ANCIENT AND
CLASSICAL GREECE
CIVILIZATION COMES TO
EUROPE
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
• The Land
– Mountains dominate land; cross land travel difficult – Fertile river valleys were center of settlement
– River valleys formed basis of polis
– No place more than a few miles from sea
– Outdoor life common due to temperate climate
• The Sea
– Greece is a series of peninsulas, islands – Sea travel easier than land communication – Most Greeks took to the sea
• Economy
– Agriculture: Grains, honey, olives, grapes – Herding: Goats, sheep, cattle
– Trade: Necessary to make up for lack of resources
PHYSICAL MAP OF AREA
MINOAN SOCIETY
• Knossos
– Minoan society arose on Crete, late 3rd millennium B.C.E.
– Takes name from legendary king of Knossos, Minos
– Lavish palaces at Knossos, between 2000 and 1700 B.C.E.
– Linear A, a kind of written language, is found
• Island of Crete
– From 2200 to 1450 B.C.E., center of Mediterranean commerce – Received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt
– Established colonies on Cyprus and islands in the Aegean Sea
• Society
– Much evidence of egalitarian society; women had rights – Agriculture was important: grapes, olives, fishing, wheat – Trade was very important: marble, artifacts, cloth
• Decline of Minoan Society
– After 1700 B.C.E., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis – After 1450 B.C.E., wealth attracted a number of invaders
– By 1100 B.C.E., Crete fell under foreign (Hellenic) domination
THE ISLAND OF CRETE
MYCENAEAN GREECE
• Mycenaean society
– Indo-European immigrants settled in area, 2000 B.C.E.
– Adapted Minoan Linear A into their script Linear B – Fortified agricultural settlements in Peloponnesus – Most important settlement was Mycenae
– Society resembled Aryan: emphasis on war, trade
– Kingdoms ruled by strongest of nobles; constant strife
• Chaos in the eastern Mediterranean 1100 to 800 BCE
– Mycenaeans engaged in Trojan war, about 1200 B.C.E.
• Troy may have been a Hittite city-state and trade rival
• Tomb of Agamemnon, Troy excavated by von Schliemann
• Recorded by Homer in the Illiad and the Odyssey
– More invasions by Hellenic tribes – “Sea Peoples”
• Later Hellenic invaders moved by sea along coasts
• Seemed to have raided into Palestine, Egypt as Philistines
ANCIENT GREECE
THE GREEK DARK AGES
• 800 TO 500 BCE
– Called Dark Ages due to loss of writing – Age remembered through oral traditions – A period of migration and warfare
– Hellenes spread to Italy, Sicily, Asia Minor, Cyprus
• The Hellenes
– Indo-Europeans who settled in area
– Tribes include Dorians, Attics, Achaeans – Originally aristocratic societies
– Warfare, slavery, and trade common
GREEK TRIBES
THE POLIS
• Greek City-State
– Polis = city-state; Poleis = city-states – Metropolis = city of polis
– Acropolis = fortified center of city – Boundaries shaped by geography – Terms of politics come from POLIS
• Politics, politic, politician, polite, polity
• Police, metropolis, metroplex
• Most important
– Athens – Sparta
POLIS OF ATTICA
POLITICAL FORMS
• Archon: Greek for “ruler” – English “archy”
• Kratien: Greek for “to rule” – English “cracy”
– Demos: People – Democracy (direct election) – Aristos: The Best – Aristocracy (nobles)
– Oligos: The Few – Oligarchy (rule by select few) – Monos: One – Monarchy (rule by a king)
– Di: Two – Diarchy (Sparta’s state had 2 kings) – An: None – Anarchy (No government)
– Theos: God – Theocracy (Rule by priests, religion) – Geron: Old Man – Gerontocracy (rule by elderly) – Pater: Father – Patriarchy (rule by males)
– Mater: Mother – Matriarchy (rule by women) – Auto: Self – Autocracy (dictatorial rule)
– Tyrannos: Tyrant – Tyranny (rule by a dictator)
– Ethnos: Ethnic or locals – Ethnarchy (rule by the local people)
SPARTA
• Sparta
– Situated in a fertile region of the Peloponnesus
– Began to extend control during the 8th and 7th centuries B.C.E.
– Reduced neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or servants – By 6th century B.C.E., helots outnumbered Spartans by 10 to 1 – Maintained domination by a powerful military machine
• Spartan society
– Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle
– Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent – Commitment to military values was strong
– Society was a military aristocracy; state ruled by two kings – Young boys, girls educated in military barracks
– After marriage, men still lived at barracks; women ran homes – Women: surprisingly free in comparison to other Greek women – All merchants were foreigners licensed by state
LACONIA: SPARTA
ATHENS
• Athens
– Population growth, economic development caused political strain – Sought to negotiate order by democratic principles
– Citizenship was open to free adult males
– Foreigners, slaves, and women had no rights
• Athenian society
– Maritime trade brought about prosperity
– Aristocratic landowners were principal beneficiaries
– Owners of small plots began to sell lands, some became slaves – Class tension became intensified, the 6th century B.C.E.
• Solon and Athenian democracy
– Solon forged a compromise between the classes – Opened polis councils for any male citizen
• Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.)
– The most popular democratic leader of Athens
– Ruled Athens during its Golden Age
GREECE & THE LARGER WORLD
• Greeks founded more than 400 colonies
– Controlled Black, Aegean, Adriatic, Ionian Seas
– Settled Sicily, S. Italy, Corsica, France, Spain, Africa – Settled Coasts of Yugoslavia, Albania, Turkey, Cyprus
• Effects of Greek colonization
– Facilitated trade among Mediterranean lands – Facilitate exchanges between peoples, cultures – Spread of Greek language and cultural traditions – Stimulated development of surrounding areas
– Spread civilization to ancient, Neolithic areas – Warfare increased
– Technology stimulated: naval, navigation, astronomy
THE GREEK WORLD
GREEK MILITARY
• Based on citizen soldiers
– Lightly armed, armored foot soldiers (Hoplites)
• Carry shields, long spear
• All citizens had to furnish own arms, armor
• All citizens expected to fight in army, navy
• All citizens had military training in school
– Fought in massed formations called Phalanx
• Very useful in rugged terrain; used 10’ long pikes
• Easily defeats massed cavalry favored by others
• Greek navy
– Rowed vessels called galleys
• Most famous was the trireme or three oar banked
• Rowed by free citizens
• Fought by ramming other vessels; than hand to hand
– Greek fleets included larger vessels
• Equites or mounted troops were aristocrats
THE PERSIAN WARS
• The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.)
– Cyrus and Darius controlled Anatolia
– Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted, 500 B.C.E.
– Darius’ Invasion
• The battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E.
• Greeks led by Spartans and Athens battled Persia to a draw
– Xerxes Invasion
• To fight Persians, Athenians build a wall of wood, or a navy
• Xerxes seized, burned Athens
• Athenian navy destroys Persian in the battle of Salamis, 480 B.C.E.
• Persian army retreated back to Anatolia, 479 B.C.E.
• The Delian League
– Alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat – Military force from Athens, finance from other poleis
– As Persian threat subsided, poleis no longer wanted to participate – Athens uses navy to turn Delian League into Athenian Empire
PELOPONNESIAN WAR
• Pericles Rebuilds Athens
– Athens experiences a Golden Age
– Pericles turns Delian states into Athenian colonies
• 30 Year Civil War (431-404 B.C.E.)
– Athens and Allies vs. Sparta and Allies
– Costly victories/defeats and plague wreck city – Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E.
• Hegemony first by Sparta and then by Thebes
– Constant warfare between leagues, allies – Spartan hegemony replaced by Theban – Greece horribly weakened
– Athens remained intellectual center of Greece
RISE OF MACEDONIA
• The kingdom of Macedon
– A frontier state north of peninsular Greece – Partially Hellenized society
• Philip of Macedon (re. 359-336 B.C.E.)
– Built a powerful army, overcame the power of clan leaders – Began to offend Greece from 350 B.C.E.
– Brought Greece under control by 338 B.C.E.
– Murdered possibly by wife and son
• Alexander of Macedon and his conquests
– Educated by Aristotle; gifted in many areas – At age 20, Alexander succeeded Philip
– Invaded Persia, controlled Ionia and Anatolia, 333 B.C.E.
– By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia – Invaded Persian homeland and burned Persepolis – Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E.
– Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of 33
ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE
HELLENISTIC EMPIRES
• The Hellenistic Era: Age of Alexander and his successors
– Saw a blending of Hellenic (Greek) and Asian, Egyptian traditions – A Greek layer of upper class ruled over an Asians, Egyptians
• The Antigonid empire in Greece, Macedonia and Thrace
– Continuous tension between the Antigonid rulers and Greek cities – The economy of Athens flourished again through trade
– Overpopulation, many moved to the Seleucid empire
• The Ptolemaic empire ruled Egypt, Cyprus, often Holy Land
– The wealthiest of the Hellenistic empires
– Greek rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society
– Efficient organization of agriculture, industry, and taxation – Royal monopolies over textiles, salt, and beer
– Alexandria
• The capital of Ptolemaic empire, at the mouth of the Nile
• Cultural center: the famous Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library
• The Seleucid empire Mesopotamia, Persia, India
– More Greek influence than in Egypt
– Greek, Macedonian colonists flocked to new Greek – Colonists created a Mediterranean-style urban society
• Parthians, Bactrians, Mauryans, Romans were all Hellenistic
HELLENISTIC WORLD
INTEGRATION OF MEDITERRANEAN
• Trade
– Olive oil, wine, in exchange for grain and other items
– Trade brought prosperity, population growth, colonization – Merchant ships with 400 tons capacity were common
– Some cities relied more on commerce than on agriculture – Controlled slave markets of Eastern Mediterranean
– Trade rivalry with Carthage in North Africa – Athenian silver drachma was common currency
• Panhellenic festivals
– Sense of being Greek prevailed among all Greeks
– Romans later admitted to Panhellenic, Olympic games – Colonists shared the same religion and language
– Periodic panhellenic festivals reinforced their common bonds – Olympic games, the best known panhellenic festival
FAMILY AND SOCIETY
• Greek society in Homer's works
– Heroic warriors and outspoken wives in Homer's world – Strong-willed human beings clashed constantly
– Highest achieve was arete
• Aristocracy (landed elites) vs. common
– Over years, aristocracy gradually came to control most states – Held most of the social, political power
• Patriarchal society
– Male family heads ruled households, could abandon newborns – Upper-class women wore veils in public, accompanied by servants – Women could not own land but could operate small business
– Priestess was the only public position for women
– Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis – Common occupation of women was cloth making
• Slavery
– By law, slaves were private chattel property of their owners – Worked as agricultural laborers, domestic servants
– Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen, business managers – Slaves were commonly prisoners of war
RATIONITY AND PHILOSOPHY
• The formation of Greek cultural traditions
– From the 8th century, drew inspirations from Mesopotamia and Egypt – About 800 B.C.E., adapted the Phoenicians' alphabet to their own language – The Greek cultural feature: a philosophy based on human reason, rationality
• Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.)
– An Athenian philosopher, determined to understand human beings – Encouraged reflection on ethics and morality
• Integrity was more important than wealth and fame
• "The unexamined life is not worth living"
– Critical scrutiny to traditional ethical teachings
– Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youths
• Plato (430-347 B.C.E.)
– A zealous disciple of Socrates – The theory of Forms or Ideas
– His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)
– Plato's disciple, but distrusted theory of Forms or Ideas
– Devised rules of logic to construct arguments; father of western science – His Nicomedian Ethics became later basis in Christianity
• Legacy of Greek philosophy
– Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until 17th century – Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians.
– Provided a powerful intellectual framework for future generations
GREEK RELIGION & FINE ARTS
• Greek Polytheism
– Atheism considered treason, illogical
– Deities: Zeus, Athena, Apollo and many others – Worship tied to patriotism and civics of the polis – Public worship and house gods
• Various types of religious cults
– Dionysian Rites – Oracle of Delphi
• The Theatre
– Tragic drama (Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides)
• Dramas performed at annual theatrical festivals
• Tragedians explored possibilities, limitations of human action
– Comic drama (Aristophanes)
• Lampooned public and political figures
• Art and Architecture
– Both were for public consumption and public enjoyment – Balance, proportion and rationality part of design
HELLENISTIC WORLD VIEWS
• Hellenistic philosophers
– Epicureans
• Identified pleasure as greatest good; freedom from turmoil, pressure
– Skeptics
• Doubted certainty of knowledge, sought equanimity
– Stoics
• Taught individuals duty to aid others, lead virtuous lives
• Emphasized inner moral independence and tranquillity
• Cultivated by strict discipline of the body and mind.
• Religions of salvation
– Many people felt no allegiance to old gods, beliefs – Syncretism: Mixing of Greek, foreign beliefs – Mystery religions
• Promised eternal bliss for true believers
– Foreign Cults
• Egyptian cult of Osiris became very popular
• Worship of Isis favored by women
– Speculation about a single, universal god emerged