Motivation

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Motivation

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WHAT MOTIVATES US???

• Instincts

• Drives and Incentives

• Arousal

• Hunger

• Sex

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What Motivates Us?

• Instinct

• Drive-Reduction / Desire for Homeostasis

• Optimal Arousal

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How is a drive

different from a

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Instinct

• A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned

throughout a species and is unlearned.

• Infants innate reflexes for rooting and sucking

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Instinct Theory (Now replaced by the

Evolutionary Perspective)

• Focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors.

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Drive-Reduction Theory

• Focuses on how our inner pushes and external interact.

• The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (or drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

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Drive Reduction Theory

• For the most part, when a physiological need increases so does a psychological drive (an aroused, motivated state).

• Homeostasis – The physiological aim of drive reduction.

• The maintained of a steady internal state. (literally means “Staying the Same”).

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Incentive

• Incentive

= a positive or negative stimuli that

motivates behavior (either lures or repels us.)

(i.e. yummy pizza, the cute girl in class, etc..)

• When there is both a

need

and an

incentive

, we

feel strongly driven. Pizza always tastes better

when you are starving☺

• How is the motive pushed by our inborn

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Optimum Arousal

• Some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal (i.e. curiosity)

• So … human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal.

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1970)

Page 331 (Copy this chart into your notes)

• Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before

higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

• Self Transcendence – (people strive for meaning, purpose, and communion that is beyond the self, that is transpersonal.)

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Hunger (p. 332)

• Glucose

• The hypothalamus

• Appetite hormones – Insulin, Leptin, Orexin, Ghrelin, Obestatin, PYY

• Set Point

• Basal Metabolic Rate

• Eating Disorders – Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, Binge Eating Disorder

• Body Mass Index (BMI)

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Sexual Motivation (p. 349)

• Sexual Response

• Refractory Period

• Estrogens

• Testosterone

• Teen Pregnancy

• Sexually Transmitted Infections

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The Need to Belong (p. 359)

• Aiding Survival (Evolutionary Psychology)

• Wanting to Belong

• Sustaining Relationships

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Emotion

A response of the whole organism, involving

• 1.) physiological arousal, (heart pounding)

• 2.) expressive behaviors, and (quickened pace)

• 3.) conscious experiences. (… Could this be a

kidnapping?)

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Questions and Debate

• Does your physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience? (Which comes first?)

• Did you first notice your heart racing and quickened step and then feel afraid? Or did your sense of fear come first, stirring your heart and legs to respond?

• Second debate involves the interaction between thinking and feeling.

• Does cognition always precede emotion? (Did you think

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Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory

• Cannon Bard Theory

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James-Lange Theory

• The theory that our experience of emotion is

our awareness of our own physiological

responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

• First comes a distinct physiological response

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Cannon-Bard Theory

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus

simultaneously triggers

• 1.) Physiological responses and

• 2.) The subjective experience of emotion

• Physiological arousal and emotional experience

occur

simultaneously.

• (The heart begins pounding as you experience fear;

one does not cause the other.)

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• According to these two theories … what would

happen if your brain could not sense your heart

pounding?

• What would James-Lange think?

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Two-Factor Theory

The Schachter-Singer theory that to experience

emotion one must

• 1.) be physically aroused

and

• 2.) cognitively label the arousal

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Autonomic Nervous System

• Sympathetic

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Emotions

• Different Emotions do

not have sharply distinct

biological signatures

• Differ In:

• Brain circuits they use

(i.e. amygdala in fear)

• Left frontal lobe =

positive (perhaps due to

rich supply of dopamine)

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Emotions and Spinal Cord Injury

• Lower Spinal Cord injuries – very little change

in emotion

• Upper Spinal Cord injuries – reported a

considerable decrease in emotions.

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Cognition and Emotion

Arousal fuels emotion …. Cognition channels it

The Spill Over Effect … epinephrine (adrenaline) study … “catching the confederate’s emotion”

Two-track brain – Sensory input may be routed

a.) directly to the amygdala (via the thalamus) for instant emotional reaction or

b.) to the cortex for analysis.

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Thinking and Emotion

• The amygdala sends more neural projections up to the cortex than it receives back … this makes it easier for our feelings to hijack our thinking than for out thinking to rule our feelings.

• How can this be problematic???

• Politics – many people vote for candidates they like rather than the person whose views match their own.

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Emotions and Thinking

• Highly emotional people are intense partly because of their interpretations … (i.e. mood congruency effect)

• They tend to personalize events and may blow a single event out of proportion

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Expressed Emotion

Body Language Tone of Voice

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Facial Expressions – Page 381

• Eyes and Mouth are most revealing

• Introverts tend to excel at reading others’ emotions, extroverts are generally easier to read.

• Women generally surpass men at reading emotion

• Facial expressions seem to be universal • Paul Eckman, Wallace Frisen

• Carroll Izard

• Photograph studies

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Emotion and Culture

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Effects of Facial Expressions

• Expressions not only communicate emotion … they amplify and regulate it

• Facial Feedback – The effect of facial expressions on

experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies the feelings of anger or happiness.

• (Funny Scale Experiment Back in September)

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Two Dimensions of Emotion (p. 385)

Emotions are variations on two dimensions: Arousal (low vs. high)

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Fear

• Mostly Adaptive … can also be maladaptive

• Can be learned, even by observing others

• Some fears are easier to learn than others (i.e. snakes)

• Amygdala

• Hippocampus – remembering fear

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Anger

• Chronically hostility is linked to heart disease

• Ways of dealing with anger???

• Catharsis – emotional release. The catharsis hypothesis

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Happiness

• Feel-good, do-good phenomenon – people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.

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The Short Life of Emotions

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Happiness – Wealth and Well-Being Page 392

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Adaptation and Comparison

• Adaptation-Level Phenomenon – our tendency to form

judgments (of sounds, lights, income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.

• Relative Deprivation – The perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves. (Happiness is relative not only to our past experience but also to our

comparisons with others.)

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Predictors of Happiness – Page 396

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Stress and Health

• Stress Appraisal – The process by which we appraise and cope with environmental threats and challenges. Stress arises less from events themselves and more from how we appraise them. • Behavioral Medicine – an interdisciplinary field that integrates

behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease.

• Heath and Psychology – a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.

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Stress and Health

• Cortisol – a glucocorticoid stress hormone • Epinephrine

• Can be helpful … can also become harmful

• Disease

• Slows brain’s production of new neurons

• Telomeres (shorter bits of DNA at the end of chromosomes) become shorter … the cell can no longer divide and will then die. This process ages people.

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Stress and The Heart

• Stress predicts heart attack risks

• Type A – Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

• Type B – Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people

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Stress and Health

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases – alarm,

resistance, exhaustion

1. Alarm reaction – (activation of sympathetic Nervous System) 2. Resistance – (body temp., blood pressure, heart rate and

breathing remain high and an outpouring of hormones)

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Stress and Susceptibility to Disease

• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) – the study of how

psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting heath.

• Psychophysiological illness – literally “mind-body” illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

• Lymphocytes – the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system.

• B lymphocytes - form bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

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Stress and Health - Page 404

• AIDS

• Cancer

• Heart Disease

• Colds and Flu

• Depression

• Stress Causes the Immune System to Become Less Active

• Stress Can Also Lead to Unhealthy Behaviors (Like Smoking)