Air quality, cars and health
in Bristol
Dr Ben Williams
Air Quality Management Resource Centre,
Faculty of Environment and Technology
Ben3.williams@uwe.ac.uk
Overview
• What is air pollution?
• Why does it matter?
• Lessons from history
• What is being done about air pollution?
• Looking to the future
Air Pollution - What Is It?
Anything not naturally present
or
Anything out of natural proportions
or
How we should think about pollution
Source
Emission
Dispersion
Deposition/Absorption
Natural sources:
– Volcanoes (SO2, CO, PM10) – Dust storms (PM10)
– Soil Erosion (PM10)
– Forest-fires (CO, PM10, NOx) – Trees (VOCs)
Anthropogenic sources:
– Industry/power generation – Traffic
– Domestic (Heating/Cooking) – Combustion
– Fugitive releases
– Mechanically raised dust – Agriculture
Natural Air Pollution - Volcano
How does poor air quality affect health?
• Primary concern is usually
respiratory
or
pulmonary
disorders e.g. breathing.
• It also affects our
cardio-vascular
system e.g. blood.
• In some cases the link with this is obvious, e.g. carbon
monoxide.
• In others it is less clear, e.g. particles (oxidative stress)
• It is also related to:
– Eye and skin irritation
– Cancer
Br Med J. 1956 May 12; 1(4975): 1092–1094. Br Med J. 1956 September 29; 2(4995): 753–754.Br J Ind Med. 1957 October; 14(4): 232–239.
Lancet Oncology July 2012
Lancet Oncology Dec 2013
13
•
UK population lost 340,000 years of
life in 2008
•
This loss of life is equivalent to 29,000
deaths
•
the average loss of life would have
been 2 years, (though the actual
amount would vary between
individuals).
•
The burden can also be represented as
a loss of life expectancy from birth (for
everyone) of 6 months
Published December 2010
As a result of poor air quality (based on
anthropogenic PM
2.5):
How Much of a Problem in the UK?
How Much of a Problem in the UK?
•
188 deaths of Bristol residents
•
24 deaths attributed to road
transport emissions (9 people
killed in road traffic accidents)
•
Health costs: £83 million per year
What about short term effects?
What about other pollutants?
14
20
th
Century Deaths
Visualising its impact
Clip from Chai Jing's review: Under the Dome – Investigating China’s Smog:
Health Inequalities and Environmental Justice
• Often claimed that air quality affects everybody
• “It doesn’t respect borders”
• Not everybody is affected by air pollution equally
• Differences in exposure (socially deprived groups tend to be exposed
to higher concentrations)
• Those who suffer from multiple deprivation issues are more
susceptible to the effects
• Those who are already ill are more susceptible (diabetes, obesity,
asthma, COPD)
Lessons from history
• We choose air pollution.
• Air pollution is a consequence of political, economic and societal
choices and the availability of technology. Air pollution has a dynamic
relationship with these factors.
• Our social, political and economic responses to air pollution have
often lagged behind our awareness and understanding of the impact
of air pollution.
Historical Pollution – Ancient Rome
Air pollution is not a new problem.
21
Source: Higher Education Library for Image eXchange (HELIX)
Historical Pollution – London Smog, 1952
• On Friday December 5th 1952 an unusually severe fog descended upon
London as a slow moving anticyclone came to a halt over London. On
Friday morning the fog was the thickest in living memory. It grew thicker
throughout the day and people began to experience discomfort in
breathing. Those outside rapidly became smoke blackened and aware of
the choking smell.
• That evening respiratory cases, especially bronchitis, were twice the
normal rate. Some million chimneys added more smoke to the fog.
• On Saturday visibility was near zero, prize animals at Smithfield show took
ill and some had to be destroyed. At Sadlers Wells an opera performance
had to be stopped due to poor visibility in the theatre. People continued to
suffer health effects.
• On December 8th the fog was as thick as ever, respiratory problems
continued to be reported. Transport was at a complete standstill.
Clean Air Acts
• After The Great Smog a series of Clean
Air Acts were passed (1956, 1968,
1993)
• The first legislation to control domestic
and industrial pollution sources.
• Moved power stations out of cities
• Legislated for higher chimneys
• Allowed councils to create “Smokeless
Zones”
• 40% grants to households to change
from coal to, now available, gas or
electric
A warning of things to come!
UK Air Quality Management Objectives (2007)
Pollutant Objective Measured as To be achieved by
Benzene – All UK 16.25µg/m3 Running Annual Mean 31/12/2003
Benzene – Eng, Wal only 5µg/m3 Annual Mean 31/12/2010
1,3-Butadiene 2.25µg/m3 Running Annual Mean 31/12/2003
Carbon Monoxide 10mg/m3 Max daily running 8-hr mean 31/12/2003
Lead 0.5µg/m3 Annual Mean 31/12/2004
Lead 0.25µg/m3 Annual Mean 31/12/2008
Nitrogen Dioxide 200µg/m3 1-hr mean not be exceeded
more than 18 times per annum
31/12/2005
Nitrogen Dioxide 40µg/m3 Annual mean 31/12/2005
Particulates (PM10) 50µg/m3 24-hr mean not be exceeded
more than 35 times per annum
31/12/2004
Particulates (PM10) 40µg/m3 Annual Mean 31/12/2004
Particulates (PM2.5) 25µg/m3 Annual Mean 2020
Particulates (PM2.5) 15% reduction Urban background exposure
reduction (2010 – 2020)
2010 - 2020
Sulphur Dioxide 266µg/m3 15-min mean not be exceeded
more than 35 times per annum
31/12/2005
Sulphur Dioxide 350µg/m3 1-hr mean not be exceeded
more than 24 times per annum
31/12/2004
Sulphur Dioxide 125µg/m3 24-hr mean not be exceeded
more than 3 times per annum
What is Air Quality Management?
• Air Quality Regulations set Objectives for seven pollutants
• Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) used to for those local areas (hotspots) where national actions on their own will not secure the Objectives
• Local Authorities conduct review & assessment of air quality, declare Air Quality Management Areas and develop Air Quality Action Plans
What is an Air Quality Management Area?
A typical AQMA
Public
Public
exposure
• Nitrogen dioxide
(annual and hourly
mean objectives)
• PM
10(daily mean)
• Came into force 2003
• Amended 2008 and
2011
Bath AQMA
• Came into force 2002
• Amended most recently in 2013 • Nitrogen dioxide
(annual and hourly mean objectives)
Historic and Forecast Traffic and Emissions: England
(DfT 2011)
Roadside NO
2
concentrations are not falling
Carslaw, D.C., Beevers, S.D. Westmoreland, E. Williams, M.L. Tate, J.E., Murrells, T. Stedman, J. Li, Y., Grice, S., Kent, A. and I. Tsagatakis
(2011). Trends in NOx and NO2 emissions and ambient measurements in the UK. Version: July 2011.
http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/reports/cat05/1108251149_110718_AQ0724_Final_report.pdf
•
Forecast transport emissions reductions were not upheld in real-world trials
Diesel cars: Nitrogen oxides (NO
X) emissions (g/
km)
VW…
• Fitted defeat devices to vehicles produced between 2009
and 2015 which could detect when it was being tested and
alter emissions accordingly - essentially breaking the law.
• First identified by the USEPA in September.
• Then identified in the UK shortly after.
• Over 1.2 million vehicles are known to be fitted with these
devices in the UK and a recall is due.
• Other manufacturers under scrutiny now.
“In an underdeveloped country, don't
drink the water; in a developed country,
don't breathe the air.”
References (1)
• Banister, D. (2008) The sustainable mobility paradigm. Transport Policy 15(2), pp.73-80. • Beattie, C.I., Longhurst, J.W.S., and Elsom, D.M. (2004) Evidence of integration of air
quality management in the decision making processes and procedures of English local government. Local Environment. 9, pp.255-270.
• Beattie, C.I., Longhurst, J.W.S., Woodfield, N.K. Air quality management: evolution of policy and practice in the UK as exemplified by the experience of English local government.
Atmospheric Environment 35, 1479-1490, 2001.
• Chatterton, T.J., Longhurst, J.W.S., Leksmono, N.S., Hayes, E.T. and Symons, J.K. (2007) Ten years of Local Air Quality Management experience in the UK: An analysis of the
process. Clean Air and Environmental Quality. 41(2), pp.26-31.
• Chatterton, T., Coulter, A., Musselwhite, C., Lyons, G. and Clegg, S. (2009) Understanding how transport choices are affected by environment and health: views expressed in a study on the use of carbon calculators. Public health. 123(1), pp.45-49.
• Colvile, R.N., Hutchinson, E.J., Mindell, J.S., Warren, R.F., 2001. The transport sector as a source of air pollution. Atmospheric Environment. 35, 1537-1565.
References (2)
• DEFRA (2007) The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Volume 1. London: The Stationery Office.
• DEFRA (2007) The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Volume 2. London: The Stationery Office.
• DfT (2009) Transport Trends: 2008 edition. London: The Stationery Office.
• EPAQS. A Recommendation for a United Kingdom Air Quality Standard for Particles. London: Defra, 1995
• Faulkner, M and Russell, P. Review of Local Air Quality Management. A report to Defra and the devolved administrations. Stationery Office: London, 2010 Online: http:// www.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/air/airquality/local/documents/laqm-report.pdf • HM Government (1995) Environment Act 1995. The Stationary Office.
• EU Commission, Ambient Air Quality Directive 2008/50/EC
• HM Government. This Common Inheritance, CM 1200. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office: London, 1990
• Longhurst, J.W.S., Beattie, C.I., Chatterton, T.J., Hayes, E.T., Leksmono, N.S. & Woodfield, N.K., Local Air Quality Management as a risk management process:
References (3)
• Longhurst, J.W.S., Irwin, J.G., Chatterton, T.J., Hayes, E.T., Leksmono, N.S. & Symons, J.K. The development of effects based air quality management regime.
Atmospheric Environment 43 (1) 64-78, 2009.
• Olowoporoku, A.O. Hayes, E.T., Leksmono, N. S., Longhurst, J.W.S. and Parkhurst, G. (2010) A longitudinal study of the links between Local Air Quality Management and Local Transport Planning policy processes in England. Journal of Environmental
Planning and Management 53 (3), pp.385–403