Air quality, cars and health in Bristol

  Air quality, cars and health 

in Bristol

Dr Ben Williams

Air Quality Management Resource Centre,

Faculty of Environment and Technology

Ben3.williams@uwe.ac.uk

Overview

• What is air pollution?

• Why does it matter?

• Lessons from history

• What is being done about air pollution?

• Looking to the future

Air Pollution - What Is It?

Anything not naturally present

or

Anything out of natural proportions

or

How we should think about pollution

Source



Emission



Dispersion



Deposition/Absorption



Natural sources:

– Volcanoes (SO₂, CO, PM₁₀) – Dust storms (PM₁₀)

– Soil Erosion (PM₁₀)

– Forest-fires (CO, PM₁₀, NO_x) – Trees (VOCs)

Anthropogenic sources:

– Industry/power generation – Traffic

– Domestic (Heating/Cooking) – Combustion

– Fugitive releases

– Mechanically raised dust – Agriculture

Natural Air Pollution - Volcano

How does poor air quality affect health?

• Primary concern is usually

respiratory

or

pulmonary

disorders e.g. breathing.

• It also affects our

cardio-vascular

system e.g. blood.

• In some cases the link with this is obvious, e.g. carbon

monoxide.

• In others it is less clear, e.g. particles (oxidative stress)

• It is also related to:

– Eye and skin irritation

– Cancer

Br Med J. 1956 May 12; 1(4975): 1092–1094. Br Med J. 1956 September 29; 2(4995): 753–754._{Br J Ind Med. 1957 October; 14(4): 232–239.}

Lancet Oncology July 2012

Lancet Oncology Dec 2013

13

•

UK population lost 340,000 years of

life in 2008

•

This loss of life is equivalent to 29,000

deaths

•

the average loss of life would have

been 2 years, (though the actual

amount would vary between

individuals).

•

The burden can also be represented as

a loss of life expectancy from birth (for

everyone) of 6 months

Published December 2010

As a result of poor air quality (based on

anthropogenic PM

):

How Much of a Problem in the UK?

How Much of a Problem in the UK?

•

188 deaths of Bristol residents

•

24 deaths attributed to road

transport emissions (9 people

killed in road traffic accidents)

•

Health costs: £83 million per year

What about short term effects?

What about other pollutants?

14

20

th

Century Deaths

Visualising its impact

Clip from Chai Jing's review: Under the Dome – Investigating China’s Smog:

Health Inequalities and Environmental Justice

• Often claimed that air quality affects everybody

• “It doesn’t respect borders”

• Not everybody is affected by air pollution equally

• Differences in exposure (socially deprived groups tend to be exposed

to higher concentrations)

• Those who suffer from multiple deprivation issues are more

susceptible to the effects

• Those who are already ill are more susceptible (diabetes, obesity,

asthma, COPD)

Lessons from history

• We choose air pollution.

• Air pollution is a consequence of political, economic and societal

choices and the availability of technology. Air pollution has a dynamic

relationship with these factors.

• Our social, political and economic responses to air pollution have

often lagged behind our awareness and understanding of the impact

of air pollution.

Historical Pollution – Ancient Rome

Air pollution is not a new problem.

21

Source: Higher Education Library for Image eXchange (HELIX)

Historical Pollution – London Smog, 1952

• On Friday December 5th 1952 an unusually severe fog descended upon

London as a slow moving anticyclone came to a halt over London. On

Friday morning the fog was the thickest in living memory. It grew thicker

throughout the day and people began to experience discomfort in

breathing. Those outside rapidly became smoke blackened and aware of

the choking smell.

• That evening respiratory cases, especially bronchitis, were twice the

normal rate. Some million chimneys added more smoke to the fog.

• On Saturday visibility was near zero, prize animals at Smithfield show took

ill and some had to be destroyed. At Sadlers Wells an opera performance

had to be stopped due to poor visibility in the theatre. People continued to

suffer health effects.

• On December 8th the fog was as thick as ever, respiratory problems

continued to be reported. Transport was at a complete standstill.

Clean Air Acts

• After The Great Smog a series of Clean

Air Acts were passed (1956, 1968,

1993)

• The first legislation to control domestic

and industrial pollution sources.

• Moved power stations out of cities

• Legislated for higher chimneys

• Allowed councils to create “Smokeless

Zones”

• 40% grants to households to change

from coal to, now available, gas or

electric

A warning of things to come!

UK Air Quality Management Objectives (2007)

Pollutant Objective Measured as To be achieved by

Benzene – All UK 16.25µg/m3 _{Running Annual Mean 31/12/2003}

Benzene – Eng, Wal only 5µg/m3 _{Annual Mean 31/12/2010}

1,3-Butadiene 2.25µg/m3 _{Running Annual Mean 31/12/2003}

Carbon Monoxide 10mg/m3 _{Max daily running 8-hr mean 31/12/2003}

Lead 0.5µg/m3 _{Annual Mean 31/12/2004}

Lead 0.25µg/m3 _{Annual Mean 31/12/2008}

Nitrogen Dioxide 200µg/m3 _{1-hr mean not be exceeded}

more than 18 times per annum

31/12/2005

Nitrogen Dioxide 40µg/m3 _{Annual mean 31/12/2005}

Particulates (PM₁₀) 50µg/m3 _{24-hr mean not be exceeded}

more than 35 times per annum

31/12/2004

Particulates (PM₁₀) 40µg/m3 _{Annual Mean 31/12/2004}

Particulates (PM_2.5) 25µg/m3 _{Annual Mean 2020}

Particulates (PM_2.5) 15% reduction Urban background exposure

reduction (2010 – 2020)

2010 - 2020

Sulphur Dioxide 266µg/m3 _{15-min mean not be exceeded}

more than 35 times per annum

31/12/2005

Sulphur Dioxide 350µg/m3 _{1-hr mean not be exceeded}

more than 24 times per annum

31/12/2004

Sulphur Dioxide 125µg/m3 _{24-hr mean not be exceeded}

more than 3 times per annum

What is Air Quality Management?

• Air Quality Regulations set Objectives for seven pollutants

• Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) used to for those local areas (hotspots) where national actions on their own will not secure the Objectives

• Local Authorities conduct review & assessment of air quality, declare Air Quality Management Areas and develop Air Quality Action Plans

What is an Air Quality Management Area?

A typical AQMA

Public 

Public 

exposure

• Nitrogen dioxide

(annual and hourly

mean objectives)

• PM

(daily mean)

• Came into force 2003

• Amended 2008 and

2011

Bath AQMA

• Came into force 2002

• Amended most recently in 2013 • Nitrogen dioxide

(annual and hourly mean objectives)

Historic and Forecast Traffic and Emissions: England

(DfT 2011)

Roadside NO

2

concentrations are not falling

Carslaw, D.C., Beevers, S.D. Westmoreland, E. Williams, M.L. Tate, J.E., Murrells, T. Stedman, J. Li, Y., Grice, S., Kent, A. and I. Tsagatakis

(2011). Trends in NOx and NO₂ emissions and ambient measurements in the UK. Version: July 2011.

http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/reports/cat05/1108251149_110718_AQ0724_Final_report.pdf

•

Forecast transport emissions reductions were not upheld in real-world trials

Diesel cars: Nitrogen oxides (NO

) emissions (g/

km)

VW…

• Fitted defeat devices to vehicles produced between 2009

and 2015 which could detect when it was being tested and

alter emissions accordingly - essentially breaking the law.

• First identified by the USEPA in September.

• Then identified in the UK shortly after.

• Over 1.2 million vehicles are known to be fitted with these

devices in the UK and a recall is due.

• Other manufacturers under scrutiny now.

“In an underdeveloped country, don't

drink the water; in a developed country,

don't breathe the air.”

References (1)

• Banister, D. (2008) The sustainable mobility paradigm. Transport Policy 15(2), pp.73-80. • Beattie, C.I., Longhurst, J.W.S., and Elsom, D.M. (2004) Evidence of integration of air

quality management in the decision making processes and procedures of English local government. Local Environment. 9, pp.255-270.

• Beattie, C.I., Longhurst, J.W.S., Woodfield, N.K. Air quality management: evolution of policy and practice in the UK as exemplified by the experience of English local government.

Atmospheric Environment 35, 1479-1490, 2001.

• Chatterton, T.J., Longhurst, J.W.S., Leksmono, N.S., Hayes, E.T. and Symons, J.K. (2007) Ten years of Local Air Quality Management experience in the UK: An analysis of the

process. Clean Air and Environmental Quality. 41(2), pp.26-31.

• Chatterton, T., Coulter, A., Musselwhite, C., Lyons, G. and Clegg, S. (2009) Understanding how transport choices are affected by environment and health: views expressed in a study on the use of carbon calculators. Public health. 123(1), pp.45-49.

• Colvile, R.N., Hutchinson, E.J., Mindell, J.S., Warren, R.F., 2001. The transport sector as a source of air pollution. Atmospheric Environment. 35, 1537-1565.

References (2)

• DEFRA (2007) The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Volume 1. London: The Stationery Office.

• DEFRA (2007) The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Volume 2. London: The Stationery Office.

• DfT (2009) Transport Trends: 2008 edition. London: The Stationery Office.

• EPAQS. A Recommendation for a United Kingdom Air Quality Standard for Particles. London: Defra, 1995

• Faulkner, M and Russell, P. Review of Local Air Quality Management. A report to Defra and the devolved administrations. Stationery Office: London, 2010 Online: http:// www.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/air/airquality/local/documents/laqm-report.pdf • HM Government (1995) Environment Act 1995. The Stationary Office.

• EU Commission, Ambient Air Quality Directive 2008/50/EC

• HM Government. This Common Inheritance, CM 1200. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office: London, 1990

• Longhurst, J.W.S., Beattie, C.I., Chatterton, T.J., Hayes, E.T., Leksmono, N.S. & Woodfield, N.K., Local Air Quality Management as a risk management process:

References (3)

• Longhurst, J.W.S., Irwin, J.G., Chatterton, T.J., Hayes, E.T., Leksmono, N.S. & Symons, J.K. The development of effects based air quality management regime.

Atmospheric Environment 43 (1) 64-78, 2009.

• Olowoporoku, A.O. Hayes, E.T., Leksmono, N. S., Longhurst, J.W.S. and Parkhurst, G. (2010) A longitudinal study of the links between Local Air Quality Management and Local Transport Planning policy processes in England. Journal of Environmental

Planning and Management 53 (3), pp.385–403