of age.

The Ministry of Health issues in similar maguzines full

page rticles on ~uch subject s, "Ten Plain Facts about

Venereal Disease". '

The Minister for Health in N Zealand, r.li. H. Nordmeyer,

initi ted on a broadcast on 15th A~gust, 1943, a twelve

months' health campaign ~hlch ls to be carried out through

the press and radio.

flB:DICAL DEVBLOPMEftz

Along with the development of public education it

is int resting to not the parallel development in the medical

world.

Earll st records show that tian took th1ngo int rn lly for

the tr . tment of illnesses. Th subst nces f1rot uGed ~ere

from the animal world, as for instanc the lungs of a fox were

eaten to give "wind" and to cure lung disease; or the sw llow1ng

of a whole sk1nned mouse for Children's di eaoes.

In trying to find the nimal sourc of the evil spirits

of disease, useful forms of remedies 7ere often stumbled upon,

as for example, the UGe of cod 11 v r oil for rickets, '.lhlch has

been used for 6,000 years.

V getable substances were used on the same principl s,

no mineral medicin 8 being used till after the Rennaisance.

*

Bri tish Ministry of Health; "Ten Plain Facts bout Venereal

Di ease";

26.

urgery has b n pract10 d from earlie t tim· s. One of the first operation ~. s the treplinlng of th8 skull to let .h d mons out.

Imhotep 2,000 D.C., 01' nc1 nt Egypt., ,t nds out as a gr t physici n, medicine· becoming th;. major j.nteJ. est in

Egypt1 n ci viIi at· on for centurie artc!r. \ omen also

practised medicine, while Cleopatr ~ s probably the first

gynecologist.

M dicine in Cireece was just. as b cltwo.rd as in oth r

countriee, although we hear of the rame of Asclepsios.

Berore one of the temples dedicated to ABcclpsios at

Epidaurus, stood at tue of Asclep ios and his t ·o o.ughters

Hyge1a, the Godd S6 of Health and Panacea the Goddess of

Healing. For the fir st time in History the t 10 major o.spects

of medicine were distinguished.

Hippocrates, !ho was one of th fifteen illustrious men

Peri'Cules

who adorned th Age of "*) .p.Q-l ~, bec me th(~ F£lth 1." of !ied1cine.

He was the fir t to look ror t he cause of () i <'ea e in man himse Ii'

an in his environment. H felt th t t .. n shoulo cl~ept more of tho responsibility for hi own he lth. He c'ui • "In or er

to cure the human body, it is neceSB ry to hdV a l{ltowledge of

the rlhole of tl-lings".

Hippgcrates

To +H.~ science owes the follo'iing:methoQ.s which it

has used eve' since:

(a) Accurat studied observations, not merely casual

observation of th obvious, but a genuine effort to ob erv

27.

(b) Complete rJcording of f ct th t oth ro mi ·ht

chuck them with th ir own observ tiona.

(c) correlation of f cta by ssembling all facts be ring

on the Barn subject n comp T'ing them.

(d) R aching conclusions bas d upon demonstr ble facts

h ndl d in a 10 1c 1 manner.

A. istotle, through his \vork in biology contrib.lted much

to medicine, usin~ 1 reely the Hippocr tic method.

'~hen th glory of Greece waned, lexand r estnbli. ... hod at

Alexandri much of the r k learning whe-re the first medical

school w s establish d th re with Herophilus the natomlst_'. .

Two oth r medical schools were established at Corinth and 'myrna.

In Rome we find Celsus c rryine on the work of Hl!>pocrates.

I cla~ ifiea edicine into three fi Ids:- regimen an dieteticu;

intern 1 treat ent by drugs; nd urgery_

It was Aretus who st ted th t insanity was a disease,

und not pOvs oSion by demons. DeoscrideB work on materia

medic , work of five volumes, was the only work 0 itv kind,

and held it authorit tive rank for sixteen centa~'ies thereafter.

Much credit must go to G uen for his 10rk du~ Lng the

Dark Age. He learned th t blood was cont ined in tubular

v ssels and the difl'erence b twe n a t ri 1 ana venous blood.

Aft r th fall of Alexandr ia, Gr ek leu ning nl pre .... erv d

not only in l ome, but also in Jersl nd in Arabia. Rhazes

of Arabia, accurate y de~cribed small-pox and meaulco. J~vicenna,

a Fersi n publi hed about 1 ,000 A.D. an encyclopaedia of medicine

28.

Arabi n medicine entered Spain with the Moorish invasion,

and it enter d It'ly with the returning Crusaders.

The firot m die I school w s t blished t th University

of ualcrno in

1150.

tiere physicians w re professionally

trained. From olcl"no ca.me an interestL g volume, Ifi~cB1men

;'anitatis" on ruleD for healthful living.

lith Par cl ,sus, we find a definite-break with the p·st.

lIe w s the Celaus of modern times and developed the ~3cience of

medicine. By his efforts min rals were first intrf,duced as

medicine"", mercury becoming widely used for syphilio. nd

greatest of all h believed in the healing pone s of th body.

Dev lopment followed rapidly from thut period. Ves 1iu~

(1514-1564)

became the founder of the ~cience of anatomy.

Harvey is regarded as the f ther of physiology and well known

for hi IOrk on th circd.lation of th blood. Malpighi

(162

8-

1694)

used the microscope to study the tiosues of the

body - di.lcovering the capillary blood v ~selG.

( 1624-1

689

)

1s kno\ n s the ·'nglish I ippocrates.

( ydenham

l:-'hysicians

at this time ~ere still using strology, palmistry, mu1 ts and

charms. 'yd nham ged ~ar against thlo. II . condemned the

giving of a multitude of medicines 0 prev 1 nt t th t time.

Mergagni's otudies s

w

the be inning of pathology. Ie

wanted to know what h Pliened to the structu e f th body in

disease.

(1821-1902)

carried on r, org gui's work

investigating the change undergone by cells during di..,ease.

He is known s the ~ather of cellulur physiology and uthology.

ern-I'd (1813-1878) not only made many discoveries

29.

m ny others to w rk in the su di,'ection.

The diGcov~ry of bfcteri by I~ teur, the Jork in regard

to tuberculosis, pin~ s ' ckneso ahd IT larla uGh.r medic ne

into the mo ,rn period.

F'rom th se br111lunt and potenti 1 dtscovl'}J'ies new

world of medic 1 se' nee vms formed to I' - I'c 'S an old riO '1

of magic. Nor \ e" thea great m n I'one; theY' bruught

with them troops of 1sciple und. successors 'ho sav.d mol'

1m n lif th n hud ~Lr b n Gaved bror in th . . istory of

th humun fat ily. In th tw nty Yt UPS from 1880 to 1900

the caus of disco lnd its V oeeso hL\d been dioc r ~r Jd

-in nthrax, . eps:is ~ mo.luria, typhoid feveL, tubcI'CuloGi',

glan 'ers, cholt.:r , r bies, tet nus, pn umonia, .enineitL .. ,

pI gu and dy try.

Furth r development hus seen the g nerul practition I'

gi v 'fay som what to th sp ,ciallst a no single physic i n

c n be k pt fully po tc <. on .very hI" nch of medicine. There

re 0 many teehniq, es in ai c;nosis

single phys ci n could become adept

nd tree t lent th t no

nd p 'of .ient in them all.

J:..g in t. c nccess Py cqui.nmeJlt to () 11 th . work rerd,uir d in

the field lould be too cO[,tly for every phy c n t.o ovm unJess

he Jere going to 1 oe i t often.

The folio:lin!:, br nch~6 of m dicine h vc beeom' sp c1alise

fields: - nternal m dicine; .Jurgery (Anesthesiology nd

Plastic "uI'gery), Ortho e 1c Jurgery, Pedi trics, Gbat tr>ics

and Gynecology, vpthamology, ,tol I'gngology, D rmatology,

30. This has led also to wid r dey lopment in tr utm nt.

For th sick person In old n times thA tr l trflent w c lmost

certain to be medicin of' oom s rt. Today n wid variety of other tre tmento is vailubl nG W 11, chi~fly medicines, surgery, physicol oeonci -s , biological products, hygienic regimen and psychotherapy.

This developmcnt in mcdicine and treatments hUD certainly caused welcomo roll;f. to the fluffer1ngs of hUt'l nity, but

~ an' b hopo hac l woy be 'n that d1...>ou"'c ,QuId be leept from

coming upon him.

Medicine it_ sooms, hao pass d thf'cuah th rllogi.cal stage to the mO:7C ociontific und curutivo stage, and i3-noVl probing its way into the preventitivc level \/hich has t;o major

aspects:-1-(a) ;",or'k diL ected specifically towar s the causoo of

di' ease, und

(b) ~Jork db'('.cted toward the upbuilding of' he. I th.

As of old, p'revent_a~i ve medical worl:: today is both a

per onal and a group rna t l,er, or in other words, a . cr' .onal and

public matter.

From the personal cic,c this Hork .is Qeen in the study

and practice of hygiene, as with a. pr--clin5.cal medic 1 oervlce.

Medical eervi ~es as provided un er :3ocial S'·curi ty Schemes

hovo this as baatic aim in our m.odern timeo but ·Sl .... P('~lfleis

aeon bofo. e the 17th C ntury in } L~ J "Advf).ncemant of Learning",

medicine:-31.

"This is a new vart of medic1n and deficient, though the moat noble of a l l : for if it may be su~plied, medicine

111 not loh n be l,i holly v r'se' in . or id cures, nor phYoicians

be honored only for necetsity, uut &6 lspensers of the

great st ea.rthly 1 ppiness that could 'ell be confer', -d on

flor tals If.

*

Chief among th 11 ork don and still b(·ing done on the

preventive lde i s that on food.

The value to the body of such. minerals as c:::.lcium, VhusphorU8, iron, &odium, pot solum, and the suIts of

ulLlhur ·man ne·e, tTl gnesium fluorine and fluorin . ha.s be n

the basis of JllUC.l I'euearch.

in 1906, Go"lnnd Hopkins, corr lating all th<.t was knO!1 about th ad' i tional 8ubutunces in foods, th t \~rere n cessary to lif and health, called them, "accc6 ory food factors It. 11 1910 Ouoifl11r ~ unk gave th TJ the n me they

no\v bear - vi tamins - , lac};: of JILCh C u8ing Ih t is known

The discovery of vit I'ne cwne at a ainfulurly opportune

moment. By the b ~einniJlg of ,his CentLU'Y ther. "\ u13 a great d.ecrcD."e in th eOIlGwClption of fr e8h and un:. cf'inL-d f oo o. The papule tion \,'IuS miO' t1ng from th counJ ... t>y J,O the to\:ms.

This led to frep,h /ountL'Y ~\'oduce Guch 0, vceetablcG, l,iilk

and eBLB becollll.ng too uOt:;tly for the urbun poor, Ihile their

increasing con<"'U1!lp-tlon of 1hi te 11oUl' ulGO ~(L lously i.npoverished

~:: Meredith; .f.'lorence L.; "Hygiene':; l-'ililwlolphia;

32.

their \.liet. 1.'hese insidious changes in tho Il&tion's food

oaused, 'nd still cauoe, mild or even seveI' vitamin

deficiencies in at least half the population.

N THE eLi :3fHC AGE O~' GR' ECE:

Among the Greeks of the Classic Age the tr,lnine

of the body took a place in ed cation and in life that

probably it has never attain d before, nor since.

The education of the ,~partan boy was such as to ensure

his being a disciplined yet resourceful soldier - that of

a girl to be a mother of such soldiers.

Their ed...lcation r,:as almost entirely physical. '1'h Y rere taught to ride, to swim and to spend a great part of

th ir day t various ~orts of gymnastics and athletic

activities. The girls shared in the gymnastics and in the

,

musioal training.

I~ ATHENS: (Chiefly

5

B.C. - 2 B.C. )

In the school p riod of from seven to r,lxtecn,

fully half and sometimes more than half the tim 18 devoted to this training of the body.

Physical activities centred pounC t~o sorts 'of

lnsti tutions - large public buildings fOl' the use of odul ts and the palaistra attached to private housa or schools.

"On

arriving at the chosen palai tra, the boy would

find a class assembling. F.e woul ~ 'irst Co j nto the dressing room and strip for all the exeroises we!'e performed naked •

• Bicknell Prescott; "The Vitamins in ,edicine",

33.

7his no doubt gave the trainer th o1:JIJort' .. mi ty of \latching

\7hich muscleG most reCiulr·ed. d 3v01op. lit., nnd :hut conot1 tut10nal

vJeaknesses, 11' any, must bo treated cir'cumllpoctly. PSLsing

into the pa; aistra PX'0lJ ,1', th. boy ~'Juuld find h enclosure

surrounded, in the case 0-" the mo e exnen' .... ve se! 001<." ,:i th

pill • .lJ:'fJ. Th )1' , :OUlll _b0 no _' nf . H ':!.lonie eL , .... torl " ':t' ntained

the t t t 'qas !leul thy to expoL> . t,ll nak d ho<ly t o ;he pen air and t' <:0 r lid-daY sun. If the uun be_fr'~ dangerously hot little

C.1pr :.er·e " rn, ~!~ ich at othe:r ~dmcs hung on th 1 vlal10 of the

p laistru. 1 .... '11e floor' 'lia sand.

Th otafr of the .;;'u1ulstr ulso lnc:ludeu .:.'llofc nui0n.ul

fl t.e ploy rs. i.: i.' moat of h' ex rc S let' iJC(" OT'! .U t o the

sound of u fl',ltc. "hat fliti ~ro Ine hoy~ 1 H'n fi ::;',: ~,t the

palai tr'a? De.!.Jor·tm4.;nt unc.i msy exerel e . I pa,J0uiJ,0 in

- i tophunes in.4 0 '111 us thut th J 1eY' t" ,gIlt the i'lost gr' eeful

way to 01 u down ancl ge+. Ui.J. V 80S r _vT'esc.'l.t 'boy. Ie' ring how

to sand strui Tllt.

Danc1n"", \JUG ulliv ,'S' 1 th.'ollghout hI, lI~llenic '1Ot'l<.l and

l: 1tlyed u la ge 1. art in J{ I_eni edllcut -on thj:"l1 in (, tl .• ll;:r

l'ccognised. Chm."ul (lrlncing to a IIellene \ms t \1Ilce the

L i tual of reliGion, tho or IJ.naT'Y uccnmp nL ) nt of' .. , festi vl..l

or ub11c ho1idc.y, th hi ;he t fa 'm of rn' sic .nd the rno .... t

perfect sy t Tn of nhysieal exerci ~,c tho ,n d rH~OV' l'ud".

34.

THE

1'.3 compu"t 8d l7i +h the 'reek, t 'oman pi)' uicul

edllca t ion s11o\'r' (l re lapse to the PUI' , ly ulili t~.\r· ian level

l)h:,'-slcul devcloymellt nd ski 11 in t h use of lie' IJOlllJ \Jcre

ulons uimtJd :_It and Gl,.cm' Jd by r. iIi tal'Y l"il l 1.1.1<: exnru-.ue in

the c .. lrnp an on tlk field.

JI i tIl the adoption of the sc tic 1doul of' life

ChUI'ucteristic of chJ. istiani ty in the ear'lj' rUddle h.ges.

Int..;Y'e t in physical training nd "he welt'are of' the body

largely uisoppeared.

"It 13 :l.uite nutural that play be not only Ignored but

vigorously C..!ulrlbc:l.ted in Er:lch un' '. gee The maMo con'31dol'od 1 t

as derived from heathenish practices, and ulGO a.:. be:in one

instrument o~ :Jatan ror leuding th> phyoicul self lnto

pleasure and te lptatiun. ',(l1U follo. in q"t.lotutiol1 O.:.i..:p:.. .... osses

a saintly warning against aliJlowing chilili:'dn to play, "J.?lay of

whatever sort should be fOI'bidden 1n all e-ral1t',i;Jlical ~(!hools,

and its vanity and folly Ghould be cxplai ad to th childnen

.vi th warnings of' 'ho~ it turns the mind i'l'om God nd etornal

lifelt •

~URIN Tllli RElill.IL3~44NG~.

In th re-awnkening OL inter~st in edueotion

genertllly, .and in th dL etion of t 1ou£,ht 'to the natlll'e and

meant) of education by the '1ritero una philosophers of the

35.

Renaissance. phY"'ical education was given some r hal'e of

attention. For cx~ple in the first re-emboaiment of th

Greek ideal of' a liberal ea.ucation, lTThe 1'1 aSl.nt house"

School of Vi ttorin.a da Fel tre (1428) sports nd games ""ere

1-joined ith study '1 u strong emphasis lato upin the natural

activities ot the child us a basio for its school work.

Luther', "rusmu6, Mule ~ter' and Comen1us a 1 included

physical care an·' 1.he tr ining ot' th, body ~110lJC. their idt:als

of du<.:otion.

liomenius' text. HOrbis 1ctus" 1h1ch 'UG a standtiL'd for

hUllurt:: yel:l.rs lnclu es ch pter on II }>tirts of r1luull, "}'lesh and

DO",7el

It,

ItChanels 'nd bones', "den""es", "Deformi tieu" and

"Temp r' nc It . This rema ~kab16 l.;ook was olso illuc'trut~ci.

John Locke in 11iIJ ItThoughts Concerning ,duc .tion" (1682)

devoted the first thtrty paragra.phs to u cii·~cUSDicm of' phYDical

education \Vh i ctl ello. ~i th the words. '''l'hus I huve aon with

what concerns the Body und ! ealth, mien reduce~ itbelf to

these 1'e an easily observable r ules - .I.'lenty O~' l:pbn .nir;

Exex'eiae nd Qlcep; 111o.1n Diet; No ~Jine; 01' Btron.:; .iJI'inlq

and. er'y 11 ttle or no Physic; not too warm and Gtl'ai t clothing;

e' peciully the Head and ~ et kept cold; and the ~eet often

uGed to 001d . C:lt~l' unci exposed to ~Jet 1/.

Such 1I'i tings hO\/ever l' fl "ctea but th' PCI'" n' ]. opinions

of the uthors, J 10 'e1 , g~neI·e.l phl1oBOlJhers, j nter8Bted in

educati n, vhile uttemp s lik~ thoflO () f Da i"'eltre, to r ~-ombody

the Or 'ek :Ldeol of educution in i t~ en'Gil~ety, aff cteti. but

36.

Rousseau' writings rere a revolt gainst the intellectual

type of education of his tl~e. Natural development a~ an aim

fixed a.·t~ntion upon the body organs nd t nee(" of health

10 vigour. In order that the body may d velop natur lly,

health must be the im. Hatur I cl vclopment me ns tho full

pI Y of the muscles of t.ho body 1.n explorations, in h ndling

materials and in plays D.nd . n games.

~that knov.'l .dge is of m08t worth becomes wi th :3pencer _ as

VIi th Rou.Jseau ana i th Bacon the chief 'juestion of educational

importance. To this Iuestion ,)pent' t' gives the aeflni te

categorical ansv.'et'%- Kno 1ede VI/ ieh l aos lrectly to self

pre erVL tion, uch as inc~llld the sCience of physiology,

hY£i ene, phY'iics and che 1stry, i 6 0 fir t im ortance. Knowledge

'Vhich 1 ds indir ctly to self p e"eY'v tion thr'ough the

cci nc .S and arts relating to the <;>ecur1.ng of food, clothing

a 1(. 61101 ter' com s next. Thi d in ora r of importanc i s

the krio ll.dg of rearing of off-spring.

Huxley folIo JS som hat th, same lines f'''' ~-)pencer, Bacon

I nd ot.hers. ric beeins h1f; d fini tj on of 110 , "'11 , 'c 1;ion

from !fA I,ibcr" I t':duc t lon" in :"\01 -.nce 1 d g uc. t.:i In ~'. A6 d

th:-"Th"t m,.I [th1nl<:, ho. - had a lib ,1" ·1 educat' on Vlh:J h 3 b en

so trained jn youth that his body i the ~~ dy', erv,nt; of his

.ill".

Bl.lt the influence of .1? lri tant. m 110. fastened .... trongly on

us. In its higbc for D J"~1tantsrn c red so Eup~e~cly for

th", soul th t th body '" of nothing 'north; bodily health

'lias the .J1ft of God; Livon 0 deni d at His pI asure; nd

37.

results of a total lack of sanitation. In its lo~cr ~orm3

it taught the gos }el 01 Jo .. ie, th cond.emnation 01' ' 11 playas

frivo11 ty. i t jus if1 d pI'otracted hours of' viork in bt.t.d

(;Ol1tii tj onB and cOlTllllerciul SUCCCt>S 'lag tuken s · oign tho. t

God W'a8 pI 8.sed. .;,

Juch n outlook may be di 'ficul t to reconcile dth the oft quoted rem rk tho. t, 11'.1.'11. uttl", of ,.' t", .. :loo ~/:;.; on on

the Pla.:ring !j\' clus of Btonl.. I nfor tu . t r.ly no 1 (;l;o.,d c n

bt..:: trticed of an orgunis d gSlfIcs in ';ngluna. U1l''o.~il t,l u lCltt r

h'·11 or' t' Nil1ctt;"nth century.

,Ii th th tUr'n 01' t LC 0 ntury ho\tovcr, d ... ':'ni tu ttempt

\V1.,;'c mucie to find u rna!' l..:>U·v1tn'· ctory pI co 1'01'" tho phYoical

{:.iue uf' c.aLLC· tion; und no gr'atln: a(.;. v' lCCS 'wel.'O Hi tne ... sed

th n In ~nc;l· nd. / ieh die.. not Jui t for ti'1" lmpet L ()f lur.

In tn code of 1 ~02 th~ c luims 0.1.' [Sumcs, hy~ienC::l and

1'11;1 i<.: 1 a eu t.ion (toe;e t11<.: t' \/1 th cookcr' , IUl.Lndry wo!'l;: und

'.I.'lte "',-oults of the 1903 IIHoyal ommit.;sion on .Phyoical

'.i'ra1nin " In Guotlalld an the ') ~CJ4. "Interdepartmental Comm1 ttee

on .!.JhYl1i!; 1 l.)(;l r'ioration" was follov ed i::'l 1 :;l06 by a permios1 ve

Euucutiol1 A t in l'avour of Dtute fo ding 01' school children •

.1.he m Yom' nt was furthor accentuuted 'oy the becond

Int.tlrna1..ion 1 Cong'I'Css on ~chool l'ygi ne i i l 1907, e;;ivillb r ise

t9 t 11.:' School I'J.Gdic 1 Inopcc tion ,\oct ai' th

'lllis la tt I A "~ requirod euch chlld i l l 'l"l ; Jehool to be

lIled1caIlyexa ined, nd allow d special P.l.UVibion to be made

t.,c "Educe. tion fop Compl ,te Li v1ng" ; edi ted uy CUnningham;

for childr.en durin~ the school v, cation. It MIlo lCI' .

autho!'! tie3 to ee:tablish vacstlon C1...8 .es, play ~entre6 or

other means of recreat.ion a.ur i

e

th~ hoI .. uJ'-~ c:C t oth(~r

time"', 01 t €T' l.n the school t t oe If or eIst. here. "t the

sam tlm in n local 8uthorttic8 tl ~ C:tlt.l of p··ovh11r·.,. for

38.

the me-"1cal ins_le(:t-ion o:f l1ildrcn imme ~1a e_y before OT' at

the time of Or' .81 <:!oon as po slbJe B.fter o.dmicsion and on such

et.hel. occa:: jons a the Boc:. d of ·'d'lcnt1 )n ·' lr.'ect.

A r t fr.-om +bc mOT'e st lctly med c, 1 .BlJect of the . ork

tle r !!Iult 1s alr"'a y seen in the p.m)ha,1.c on ~pcn-uir ~each1ng,

thA prov t)I1 of , 1001 bathe, tncr .. ::GI . t tul ti on to clothing

and to )t'L ~onfAl hygit'ne, to 1> .JF'. cr _{1 ec11~ .at! I , to tho lightine,}

cle nine and v·nt11atin of R~ 001 bl iIdtnGs, to ~cho'l

fUY'nitu e, t' ud:l~le ooklJ ·nd t.he lil<:f1.

1 go () (1. deal 1'1 ul:1o bAin.S 0.' ne to f;~ I).cute e· r~.ley und

inCiiffeJ"ent paX'e:t1ts to .n", o~ thpi.ro dlltlf'l8.

A I'11k-1:r1'~c~ools t"Icheme 'as ~oml'1'\nnced in ':n~l!1nd in 197,4

by lhich milk CO lId oe p~rchaF'. d at ~ If pr ice) or eiven free

in neee; Gitous cases.

att· chOM to _{such . .} s~h rne _{i A} ~ _{0 'Tl ()7} i;h: f' _{c , t1l'<" V'lt)}

'l're ·oury m<- Jres a mfostnntj 0.1 gi' nt t . cover tllC~ aXi)': l ... en of the

;,111<: !"nrJcpt,jnL., 1'00.1"0.

'l:i.thin the ll)nt t~,o yf' r s th r,l i n' .~ !·,r.y oJ..' ?oud has

dv rtised l romin .ntly ,h b ,;;;i . !'O(luil'O "ents fn'" (~hilcJ ... 0 Ith,

granting fre , "7it.h ut any m,an~\ tests, c d lj.vcr oil, one

0 .. ange juice Gub-:-;1.1 tut •

U. J.A.. :

39.

the for runner of' health service, h d beC(lTllC , 10. l~,.. ado ~ :" d

in the c ' t1 8 of ,he Unitt

r.

.'tat~s. 'l:'he l)st two d ndo·'

have 'rti tnen ed the un1v sal in.clusion of h ulth ed :c~,~·,icn in

the curriculum of thc' .1nmcnt ry schools, although th(.,

secondary schools have It::Lgged in \dopti ng tho!'ough inc.truction

in th' important subj. ct f'ield. ,mphasis has hifted from

pure physiology t.o practic 1 he 1 tltful Ii ring. 'T'he To' nt

Comrlli t.tee on He'll th j'roblcms in ~c uc t. on . eet. nr :In .. '..., in~ton

in 1924 has f'ormul ,t d oh;1 ct.j ve , pY'o,erarru e , ~nc. cu~ , cula.

The scope of health education ~as b ad n~d to include first

10, ac 1 C e t prevention, ed CDt· on frr par ntl'1ol. d l1d

in tr ial and corrm1uni ty h- gJ n , as Vi"'11 a t.he pm'ely

personal ~E~ects of 11 81t.h _rv~~rvat.ion.

In general it r',ay be sBid tho . a contr Gtt;(~ ':it th

l~n.>lDnd, th , t ; clcncy in ~·.hc [.T. ( .1 . i to ')1' C (11:'01'"-r

ernphn is on d'rect h 11th iD0tluct ion and on th pr)m~tion

of -co-op ,ration between th0 schou , ~:re hO'1e. anr' t 1e health

Garvie s in all th~t anne ~ns ~h. hL&lth f ~hc hi1 .

. ,VC' J mr .dna ' I ~ 70 } . 13 1'<:'6 \1 t .... d in a . ter,tj,on 1.1 :i.n(E

clrn ... m to phy icul oef'.c"i.cTIL!ie und th~ 'Iar' of ·'914--1918 uS

been no ception, especially so in the V/UL'-torn countries of

',UY' _...

.

F.anc , ' f t 1" thv ltc," rl:u"', plu.ce · physic:ll ·ducntion under

he Uni 0 try of r, but ,J). reGp()Lwbility w s gradually

tro.nDf <rrcd t the l/,inis'tl"'Y of.' }ublic.: Instruction.

In 1929 th Ullc.er-Hccretf ry of tate for' l)hysicril Bducation