COMPOSTING
A Beginner’s Guide
The Robert A. Macoskey Center
for Sustainable Systems Education and Research
at Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania
This publication was made possible by a generous grant from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as administered through the Butler County Office of Recycling and Waste Management.
Written by Megan M. Ward Edited by Thomas J. Reynolds
© 2002 Slippery Rock University. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by federal copyright law. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or to be used to make derivative work without prior permission.
Table of Contents
Preface 2
Introduction to Composting 3
Introducing Your Decomposers 4
Benefits of Composting 6
Factors Affecting Organic Breakdown 7
The Art of Composting 9
Troubleshooting 11
Composting Initiatives at RAMC 12
Single-Bin Outdoor System 12
Multi-Bin Outdoor System 14
Municipal Scale Windrow System 16
Indoor Vermicomposting System 18
Composting Toilet 20
Be Green: Reduce Your Waste 22
Appendix A: References and Sources 24
Appendix B: Sources for Figures Used 25
Preface
This publication is designed to introduce the concept of composting and provide basic assistance with managing your home compost pile. It also describes the variety of composting systems employed at the Macoskey Center for Sustainable Systems Education and Research.
The practical benefits of composting are many including reduction of material in the “waste” stream, reduced reliance on synthetic chemical inputs in the home landscape, and increased productivity in the garden. But perhaps more importantly, engaging in composting sets the stage for people to become more responsible for the consequences of their lifestyle choices.
It asks people to examine what they are simply “throwing away,” and see how it fits into the bigger picture of resource management. Composting allows people to enter into a mutually beneficial relationship with nature.
Enhancing this “collective awareness” of our place in the global ecosystem is one of the essential building blocks necessary in order to effect the paradigm shift towards a more sustainable society - one that allows for a personal fulfillment and a healthy planet.
Happy composting!
Thomas J. Reynolds Editor
Fig. 1. Decomposition process of a compost pile
Introduction to Composting
What is compost?
Compost is a dark and earthy, humus-like material that is rich in a variety of nutrients, minerals and beneficial soil organisms. It can be used in gardens, yards, and houseplants to help create the most healthy and well-balanced soil environment for your plants. In many cases, compost can be used in place of commercial fertilizer and is much more efficient in making nutrients steadily available to plant life. It also improves the physical and biological properties of soil in ways that commercial fertilizer cannot (see Benefits of Composting, pg. 6). For these reasons, gardeners often refer to compost as “black gold.”
How does composting work?
Composting is certainly not a new idea — it is merely an acceleration of the natural process of soil creation that has taken place for thousands of years.
Decomposition occurs slowly in nature, but humans have realized what conditions are favorable for this process and can speed up decomposition by regulating these conditions (see Factors Affecting Organic Breakdown, pg. 7).
Whereas nature creates roughly one inch of humus-rich soil every thousand years, you can easily create useable compost in as little as two months. The best part about composting is that you probably already have all the necessary ingredients right there in your home. Food that would normally be thrown in the garbage, raked leaves and grass clippings that would be collected and put in a landfill can instead be used to your benefit!
Introducing Your Decomposers
Two kinds of biological decomposition occur in a compost pile: physical and chemical. Various microorganisms present in the soil are responsible for the chemical breakdown of organic matter. In contrast, soil invertebrates break down the pile material physically. Let’s meet your decomposers!
Microorganisms
Soil microorganisms consist primarily of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi.
Bacteria make up 80-90% of the microorganisms present in a compost pile.
They are responsible for most of the chemical decomposition that occurs, using a variety of enzymes to break down organic material. As a result, they generate most of the heat within a compost pile. Actinomycetes are fungi- like bacteria that are primarily responsible for breaking down tough plant material, preparing it for continued decomposition by other bacteria. Fungi also serve the compost pile in this manner.
A compost pile goes through three phases of chemical decomposition, with temperature defining each phase. In the early stages of compost creation, mesophilic (moderate temperature) microorganisms begin to decompose organic material. They are very efficient, generating enough heat to yield temperatures above 100° F and preparing the pile for thermophilic (high temperature) microorganisms. This “hot” phase is helpful to destroy any plant or human pathogens present as well as weed seeds. The thermophilic stage can vary in length, but the final stage is a several-month long cooling and maturation phase, where mesophilic bacteria return and complete the process. It should be noted, however, that if ambient temperatures are below 70° F, psychrophilic (cool temperature) bacteria will precede mesophiles, but this phase does not generally carry out a great deal of decomposition. It is rather a “preparation” phase that enables mesophiles to enter the pile.
Invertebrates
Soil invertebrates are responsible for the physical decomposition within a compost pile. They feed on the available material and re-disperse it throughout the pile in a somewhat complex food web that includes first-, second-, and third-level consumers. During the heating phases, the invertebrates either die, become dormant, or move to cooler parts of the pile.
They become most active when temperatures decrease. Common soil invertebrates include mites, springtails, sowbugs, centipedes, millipedes, ants, beetles, green fruit beetle larvae and redworms.
The image below gives us a window into the complexity of compost systems. These critters represent a significant energy savings — not only do they make use of the energy embodied in organic material, they use that energy to give you a valuable product! Fossil fuels are no longer needed for waste removal or production of garden inputs. Three cheers for these
“compost critters!”
Introducing Your Decomposers
Fig. 2. Food web of soil microorganisms in a compost pile Source: Ecology of Compost: A Public Involvement Project,
SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Benefits Of Composting
“Closing the Loop”
Composting makes proper use of rich organic material that would otherwise be thrown away. In nature, nothing is considered waste — everything is food for something else. By modeling nature, we can more effectively use our natural resources in a sustainable manner.
Improves Soil
Compost improves the physical, chemical, and biological properties of s oil. This has numero us implications: resistance to erosion and drought, stabilization of soil pH, increased macro and micronutrients, more efficient utilization of these nutrients, greater presence of beneficial soil microorganisms, and suppression of plant diseases.
Saves Money &
Resources
Since composting makes use of orga nic ma terial ra ther tha n throwing it away, it reduces your impact on diminishing landfill space and can minimize your garbage bills.
Composting provides a natural fertilizer, reducing or eliminating needs for hars h c o mmer cial fertilizers that require the use of fossil fuels for their production.
Compost helps soil to retain water, potentially reducing water bills.
Makes Gardening Easier!
Because compost can act as a soil conditioner, natural fertilizer, and mulch, maintaining soil health and moisture levels is easy! Many commercial fertilizers release large amounts of mostly macronutrients in a one-time, quick application.
Addition of compost allows for the slow, steady release of macro and micronutrients which can stimulate healthy plant growth without co mpro misi ng soil inte grity.
Compost soil enrichment also lengthens the growing season because soil is darker and more able to absorb heat from the sun.
This means planting earlier and harvesting longer. It’s no wonder gardeners call compost “black gold!”
Compost — It’s Good For You!
Home compost has the potential to contain a greater variety of micronutrients than commercial fertilizer. Further, the application of compost improves the ability of soil to make these nutrients readily available in a form that can be absorbed by plants. Maximized absorption of these micronutrients will enhance the nutrition of your garden’s produce.
Factors Affecting Organic Breakdown
Five factors have been identified as important for microorganisms in your compost pile to work at their best. It is helpful to keep these factors in mind as you build and maintain your compost pile — the speed of compost generation will be a direct result of attention paid to these factors.
However, no “right way” to compost exists. It is up to you to decide how much time you want to put into pile maintenance as well as how fast you desire finished compost.
Carbon : Nitrogen Ratio
Two types of material are needed for a compost pile: those high in carbon and those high in nitrogen. Microorganisms in the compost pile use carbon as an energy source and nitrogen for protein synthesis. A good C:N ratio to ensure efficient decomposition is 30 parts carbon to 1 part nitrogen by weight. (Note: this ratio refers to the chemical composition of a material, not to a required volume!) When too little nitrogen is present, decomposition will occur more slowly; if too much nitrogen exists, it can be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia gas (which can cause your pile to become smelly).
If you are a small-scale home composter, it is more difficult to achieve the ideal 30:1 carbon to nitrogen ratio with readily available materials.
Therefore, use this rule of thumb: add two parts nitrogen-rich materials to one part carbon-rich materials by volume. Nitrogen-rich materials are called greens because they are generally fresh, green substances. These can include grass and garden clippings, vegetable scraps, and coffee grounds.
Carbon-rich materials are referred to as browns because they are generally dry woody substances. Examples of browns are fallen leaves, straw, and twigs.
Do Compost Don’t Compost
Large quantities of grease, bones, meat and dairy products (can cause odor and rodent problems), cat or dog manure (may carry diseases), weeds that have gone to seed and plants that are dis- eased (can be re-introduced to your garden), plastics or other non-organic material (will not break down.)
Veget ab le scraps, breads, p la te scrapings and leftovers, coffee grounds and filters, tea bags, hair and lint, manure, scrap paper and cardboard, grass and garden clippings, leaves, sawdust and wood shavings, twigs….
Almost anything that comes straight from nature can be added!
Surface Area of Added Material
The microorganisms in your pile break down pile material at its surface. If particle sizes are small, microorganisms will digest more material, multiply faster, and generate more heat, all of which will lead to faster compost generation. You can help this process by chopping, shredding, chipping, splitting, or bruising the material that you add. Doing so is not necessary, but it will speed up the composting process.
Pile Moisture
Microorganisms work fastest when thin liquid films are present on the surface area of compost pile materials. Optimal decomposition occurs when moisture content is between 40-60%. If the pile’s moisture content is below 40%, microorganisms will work more slowly or become dormant. If moisture content goes above 60%, nutrients are leached and the pile can become compacted. When compaction occurs, decomposition is slowed and anaerobic bacteria may become dominant in the pile, which can create unpleasant odors.
You can test your pile’s moisture content by giving it the “squeeze” test.
When pile material is squeezed tightly in the hand, it should feel like a damp sponge with only a drop or two of liquid expelling. If the pile is too wet, turn the pile and/or add absorbent dry material. If the pile is too dry, turn the pile and add water slowly during the process.
Aeration
Aeration, or air movement through the pile, is necessary for efficient decomposition. Aeration occurs naturally as air warmed by the compost process rises through the pile and draws in fresh air from its surroundings.
Wind can also help with pile aeration. Porosity and moisture content affect air movement through the pile.
Porosity, or the amount of space between particles of material, can decrease if the pile has compacted. Excessive moisture will fill up air pockets with water, either directly reducing aeration or compacting the pile. Turning and/or adding coarse, dry material can improve aeration conditions.
Temperature
Microorganisms generate heat as they work. The most rapid decomposition occurs between 90-140° Fahrenheit. To ensure a pile’s ability to create this amount of heat, a pile of at least one cubic yard is needed.
The Art of Composting
Just as with the factors affecting organic breakdown, creating a pile under optimal conditions will hasten the compost process. However, individual situations may not make this feasible. Keep in mind that decomposition will occur regardless, but the following suggestions will provide compost more quickly.
Location
The best location for your pile is out of direct sunlight, which would dry it out, and out of direct exposure to high winds, which would dry and cool the pile. Putting a pile on soil with good drainage will help avoid excessive moisture. Do not put your pile against a wooden building or a tree; wood that comes into contact with compost may decay. Other considerations would be to place it out of the way of lawn and garden activity, near available water, and where there is enough room for temporary storage of organic wastes.
Volume
The size of a compost pile should strike a balance between being large enough to hold heat and being small enough to let air reach the center. The minimum size should be roughly a cubic yard (3 ft x 3 ft x 3 ft), and optimally the pile should not exceed 5 ft x 5 ft x any length. If the pile is smaller than a cubic yard, the sides should be insulated. When a pile becomes taller or wider than 5 feet, frequent turning will help increase air flow and avoid anaerobic activity.
Pile Construction
Compost piles can be done in batches or by adding material as it becomes available. For those who want compost more quickly and/or have an ample supply of browns and greens, form a pile by layering the two types of materials in roughly 4-6 inch increments, beginning and ending with browns. Mix the layers as you add material. This becomes a batch pile and will compost more quickly than an “add as you go” pile. If you do not have a lot of material, simply layer what you do have and continue adding as more becomes available. Although this method creates compost at a slower rate than a batch pile, it is probably the most common method used by small households.
Pile Maintenance
Maintenance of a compost pile consists primarily of turning the pile and adding water as needed. The level of maintenance is entirely up to the individual but if finished compost is needed in a short period of time, turning the pile at least once a week is recommended. Many people do this at the same time that they add new material; doing both at the same time helps to incorporate the new material more quickly, hastening its decomposition. Adding water may occasionally be necessary although simply turning the pile will often redistribute moisture appropriately.
If the five factors affecting organic breakdown (carbon and nitrogen content, amount of surface area, moisture content, aeration, and temperature) are taken into account while maintaining a pile, finished compost can be achieved relatively fast. A compost pile is finished when it cools to within 10° Fahrenheit of ambient temperature, decreases to roughly one third of the original pile volume, and is dark and crumbly with a pleasant odor and no recognizable remnants of partially decomposed ingredients. An easy way to tell if your compost is finished is to put a couple of handfuls in a tight-sealing plastic bag and let it sit If the compost smells foul after three days, it isn’t finished!
Pest Avoidance
To avoid pests such as rats and other rodents, certain food items should be left out of the pile or added in very minimal amounts: meat and fish scraps, bones, cheeses, butter and dairy products. Bread and other items that are high in carbohydrates and sugar may also attract rodents, but a small amount is not likely to cause a problem. Using a constructed or commercial bin for your compost pile will certainly help with large rodents, but many times is not necessary. Fly larvae may become an issue if the pile is not turned frequently enough. Covering your pile with either finished compost or a dry, high carbon material such as straw can also help with pest control.
Health Considerations
As long as normal sanitary measures are followed most people have little to worry about — simply washing your hands after working with compost should be sufficient. Normal allergic reactions may occur due to the presence of molds and fungi. Individuals who are highly sensitive to such things may need to take added precautions such as wearing a common dust mask while turning the pile.
Troubleshooting
Rotten Odor:
Ammonia Odor:
Low Pile Temperature:
High Pile Temperature:
(> 140° F)
Pests:
(Rats, Raccoons, Insects)
• Excess moisture (anaerobic conditions)
• Compaction
• Too much nitrogen (lack of carbon)
• Pile too small
• Insufficient moisture
• Poor aeration
• Lack of nitrogen
• Cold weather
• Pile too large
• Insufficient ventilation
• Presence of meat scraps or fatty food wastes
• Turn pile, or add dry, porous material like sawdust, woodshavings, or straw
• Turn pile, or make pile smaller
• Add high carbon material, such as sawdust,
woodshavings, or straw
• Make pile bigger or insulate sides
• Add water while turning pile
• Turn pile
• Mix in nitrogen sources such as grass clippings or manure
• Increase pile size, or insulate pile with an extra layer of material like straw
• Reduce pile size
• Turn pile
• Remove meat and fatty foods from pile, or cover with a layer of soil or sawdust, or build an animal-proof bin, or turn pile to raise temperatures
Problem Possible Causes Solutions
Composting Initiatives at RAMC
The Robert A. Macoskey Center has a variety of working compost initiatives that serve as educational tools for Slippery Rock University students as well as the general public. We welcome curious visitors and can provide tours describing these initiatives to those who are interested.
Single-Bin Outdoor System
This system is probably the most common method of composting on the household level. The single-bin system is easy to maintain, but provides compost more slowly than other methods because it is used for the “add-as- you-go” approach to composting. Still, you can speed up decomposition by being attentive to the five factors described on pages 7 and 8. For an add- as-you-go pile, finished compost will be located in the bottom layers, moving upward in various stages all the way to fresh, non-decomposed material. Remove the compost from the bottom layer when it is needed.
The Center uses a commercially available bin donated by the Butler County Cooperative Extension, who makes the bins available to any Butler County resident as a way to promote composting. We generally use green and brown materials from the garden and the kitchen to maintain our single-bin system.
You can easily construct a bin with available materials — even using a trash can! Moreover, a holding unit is never necessary. An open-air compost heap created using the method described in “pile construction”
will work in much the same way.
Fig. 3. Examples of different holding units for a single-bin system Source: Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream, NRAES-43
A graduate assistant adds kitchen scraps to the
“Earth Machine” single-bin outdoor compost system.
Finished material is removed via a door at the base of the unit.
Turning or mixing the pile periodically can speed the decomposition process.
Multi-Bin Outdoor System
A multi-bin system allows you to stockpile large amounts of material and create “batch” piles, which produce finished compost at a faster rate than the “add-as-you-go” approach. Collected material is added only to the newest batch. When enough is collected, the material is turned into the next bin to allow faster decomposition and another pile is started in the emptied bin. After the “active batch” becomes mature, it is turned into the final bin where it is stockpiled until needed in the garden. In creating a multi-bin system it is important to assess the amount and type of material available for your compost pile as well as when each becomes available.
As always, paying attention to the factors that affect organic breakdown will help optimize the performance of your system.
The multi-bin system at the Center is constructed from some old wooden pallets and has four bins for material in various stages. The fourth storage bin is used to stockpile browns, which are added to the new batch as green material from the kitchen or garden is incorporated. Household kitchen scraps, residue from our organic gardens, and material collected while maintaining our landscape go into this compost system in large quantities.
Fig. 4. An example of a turning unit for a multi-bin system Source: Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream, NRAES-43
As “green” kitchen scraps are added to this system, “browns” from the stockpile are added to create a layered pile.
The new batch is turned (flipped) into the active batch bin for further composting.
The finished batch is ready for use in the garden landscape.
This multi-bin system consists of four piles of material that are rotated through the composting process.
Municipal-Scale Windrow System
Windrow composting systems were developed to handle the decomposition of large amounts of material in a centralized location. Material to be composted is placed in a long pile approximately 5 feet wide. Typically, mechanical aeration and the addition of water are used to speed the decomposition process.
The Macoskey Center established a windrow system through a grant from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, which formed a partnership between the borough of Slippery Rock and Slippery Rock University. The grant allowed for the purchase of a trailer-mounted leaf vacuum, which is used to collect leaves from borough residents every fall.
These leaves are placed in long, narrow windrows on a three-acre site at the Macoskey Center. Throughout the school year, buckets containing pre- consumer food scraps from the two university dining halls are delivered to the site three times per week along with coffee grounds collected from the University Union coffee shop. One of the Center graduate assistants manually adds this material each time it is delivered and monitors the process of decomposition within the windrows. A large, tractor-operated Sandberger compost turner is used to turn the windrows periodically.
This type of system is a far more material- and labor-intensive process than maintaining a home composting system, but our windrows provide enough compost to supply the Center’s organic market garden and orchards as well as a host of other agricultural initiatives sponsored by the University.
Fig. 5. A windrow composting system using a mechanical compost turner
Source: US Department of Energy
Overview of municipal composting site.
In a typical week, approx. 120 gallons of food waste is manually incorporated into the windrows.
Preparing to turn the windrow with a Sandberger compost turner.
Turning the pile can dramatically increase the decomposition rate of the
windrow.
Sifting debris from the finished compost is necessary to remove gravel and other foreign objects.
The composting process can take up to one year, but the finished product
is worth the wait!
Indoor Vermicomposting System
Vermicomposting is different than traditional composting in that the pile is managed for conditions that are favorable to worms. Most experts recommend using redworms (Eisenia foetida) in vermicomposting systems because they can transform up to half their body weight of organic material into valuable worm castings each day under optimal conditions.
Major benefits of vermicomposting include: increased speed of composting, greater nutrient availability of castings and limited space requirements.
Commercial worm bins do exist but many build-it-yourself designs are available both in books and internet sites. Food scraps are placed on the top layer of the bin, after which a small layer of bedding should be added.
Redworms naturally move upward through the layers in the direction of newly added material creating harvestable compost on the bottom of the bin. It is important not to add too much food at a time — the high temperatures created by nitrogen-rich sources can kill the worms in your bin.
The Center employs a commercially available continuous vertical flow vermicomposting system (Eliminator 300 available from Happy D Ranch, www.happydranch.com, (559) 738-9301). Kitchen scraps are added in layers with shredded newspaper roughly twice per week. Periodically, finished compost is removed from the bottom layer of the system. This particular bin has a window which allows observation of the composting process — the change in the soil profile as the worms process material is clearly visible.
A Final Note: It is advised that anyone considering beginning a vermicomposting system should pursue additional information. We recommend “Worms Eat My Garbage” by Mary Appelhof as an excellent starting point!
Fig. 6. An example of a worm bin for a vermicomposting system
Kitchen scraps are added periodically in layers with shredded newspaper.
Finished material collects in a bin under the composting chamber.
The “Eliminator 300” has a window that allows students to view the “soil” profile.
Composting Toilet
Like traditional composting methods, composting toilets rely on biological decomposition to convert “humanure” into a safe and stabilized soil amendment. Unlike a conventional flush toilet, a composting toilet uses no water to evacuate wastes. Material is collected in a composting chamber where it is decomposed into water vapor, carbon dioxide, and a small volume of compost that is rich in nutrients and organic matter.
The Center has a Clivus Multrum composting toilet that has been in operation since 1990. Humanure collects in a composting chamber located in the basement and a small amount carbon-rich material such as wood shavings or sawdust is added after each use. The finished compost has a bacterial content, texture, and color similar to that of topsoil and is used to fertilize ornamental plantings, trees, and other non-food related agricultural endeavors. A ventilation
fan provides constant aeration of the pile and cr ea tes a ne ga tiv e pressure in the bathroom and basement, ensuring any odors are eliminated.
Maintenance of the system includes monthly raking of the pile, and periodic removal of finished compost (every 6 months to a year.) The heavy use of the this system translates to a savings o f ro ughly 30,000 gallons of potable water per year. Because the Center uses a ground source well as its primary water supply, energy savings from avoided pumping costs are also realized.
Fig. 7. Exploded diagram of the Clivus Multrum composting toilet.
Carbon Dioxide Water Vapor
Vent
Air Intake
Finished Compost Composting
Material Waste, Air and Bulking Material
The composting chamber has chutes coming from the upper and main level bathrooms, in addition to a chute from the kitchen for food scraps.
Finished compost is removed periodically (every 6 months to a year) and is used to fertilize ornamental plantings, trees, and other non-food related agricultural endeavors.
A small amount of carbon-rich material such as wood shavings or sawdust is added after each use.
Periodic maintenance of the unit includes monthly raking of the pile, monitoring of moisture levels, and removal of any inappropriate items that find their way into the chamber.
Be Green: Reduce Your Waste!
Composting is a great way to be “green,” but there are other aspects of our own lifestyles that we can examine to reduce the amount of waste we generate. Simply pay attention to the four R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Rebuy; you will be on your way to minimizing your own “footprint” on the environment. Your grandchildren will thank you!
Rummage Sales and Thrift Stores
Do you find yourself regularly throwing away items that can continue to be used but that you have grown tired of or replaced? Instead of sending them off to the landfill, consider donating your hand-me-down clothing or less- than-new appliances, CD’s, furniture, books, tools, or electronics to thrift stores such as Goodwill or the Salvation Army where those less fortunate than you can enjoy donated items for years to come. You could also have a garage or yard sale to get rid of unwanted items — you can be “green” while making a few bucks!
Repair, Donate, Buy Used
Most wardrobe and household items such as clothing, shoes, electronics, appliances, and furniture can be fixed at a price much lower than buying a replacement. Many times you can repair them yourself, but if the project is more complicated, do a little research to find an expert in your area. You might not even have to go further than your local phone book!
When you donate items to another family or to an agency such as Goodwill or Salvation Army, note the dollar value of your donation. Not only are your donations kept out of a landfill, they are tax-deductible.
Whether you are looking for a new CD, a new piece of furniture or a new car, consider buying used. It will save you money as well as allow you more buying freedom because the used items are cheaper.
Many chain stores have “outlets” or other means to sell “irregular” items at a much smaller cost. The irregularities are often minimal or unnoticeable and your patronage of these stores can keep such items from being thrown away.
Reuse Packaging Materials
Paper or plastic grocery bags, boxes, glass or plastic containers, or even mailing envelopes can be reused if individuals are willing to give the minimal extra time it takes to do so. Excess of these items can most likely be recycled in your area.
To limit collection of these items, try to bring your own bag to carry when shopping and buy items in bulk when available.
Grocery Shop Sensibly
Keep your eyes peeled in grocery stores — you can get more product and less packaging for your money. Items in bulk or in larger sizes can be stored in your own containers at home and they require little packaging. Try to avoid as much “single-serving” food products as you can. The excess packaging is wasteful and often more expensive than buying the same product in larger sizes.
Household Hazardous Waste
Any product with the words “Danger,” “Warning,” or “Caution” on the label should be evaluated on a per-need basis. The average home is filled with products such as these: paints, car products like antifreeze and motor oil, pool chemicals, rodent poisons, household cleaners, aerosol cans, pesticides, bug repellents, fertilizers, weed killers, and batteries. These materials can cause health hazards both in use and disposal.
You can do a number of things to minimize the impact of household hazardous waste products: 1) reduce the number of times you use the product, 2) only purchase the amount you believe you will need, 3) always use the recommended amount only, 4) try to use natural or less toxic products, 5) donate unused portions to another household, and 6) find out which products can be reused or require special disposal and where they can be dropped off.
Natural household cleaning products are far less expensive than harsh, abrasive cleansers. Lemon juice, vinegar, baking soda, and borax are mainstays of natural cleaning. Give these a try next time!
Appendix A: References and Sources
Appelhof, Mary. 1997. “Worms Eat My Garbage.” Flower Press:
Kalamazoo, MI.
Anderson, Paula. November 2000. “Getting Back to the Compost Basics.” Small Farm Newsletter, No. 36: Bangkok, Thailand
Clivus Multrum Inc. 1986. “Maintenance Manual” Clivus Multrum Inc., 15 Union Street, Lawrence, MA 01840. www.clivusmultrum.com.
The Compost Council. 1996. “Field Guide to Compost Use.” The Compost Council: Alexandria, VA.
Dickson, Nancy, Thomas Richard & Robert Kozlowski. 1991.
“Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream: A Guide to Small Scale Food and Yard Waste Composting.” Natural Resource, Agriculture &
Engineering Service Cooperative Extension: Ithaca, NY.
Digital Visions Consulting. 1998. “The Digital Composter.” At “http://
www.digitalseed.com/composter/”.
Martin, Deborah L. & Grace Gershuny, eds. 1992. “The Rodale Guide to Composting.” The Rodale Press: Emmaus, PA
McDowell, C. Forrest & Tricia Clark-McDowell. 1998. “Home Composting Made Easy.” Cortesia Press: Eugene, OR.
Trautmann, Nancy & Elaina Olynciw. “Compost Microorganisms.”
Cornell Composting: Science & Engineering. At “http://www.cfe.
cornell.edu/compost/microorg.html”.
Butler County Recycling and Waste Management Office Sheryl Kelly, Environmental Specialist P.O. Box 1208
Butler, PA 16003-1208 Phone: (724) 284-5300 Email: [email protected] PA Department of Environmental Protection
Bureau of Land Recycling & Waste Management Patti Olenick, Compost Coordinator
Phone: (717) 787-7382 Email: [email protected]
Appendix B: Sources for Figures Used
Figure 1 Starbuck, Christopher J. 1999. Agricultural Publication G6956: “Making and Using Compost.”
University Extension, University of Missouri- Columbia. “http://muextension.missouri.edu/explore”.
Figure 2 Dindal, Daniel L. 1971. “Ecology of Compost:
A Public Involvement Project.” State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry: Syracuse, NY 13210.
Figure 3 Dickson, Nancy, Thomas Richard & Robert Kozlowski. 1991. “Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream: A Guide to Small Scale Food and Yard Waste Composting.” Natural Resource, Agriculture & Engineering Service Cooperative Extension: Ithaca, NY.
Figure 4 Dickson, Nancy, Thomas Richard & Robert Kozlowski. 1991. “Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream: A Guide to Small Scale Food and Yard Waste Composting.” Natural Resource, Agriculture & Engineering Service Cooperative Extension: Ithaca, NY.
Figure 5 US Department of Energy. June 1998. “Ex Situ Remediation Technology Descriptions.” Office of Environmental Management. At “http://www.em.doe.
gov/define/techs/exsitu2.html
Figure 6 Seattle Tilth. April 2000. “Tilth Worm Composting Bin.” Seattle Tilth Association, 4649 Sunnyside Avenue North, Room 1, Seattle, WA 98103. At “http://www..seattletilth.org/download/wormbin.pdf”.
Figure 7 Clivus Multrum Inc. 1986. “Maintenance Manual:
Public Facility Model Composters.” Clivus Multrum Inc., 15 Union Street, Lawrence, MA 01840. At “http://www.clivusmultrum.com”.
The Macoskey Center
at Slippery Rock University of PA
Sustainable Systems Education and Research
About the Center
The Robert A. Macoskey Center is an education and research facility that supports Slippery Rock University's Masters of Science in Sustainable Systems (MS3) degree, as well as other environmental and science oriented academic programs. The Center is located on 83 acres of the University campus and serves as host to a variety of educational, research and social activities. The Center was conceived by the late Robert A. Macoskey Ph.D., professor of philosophy at SRU, and was initiated by the ALTER (Alternative Living Technology and Energy Research) project, a community-based organization.
The Macoskey Center provides practical educational opportunities focused on enriching classroom theory. Slippery Rock students utilize the Center for the tangible experiences its “living laboratory” provides. Student ideas, projects, and contributions mark the grounds and buildings of the Center and articulate the relationship between students, faculty, the community, and the environment.
The Robert A. Macoskey Center 247 Harmony Road Slippery Rock, PA 16057
(724) 738-0606
[email protected] www.sru.edu/pages/756.asp
