The Persuasive Image

Rochester Institute of Technology

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2004

The Persuasive Image

George D. Grove

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THE PERSUASIVE IMAGE

The Anti-Suburbia Series IX

Graduate Thesis Master of Fine Arts

School of Photographic Arts and Sciences Rochester Institute of Technology

By George Dudley Grove

Spring 2004

The following members of my Thesis Board Committee accept this written thesis as the completion of a Master of Fine Arts Degree in Photography:

Elaine O'Neil, Thesis Committee Chair, Professor, CIAS- Fine Art Photography

Date I

I

;>or

o~

I

Dan Larkin, Assistant Professor, CIAS- Fine Art Photography

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Alex Miokovic, Assistant Professor, CIAS-Art History

THE PERSUASIVE IMAGE

The Anti-Suburbia Series IX

Graduate Thesis

Master of Fine Arts in Imaging Arts - Fine Art Photography School of Photographic Arts and Sciences

College of Imaging Arts and Sciences Rochester Institute of Technology

By George Dudley Grove

Spring 2004

Thesis Author Pennission Statement:

I, George Grove, understand that I must submit a print copy of my thesis to the RIT Archives, per current RIT guidelines for the completion of my degree. I hereby grant to the Rochester Institute of Technology and its agents the non-exclusive license to archive and make accessible my thesis in whole or in part in all forms of media in perpetuity. I retain all other ownership rights to the copyright of the thesis. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of my thesis.

Print Reproduction Permission Granted:

I, George Dudley Grove, hereby grant permission to the Rochester Institute of

Technology to reproduce my thesis in whole or in part. Any reproduction will not for commercial use or profit.

DEDICATION:

Iwouldliketo thank_{myfamily,friends,} andfellowgraduatestudentsfortheirsupport,ideas, and

assistancein mywork. Ialso wouldliketothanktheparticipantsintheprojectfor_livingwith_my

images foran extended period oftimeand_fillingoutthesurveys. Fortheirdirectionandmotivation,

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. HISTORY OF SUBURBIA 3

ffl. COMMUNITY 12

IV. INFLUENCES 17

PropagandaandtheAnti-Suburbanists TheHarrisons

PerformanceArt

CognitiveDissonance Effect

V. THESIS SUMMARY 33

VI. EXPERIMENT 34

Hypothesis

Methods

Results

Conclusion

VII. CONCLUSION 38

VHI. APPENDICES 39

Survey

The

Persuasive

Image

L INTRODUCTION

Theunfortunate suburban migration continues. _{These newly}arrived suburbanites exchangetheir

multidimensionalurban_cityviews forthoseof a_carefullyconstructed and_intenselycontrolled pastoral view. Thisviewfromtheirwindowsisonethatsymbolizestheir_ownershipofthelandandtheir freedom from denseurban_livingconditions. Theopen space and grassfunctionaspowerful reminders of_whytheylive insuburbia.Butwhat would occurifthesuburbanites weretoexchangetheirview of plasticEdenwithimagesfromthecity? What iftheview oftheiraltered yards and_obsessively

manicured gardens were_{intentionally}replaced with views of urbanlandscapes? Whatifan urban view weretobeelevated and aestheticized untilitwaspresentedas abeautifulobjecttobecoveted and

desired? Severalpsychological_theories,andinparticulartheCognitive Dissonance_Effect,suggest suburbanites could changetheirattitude abouttheir_livingconditionsinthesuburbs with respecttothe

city.

Thegoalofthis thesisistoprovide anexperiencethroughwhich a changeintheattitudesof

suburbanites_{regardingliving}inanurbanenvironmentmight occur. Thethesisis morethanjust_images, but is actuallyan attempttoexplore, measure,and_quantifytheattitudinal change oftwoexperimental populationswhen_theyareexposedtothesame simulated_cityview(Figure 1). One group lived inthe cityofRochesterproperwithina mile ofthecenter of_{the city,}whiletheotherlivedoutside ofthe_city,

severalmilesaway.

MyThesis Exhibitionwas part ofthedocumentationof a performancethatoccurredinprivate

Figure 1.

Inmuchof performance artfromthe70's_onward,thephotograph was_only atooltodocumentthe performanceortodisseminatetheperformancetoan audience. Thisproject utilizesthephotographina

very differentmanner,asthe photographIStheperformance. _Occurringoveralimitedduration,the

audienceisin_dailyand unavoidable contact withtheimageandisaffected_byitspresence. Ratherthan

using photographytodocumenttheperformance, thedocumentationisthroughtheattitudinalchange

registeredinthepre-_{and post-performance surveys.}

The imageschosenforthisexhibition weretakenfromapartments and residences offriendsand

acquaintancesin_Chicago,New_York, and other cities. Theirfunctionistoimparta_feelingoflocation

andplace, to_implythat thevieweris _livinginthecity. _InitiallyIbelievedthat theimagecontent was

relativelyunimportant,as_longasitconveyed"cityness." _However, after_{photographing}therearof

apartment_buildings,I graduallyenlargedthecontenttoinclude facadesthatemployedtheirarchitectural

beautyas an additional aspect ofthepersuasion. _UltimatelyfortheprojectIchoosetouse a single

expansiveviewforall oftheresidenceswheretheimageencompassedbothlowerandhigher_density

dwellings,containing botha_{neighborly feel}while_remindingtheviewerthatoneisstillinthecity.

Thisthesis_{documented how photography}canbeutilizedtochange perceptionsand viewpoints about

theworldaroundus. Itis hopedthiswork can_helpleadpeopletotherealizationthat themodelforthe

H. HISTORY OF SUBURBIA

Today,suburbiacontinuestogrow at atremendouspace,chokingand_devouringthelandscape,

as well asthelivesofthefamilies and_{individuals,who aretrappedwithin an} isolatedand

definedenvironment_lackingvital and_necessaryaspects which meet ourhumanneedsas social

animals. Theisolationleadstofeelingsoflonelinessanddespairthatare muchdeeperandmore

commonin Americathaninother

societies.1

American'srelationto thelandhasundergonedrasticchangeinthepast severalhundredyears.

The first Englishcolonistsbelievedwilderness was evil and savagebecause_theywereusedto

cultivation and controloftheirlandscapes. Eventhegardens and parks oftheEnglishwere

extremely formal and manicuredtoreflectthisbelief:theshrubs andbusheswere_tightly

trimmedand sculpted andthegrass was_evenlycutina_domineeringmanner. Thecolonists

brought many ideasofthelandscapewith_them,manyoftheseare still apparentin America

today,although_theyhaveevolved and mutated overtime. Whenthenew_{country began}toform

anational_identity,thelandscapewasone oftheidealmetaphors. Theincrediblemountains, vast

forests,giganticfreshwater_lakes,andtheunfathomableWestall combinedtoreinforcethe

nation's pride and sense of self. _Sharpdescribes itas, "Insum,a_topographyof awesome

dimensions andlimitlessnatural_bounty,singled outfor divineblessing,has_longbeen integralto

thenational

consciousness."2

Throughoutthenineteenth_centurythevastness and magnificence

oftheAmerican landscapewas extolled not_{only in literature}and_music,butalso_bynumerous

painters andphotographerswhowere mesmerized_byits beauty. FrederickChurchandThomas

Coleare painters who showedthis_{worship in images}ofNew YorkStatemountains and

wildernesses(Figures 2and3). _Coincidingwiththewestwardexpansionand_occupation, a

whole new generation of artistswas enthralled. These includedthefamoustopographic

photographersofthegovernment_surveyingmissions of_Timothy O'

Sullivan,Carleton_Watkins,

William_{HenryJackson,}Andrew_Russell,andJohn Hillers (Figure 4). Theyexploredthevirgin

continent's_{compellingbeautyusing large}glass plate negativeswhichhadtobeprepared and

developedonthespot. Artcritic_AndyGrundbergdescribesthework oftheseWestern

landscapephotographersas "O'

Sullivanorganizedthesescenesintopictures ofconsiderable

1

HerbertJ.Gans,The Levittowners: Ways ofLifeandPolitics inaNew Suburban_Community,p.230. 2

Figure 2.

Figure3.

Figure 4.

Andrew J. Russell. _HangingRock,RoofofEchoCanyon, Utah, 1867-68. Albumin Print Naomi

force,andina mannerthat_radicallyextendsour conception of what alandscapecanbe. Like

Wafkins,andto some extent_{Eadweard MuybridgeandWilliam}

HenryJacksonas_well,

O'

Sullivanimbued hispictures oftheAmerican Westwith a profound skepticism aboutMan's

relationtoNature. Natureseemsnot so muchdispassionate inhispictures asapassionate, remotefromman's wishes andintentions."3_{(Figure5) Theseimageshelped fuelthefrenzyfor}

Manifest_Destinywhichdeemeditwas_{every American's inalienableright,}even_destiny

(especiallythosewith power or_money)toconquer andtame thenewland inthenameof

America.

Forinhabitantsof_newlyindustrializedcities, thedramaticnatural scenesthatwere_being

producedeffectedthemsignificantly. _Sharpdescribedthe_{relationshipas,}"escapistimages borderingonthesublime."4

However,even asthepublic was_{incorporating}theseimages into their psyche, thewildernessthatwas_beingdepictedwas_{rapidly undergoing}atransformation. "Untamednature was_beginningtogive_wayto small settlements andfarms. Thewidespread

levelingof_forests,the_{ready availability}of prairieland for_{homesteading,}thesudden contraction

ofthe continent,acceleratedin 1869_bytheadvent of_{the transcontinental railroad,mining for} gold and_silver,were_onlyafewofthecauses ofthedisappearance."5

The_{images, however,}continuedtoworktheir_{way into}theconsciousness anddesiresof

everyone. Popularcultureimageswere_extremelypersuasivein howthelandand nature were

ideallyviewed and people wantedtocapture a part ofthisvision aroundtheirhomes. Insteadof

lookingto thenatural world asthe_waytodesignayard, thenaiveinhabitantslooked backto theirEuropeanroots.

While many historians havetreatedsuburbiaas arecentphenomenon,it actually hasancient

roots,andhasbeenpresentfromtheorigins of the_{city itself. Onlyrecently it}istheincredible

growththathaspermittedthesuburbs todwarfthecitiesinpopulation as well as areathatmakes

thischapter unique. Theancientcities ofMesopotamiaandEgyptoftenhada_{dense citycore,}

butthenhadlessdense 'suburbs'

outsidethe_cityperimeterandbeyond. Thearcheologist

3

AndyGrundberg,CrisisoftheReal: Writingson_{Photography1974-198,}p.58.

4

Figure 5.

Leonard_Woolleyfoundevidence ofbuildingsoutside ofUrasfarasfourmiles_awayfromthe

urban

center.6

Thereisan example ofthenaturalinteraction_{betweenandinterdependence}

betweenthecities andthe_surroundingrural and agricultural lands fortradeand resources.

Duringlaterperiodsspacelimitations inthecities promoted growth attheperipheries such as

whenbuildingsand structures were erectedthatexceededthespace_{available, it}was naturalfor

themtolookto themargins. SothelocationofthegymnasiumsinancientGreeceandthe

monasteries_duringmedieval ages issimilarto the_waythat theSuper-_Walmarts

mustnowlocate

atthe_peripheryoftoday'scommunitiesdueto theirsize requirements.

Butspacelimitationsare notthe_{primary factor behind}thegrowth ofthemodern suburbs. In

ancientRomethe_wealthycreated_countryvillasand estatesfortheirsocial status as well as

relaxation, pleasure,health benefits. Laterpeoples continuedtofollowthis trendasthehistorian

Lewis MumforddescribedthelayoutofMedievalcities as_having"detailedevidence oflittle

huts,cottages,and_villas,with ample_{gardens,springing up}outsidethecitieswalls. _Bythe

sixteenth_centurythelandso used servedformorethansummer residence andrecreation. As

earlyas_{the thirteenth century,indeed,}Villanireportedthattheland fora circle ofthree miles

aroundFlorencewas occupied_byrichestates with_costlymansions; andVenetianfamilieswere

notbehind intheirvillas ontheBrenta."7 Buttheseestates werenotforthecommon_folk,and

Mumforddescribesthemas"Fromthe_beginning,theprivileges anddelightsofsuburbanism

were reserved_largelyfortheupper_class; sothat thesuburb might almostbe describedasthe

collective urbanformofthe_countryhouse-thehouse inthepark-_{asthesuburban}

wayoflife is

so_largelyaderivativeoftherelaxed, playful,goods-consumingaristocraticlifethatdeveloped

o

out ofthe rough,bellicose, strenuous existence ofthefeudal stronghold."

In Alberti'sseminalwork_{The Ten Books ofArchitecture,} he discussesthese_countryestates

sayingthat"thereisa vastdealof satisfactioninaconvenient retreat nearthetown,where a man

isat_libertytodo justwhathepleases ... Iwouldhavethefrontandwholebodyofthehouse

5

Sharp,p.15. 6

Leonard Wooley. ExcavationsatUr:_{A Record of Twelve}Years'Wort

7

Lewis Mumford. The_Cityin History: itsOrigins, itsTransformations,anditsProspects,p.484. 8

perfectlywell_lighted,andthatit beopentoreceive a greatdealoflightandsun, anda sufficient

quantityof wholesome

air."9

"Thoughtheretreatfromthe_cityheldmanifest advantageforhealthand_familylife,itwas

equallyanattempttoachieveliberation fromthesometimes_drearyconventions and compulsions

of anurbansociety: an_effort, giventhe_necessaryfinancialmeans, tohavelifeon one's own

terms,evenifitmeant_havingitalone:theanarchism of the wellfilledpurse, the_heresyofthe

privateindividual's _seekingto takeover withinthelimitsof a private_familythefunctionsof a

whole

community."10

"To beyour own uniqur_{self; to}buildyour unique_house,mid a uniquelandscape: tolive inthis

DomainofArnheima self-centered_life,inwhich private_fantasyand caprice wouldhave license

toexpressthemselves openly,inshort, towithdrawlikea monk andlive likeaprince-_thiswas

thepurposeoftheoriginal creators ofthesuburb. _Theyproposedineffect o create anasylum,in

which_theycould,as_individuals,overcomethechronicdefectsof civilization while still

commandingat willtheprivilegesandbenefitsof urban society. ThisUtopia provedto_be,upto

a_point,a realizable one: so_enchantingthat thosewho contrivedit failedto seethe_{fatal penalty}

attachedtoit-_the

penaltyof_{popularity, the}fatal inundationofa massmovement whose_very

numbers would wipe outthegoods eachindividualsoughtfor hisowndomestic_circle,and,

worse,replacethemwith alifethatwas notevena_cheapcounterfeit,butratherthegrim

antithesis."11

Withthegrowth oftheindustrialrevolution andtheexponentialincreaseinthe grime, soot, and

smogof_{the cities, the}health benefitsoftherurallife becamemore apparent anddesirable. As

road networksbecamemore_{efficient, the}citiesbegananotherstageofgrowththatwasravenous

in itsappetiteforland. Theupperclasseswerethefirsttoleavethe cities,echoingatrendfrom

the 18thand 19th

centuries when_theyhadrural estates within aday'sjourneyoftheurbanarea.

Withtheadvent oftherailroadand mass_transit,theseareas andbeyondwere nowavailabletoa

farbroaderpopulation. Withthe_{vastly decreased}travel_times,itwaspossibletocommuteto

9

Leone Battista Alberti. Ten BooksonArchitecture,p 1 14. 10

workeach_dayandthe_surroundinglands became feasibleto themiddle class.Roger_Silverstone,

theeditorofVisions of_Suburbia, illustratesthechangethat therailroadhadon suburbanEngland

with_"Bromleyisa caseinpoint. Halfaday'shorseridefrom London and once a manor ofthe

bishopsof_Rochester,itwas_{suburbanized,unexceptionally}. . . withitspopulation

quadrupling

inthelast_fortyyears ofthenineteenth_{century,following}thearrivalin 1858oftherailway,

whichbroughtthecentre ofthe_growingtown to around_twentyminutesfrom Cannon Street in

the_CityofLondon. _Bromley. . . likeso

manytownsand villages ofthetimeand equivalent

distancefrom_{London,quickly}succumbedtomore_speculative,unplanned

development."12

In Americathisrapid expansion was also assisted_byTheodore Rooseveltandhis New Dealthat

"after 1932encouragedthethirty-yearmortgagethatmadehome ownership feasibleto_many

working-classfamilieseventhoughfewcould availthemselvesofituntil aftertheSecond World

War. Rooseveltsupported_highwayconstructionthatlaidthefoundationof modern suburban

sprawl. In _1939,Rooseveltsignedlegislationthatofferedtaxdeductionsonmortgage_interest,

thus_providinga major_subsidytosuburbanization. From 1934-1953theAmericansuburban

population rose_by75percent(comparedto_{only 25% for}the_countryas a

whole)."13

Astheirnew_livingenvironmentbecamemorecommon,it begantoberepresentedinpopular

culturein "memorablepostwar american_films,Miracleon 34th

Street,Mr._BlandingBuilds his

Dream_Home,and evenIt'saWonderful Lifeprovidedavisualimageofthepopulardreamofa

suburban

home."14

Nowpartofthe"AmericanDream"

wastoown ahomewith a yardthat

surrounded_it,no matterhow_tinyandinefficientitwas. Withtheend ofWWII signaling

national_{recovery, the}GI BillwiththeVeteransAdministrationandFHAmortgageinsurance

programs,andtheadventof_{Levittown,NJ,}even thelowermiddle classcouldafforda sectionof

this_{grassy dream.}

Itis_interestingtonotethat thefirst Levittown includedaspects of_{community in its}design,but

theseaspects werede-emphasizedinthelatertwoLevittowns. Sociologist HerbertGans,who

studiedtheLevittowninhabitants,describedtheinitialversionas a

"

. . . smallerversion ofthe

11

Mumford,p.486. 10_

11

Mumford,p.486. 12

RogerSilverstone. _{Visions of}Suburbia,p.3. 13

Silverstone,p.119. 14

expensivesuburban onestheLevitt firm had builtpreviously,but includedan_arrayofhome

appliancesand werelocatedaroundVillage Greens thatconsisted of neighborhood_shops,an

playgroundand a_swimming

pool."15

Thefirmwas _initiallyoperated_byAbrahamLevittandhis

twosonsWilliamandAlfred. Alfredwas trainedinarchitecture and was a_strongproponentfor

communitycentered_building,which canbeseenfromsome ofhisother projects. Togetherwith

the executives,_theywere"dividedintotwo_relativelystable_factions, theself-styled"idealists"

whowantedtobuildwhat_theyconsideredthebestpossible_community,andthe_"realists",

concentrated_mainlyinthecomptroller'soffice,who were concerned with_economyand

sometimesquestionedinnovationsthatmightincreasecostsoraffect

sales."16

Unfortunately,

whenAlfredleftthe_firm,hisbrother Williamwasleftincontrol,so muchofthepushtowards

creating community disappeared. Gans describes William'sviewpointsas"unlikehis_father,he

hadnodesiretoinvolvethefirminthelifeofthe_communityortouplifttheculturalleveland

civicperformanceofthe

residents."17

Hefeltthat"mostofthebuyerswere_movingtoLevittown

1 ft only becauseofthehouseandhad little interest inthewider

community."

Outsidecompetition

from shoppingcenters also erodedthe_abilityoftheLevittiowntosupportitsown shops and

attractions,withtheresult_beingthatthelater Levittowns included lessof_them,andtheresult

was_theywere muchless communityoriented.

Withthenowaffordablesuburbs_{growing rapidly (20%}growthbetween 1950and1956_alone!),

theywerefilled mostly_bythemiddle-classinhabitantsoftheurbancities. Thisresultedinwhat

Paul Grogancharacterizesas amulti-wave assault ontheurbanfabric. The firstofthese:

"ismiddle-classflight. Wherethe_aginginfrastructureof old cities and the

newer,lower-costamenities ofthesuburbs propelthemiddle classesfartherand

farthertowardthesuburbanhorizon. Amiddle-class consumertastefor detached

houses,largerlots,and(atleast among_{whites) homogenous}racial and ethnic environmentsacceleratestheflight. Themovetothesuburbs was almost

self-generating. As largernumbers ofaffluent citizens movedout,jobs followed. In

turn,thisattracted more_families,moreroads,and moreindustries. ...Highquality

municipal _services,and_especiallywell-funded public schoolsthatoffered racial

15

Larrabee,Eric."TheSix Thousand HousesthatLevittBuilt,"

Harper'sMagazine,Vol.197 (September

1948),pp.79-88.

16

Gans,p.7.

17

Gans,p.6. 18

homogeneityand_harmony,attracted still more_residents,whichinturnmade select suburbs even wealthier and more attractive. _{As early}asthe _1950's,

suburban real-estate advertisements were_harpingonthe themesofrace, crime,

drugs,congestion,andfilth."19

"SinceWorld War JJauto-centric policieshaveerodedthenations public_{transportation agencies,}

now_receivingone governmentdollarfor_everysevenhandedto thecar."20

"Withthefederal

government_financing90percent oftheinterstatesystem, thenationtook to the_highways,and

the_movingvansheadedto thehills."21

Thusthedream didnottakeintoaccounttheinteractionsbetween_inhabitants,asthedesign

centeredon each_familyunit andtheirowndesires. Theneighborhood wasdesignedto

efficiently divideupa parcel ofland intoyardswith_easyaccessfora_vehicle,hencethename

"subdivision."

Thepedestrian was_{usually ignored}or even_discouraged,andit iscommonto

findsubdivisions_beingconstructed_todaywithoutsidewalks,therebydiscouraginginteraction

amongtheinhabitants. Interactionislimitedto_seeingone'sneighborsdrivepasttoandfrom

work. Thistakes toan unnatural extreme whatGeorge Simmel describes as"oneofthelarge

developmentaltendenciesof sociallife... a small circlefirmlyclosedagainstneighboring

circles."22

"Itappearsthat the_planningaxiomistomakeitasconvenientas possiblefor

cars. Thearrangement of_{homes,schools,libraries, businesses,}and_{shopping is}

intentionallyorganized sothatnoneofit isaccessibleinsuburbiawithout

automobiles. Itis_{verycar-friendly,}butnot at allpeople-friendly. The

preeminent value upheld_byplanningbymostAmericancommunitiesisthat

whatever allows more carsto travelgreaterdistances faster isgoodplanning. The

clogged_highways,theneighborhoodswithoutsidewalks, theacres ofblack

asphalt_bakinginthesummer_sun,theperiodic poisonousair,theenormousland

consumption and_destruction, andthe_inabilitytowalk anywherethatmattersare

not goodforpeople_livingor_unborn, andthesethingsmake communitiesaplace

nearly impossibleto

develop."23

19

Paul Groganand_TonyProscio,Comeback Cities: A Blueprintfor Urban NeighborhoodRevival,p.35.

20

JaneHoltzKay,AsphaltNation: HowtheAutomobile Took Over AmericaandHowWe Can Take It

Back,p.44. 21

Kay,p.21.

22

Currently,the trendofsuburbanization_continues, butsome are_startingtoquestionthe

relationship. _Theywonder_whyso much oftheir_{property is}coveredwith_grass,and are even

questioning ifa yardis integralto_{modern-daysatisfaction,} or_{if it detracts from}their_qualityof

life. _Theyseetheabandonment and_decayoftheold cities in favorof_buildinganew atthe

outskirts,and recognizethewaste and cometo theconclusionthat:

"Thebiggestenvironmentaldebacle isnot contaminatedindustrialsites,poor air

quality,wetlands_destruction,or radioactive_waste;ratheritistheprodigal waste

of_existinginfrastructurecombined withthe simultaneousinvestmentinnew

infrastructureonthefringesof a region.. . we abandon an

existing investmentand thenreplicatethewhole_thingsomewhere else. Yetall ofthoseabandoned or

underutilized_streets,sewer_pipes, water_{lines,utilities,}side_walks,business

blocks,andindustrial_facilities,schools,houses,and neighborhoods represent an

extraordinary investment inbothrenewable and non-renewableresources, the

energytomake_them,andthe tremendoushuman laborrequiredtobuildthem. Howcanweclaimtobe_{environmentally}responsible andbehaveinsuch a

profligate

manner?"24

Eventuallythis scenarioistoberepeatedinreverseinthesuburbs. _{The aging infrastructure in}

thesuburbs willbegintobeadrainonthe_communityas a result ofthe_{sprawling design. I}

estimatethat therewillbemuchhigher infrastructurerepairand maintenance costs per unit

dwelling,perhaps_byafactorof one-hundred. _Thus,as thesesuburbs age pasttheir tenth_decade,

theunbearabletaxburdenwill_hopefullyencouragetheinhabitantstorelocateintheurban

centers ratherthan_{moving further}outtoanewersuburb.

"Mostpeoplelookupon our_highwaysystem as a good_thing,takingpridein its

width,length,appearance,and efficiency. Ialso assumethatmost people are

unaware oftheconsequencesthesystemhas hadonthedevelopmentof_suburbia,

onthereduction anddeteriorationofotherformsof public_{transportation,}andon

theacceleration ofthe_decayof anddisorganizationinthecentral city. Thatisto

say,most people whotakeprideinour modern_highwaysystemcannotsee a

relationship between itandtheircomplaintsabouttheabsence of apsychological sense of

community."2

23

Dr. RobertArchibald, "Whose Planis itAnyway?"

Public_PolicyResearch Center OccasionalPaper5

(June,2002),p.5. 24

Archibald,p.4. 25

Seymour B.Sarason, The Psychological Sense of Community: Prospectsfora_{CommunityPsychology,}p.

The biggest lossfromthegrowth ofsuburbiaisthelossof community.Freuddescribes how

humanneeds areignoredin societyas,"we_justlyfind faultwiththepresent state of our

civilizationforso_{inadequately fulfilling}ourdemands fora plan oflifethatshall make us

happy."26

26

m. COMMUNITY

Whatisthedefinitionof community? Sarason definesitas"thesensethatonebelongs inandis

meaningfullya partof alargercollectivity, andthatthereisa network of and structureto the

relationshipsthatdiminishesratherthanincreasesthefeelingsofloneliness."27 Hegoes ontoinclude in

hissense of acommunity, "a readilyavailable,mutuallysupportive network of relationships upon which

one could_depend, and as a result of_which,onedidnot experience sustainedfeelingsoflonelinessthat

impelonetoactions orto_adoptinga style of_{livingmasking anxiety}and_settingthestagefor laterand

moredestructive

anguish."28

'Weneedtofeelneeded. Weyearntobepart of alargernetwork of relationshipsthatwould give

greaterexpressiontoour needsforintimacy, diversity,usefulness, andbelonging."29 Itisthisneedfor

belongingthathascausedtheretobesuch a"powerfulaffiliativedrive_drawingmen and womaninto

religious_{congregations,}fraternal_lodges,ethnic_{organizations,}sports_clubs,reform_groups,

mutual-improvement_juntas,professional_societies,civic_{associations,}andcommunal_living

ventures."30

It just

takesalookat"the divorcerate,thedecliningforceofinstitutionalizedreligion,high-rise_living

quarters,changingneighborhoods,and afantasticrateof moving. Itisnowonderthat theabsenceof a

stabilizingsenseof_{community has been}pinpointedasoneofthemostfrequentand significantfeatures

of our

society."31

Unfortunately,today'ssuburbancommunities arenotformed_bytheaccumulatedknowledgeof

psychologists, sociologists,urbanplanners,economists,andtheinhabitants,asitshould_be,but_bythe

developerswho are motivated_byshorttermprofit. _Theydonotcare abouttheinhabitants_longterm

happinessafterthehouseissold.32

B.F._Skinner,the_pioneeringpsychologistwho madesome ofthe

firstbreakthroughs into human behaviorandpsychology,alsocalledfor "achanged_relationship

between_psychologyand society,betweentheoryandaction, andbetween scienceandsocial

responsibility."33

Hewantedtoalter_{societyby having}itsmembers attain apsychological sense of

27

Sarason, p.41. 28

Sarason. p. 1. 29

Sarason, p.3. 30

DonaldPitzer,America's CommunalUtopias,p. 1 1. 31

Sarason, p. 154. 32

Gans,p.7. 33

community. _Accordingto_Skinner,thisispossible_bygivingthewelfare ofthe_communityprecedence

overthatoftheindividual.

Whatmakes a good community? _Keyelements of a_{strong community}arethesense of_belongingand

the_securitythatresultsfrom_knowingand_interactingwith your neighbors. Neighborswhich make_up

themodern equivalent ofthehistorictribe. Thoughoutmankind's_historypeoplehavesoughtthe

supportandinteractionof communities. The_Fellowshipfor Intentional_Communitydescribesthe

commonthreadofintentionalcommunities as "idealism- each one wasfoundedon a vision of_livingina

betterway,_{usually in}responseto_somethingperceived as_lackingor_{missing in}thebroaderculture.

Mostcommunities aspiretoprovide a supportive environmentforthedevelopmentof

members'

awareness,abilities,and spiritual growth. Mostseektocreate alifethatwill_satisfythebasic human

cravings:_{security,family,relationship,fellowship,}mutual_{cooperation,creativity}and_{self-expression,}a

sense ofplace,and_ultimatelya sense of

belonging."34

Historicallythesecommunitieshavegravitatedtowardscertain sizes anddesigns. Anexampleisthe

Yonomamopeoples ofBrazil. The Yonomamo live inalargecircular compoundthatisopeninthe

center where_theyperformtheir_{daily living}andrituals. Whenthetribegrowsovera certainsize,

usuallyaround200adults, thereisanincreasein disagreementsand socialtension that_eventuallyresults

inthetribe_{splitting into}twogroups. _{This splitting into}twosmaller groups resolvestheconflictsthat

were caused_bythe_groupbeinglargerthantheoptimalsizeforthegroup.

TheShakersarethemost successful and_{longstandinggroup in}theU.S. _Theywerethemost_thoroughly

organized andhaveexistedformorethan225years. _Arrivingin America in _1774,"the Shakers_bythe 1830'shadattracted some4,000memberstomorethan_{sixty community}units called

'families'

in nearly

twentydifferentagricultural settlementsfrom Maineto

Indiana."35

The Shakers hadanagrarianbased

societythatbelievedin _grouporiented_{living,working,}eating,singing,dancing,and spirituality. _They

promotedthevirtues offaith, hope,honesty, innocence, humility,pacifism, patience,thankfulness,and

34

The_FellowshipforIntentionalCommunity, Communities Directory: A GuidetoIntentional CommunitiesandCooperative,p. 16.

35

charity. Physical laborwas encouraged as well as_industry,and_theydevelopeda unique style of

architecture,furniture, literature,and philosophy. Onceagain asthesize oftheircommunities_grew,

theywould split_uptoformmoreintimateandfunctionalgroups. Thesegroups averaged250_people,

but_theywere subdividedintosmaller groups of50thatworked_{together, coming}togetherforspecial

events and self-governance. Other intentionalcommunities and societiesin America havealsofound

this sizetobeoptimal,astheOneidaNew YorkPerfectionistswith238peopleintheir community, the

Amana_SocietyinIowawith seven villages with about207peoplein_each,andtheBethel_Communityin

Missouriwhichtotaled200members.38

Amodernexample ofthisoptimal size of a_{society is}thegrowth of abusiness. Businessmodels of

communicationhavenotedthatas abusinessgrows over a certain sizethereisabreakdown inthe

transmissionof oral communicationbetweenalltheindividualsinthegroup. Afterthissize_point,once

again around200_{members, there}areindividualswho are_accidentallynotincluded inthe

communicationchain,and_theybegintofell_{isolated, ignored,}and uninvolvedwiththegroup. To

compensate,anewmulti-tieredinformation system mustbe implemented inordertoretainthe

functioningand connectedness ofthebusiness.

Thisprovenhistoricsense of_communityapplies_equallytourbanand suburban areas. Urbancities are

divided intosmaller neighborhoods orinto_dwellingconfigurationslikeapartmentbuildingswhere

people caninteract. Lithesehigher_densitybuildings,theinhabitants haveregular and repeated contact

with one another at several oftheshared common spaces. Theseincludethefrontstoop, thelobby,the

mail_{room, the elevator,} andthehallways. Ineachofthesespacestheneighborshave frequent

interactionssuchthattheirneighborsbecome familiarandlosetheoppressivequalitiesinherentin

strangers.Theseprovidethestructureforthe 'tribe' thatencourages and allowspeopletolive happier

and more effectivelives. As de Toquevilleobserved, "democracydependsuponthefreeassociation of

strangerstoget_anythingdone." Urbanareas arefarmore conducivetointeractionofthisnature,as

contrastedto thelackof_dailycontact whichoccursinthesuburbs. _Coming and_goingat30milesper

hour(48.3_kph) the_{inhabitants only}see theirso-called_{community form}acar window. Theseare

36

GeraldandPatriciaGutek,VisitingUtopian Communities: A GuidetotheShakers, Moravians,and

Others,p.31-81.

37

Charles_Nordhoff, AmericanUtopias,pp. 179-214.

38

automobile_communities,oftentimesdevoidofsidewalksor pedestrian _{areas, thusleading}tolittleor no

senseof_communityor connection with one's neighbors. The_onlyview oftheneighborhoodthat the

occupantsofthevehicle ever seeisa_blur, where abrief_fleetinginstantof eye contact and a casual nod

are supposedtoreplace an actual conversation or connection.

Basedonthesehistorical_precedents,I havecome_upwith adesignthatIbelievecouldfunction inour

urbancenters,providingcontemporaryconveniences while_providingthemembers with_identityand

belongingwhichIclaimisvitaltoour collectivehappiness. Iwould structure a_communityinour cities

withfourautonomous groups of200composed of around50familiesthatwouldliveinclose_proximity

toeachother. Each groupwouldlive ina_buildingthathousedall200or perhapsfourcontiguous

buildingsthatwouldhave 50ineach. The first fewfloors wouldbe dedicatedtosocial activities,such

as_{meetingareas,lounges,}a_{theatre,cafe, grocerystore,daycare,}and a school. The fourgroups would

interactwith each otherthroughsports_{events, plays,dances,meetings,}etc. Thisstructure would give

each ofthe50 families ineach_groupseverallayersof_belongingand recognition of others. Atthe

center wouldbethedirect_familyunitthateach person_{belonged too,}then_beingone_familyof50 inthe

buildingor_livingunitwithall ofthem_{readilyfamiliar,}and_{finally being}one_groupof_four,and

interactingwith_{them through school, activities, etc,}butnever_seeingthemenough sothatall areknown.

Therewould alwaysbemembers onehadnot meetyet,andthusthe_communitywouldseemdynamic

andeffervescent,never_gettingold orboring. Thistypeof_communitycould provideforthehealthofits

members as well asthehealthof ourcities,repopulatingthemwith_{concerned, active,}and_happy

citizens.

Urban infillisa crucial aspect of_underminingthesuburbancancer.OrionKriegman,founderof an

urban ecovillagein_Boston,describesthis as_"Badlydesigned,impoverishedcitiesholdthepotentialto

betransformedinto forestedgardens ofvibrant multi-cultural neighborhoods . . . withhigh-density,

comfortable_livingin large buildingsconcentrated within severalblocks,lacedwithbikepaths,roof

gardens,terraced cafes,with asphalt and_{parking lots}torn_uptoplantorchards,create_parks,and surface

long-buriedstreams. Such_densitywould create enormous efficienciesinthedeliveryof services and

an

use of_energy,as well asfree uppotentialland currentlypavedover_by

sprawl."

JacobStevens

39

OrionKriegman,"Urban Ecovillages:_MakingourCities Greenand

Thriving."

CommunitiesJournalof

Cordivae,cofounder of an ecovillagein_Denver, statesthat_{"Re-use,retrofitting,}and_{rehabilitating}

existing buildingsand_usingsalvaged andfound_materials,is_likelytobemoreimportantthannatural

buildingmethods,dueto theresources availableincities andtheirmore conservative_zoning regulations."40

Insummary, throughout timecultureshavesoughttofostera sense of_communityintheplaces_they

lived. _Onlyinrecenttimesas suburbiahasexpanded,hasour_livingenvironment neglectedtoinclude

thisimportantelementin_designingour neighborhoods.

"Thearrangement of spaceisa principledeterminantofthekinds of potential

relationshipsthatcan exist withinthatspace. Thecheapest short-termsolution,like developmentoftheleastexpensive real-estate on_{the periphery,may be}themost

expensive optionforour children andtheirchildren. Jfwe_decrytheisolation ofthe individual inour_world,ifwe wonder whathappenedtocommunities of_place,andifwe

are aghast atthesingle-minded pursuit of self-interestthatis so often ahallmarkof our times,wedonot needtolook fordeep-seatedcommon angst. Allwe needtodo isto examinethe_waywehavearranged our spacesinour neighborhoods and around our places ofbusiness. As if_byintentwehavemade relationshipsbetweenpeople

difficult."41

B.F. Skinnerstatesthat thechoiceisclear: "eitherwedo nothingandallow a miserable and_probably

catastrophicfuturetoovertake_us,or we use ourknowledgeabouthuman behaviortocreate a social

environmentinwhich we shallliveproductive andcreativelives anddosowithout_jeopardizingthe

chancesthat thosewhofollowuswillbeabletodothe

same."42

40

Cordivae,Jacob Stevens. _"WhyUrban Ecovillagesare

Crucial."

Communities JournalofCooperative

Living,Issue 1 17_(Spring2003),p.38. 41

Archibald, p.5. 42

IV. INFLUENCES

Propaganda andthe Anti-Suburbanists

Theuse of photographs aspropaganda or as a method of_{intentionallyexertinginfluenceis}extensive.

Fromthe_{verybeginning}withthePortrait_oftheArtistasaDrownedMan_byHippolyte_Bayard,

producedin 1840one year after photography's _{unveilingto the public,photographyhas been}usedto

intentionallyattempttochangetheviewer'sbeliefsand opinions(Figure6).

Jacob Riis'swas oneoftheearliest advocates of social changethrough_photographythroughhis

documentationoftheabysmal_livingconditions ofimmigrantsthatwere reproducedinnewspapers in

1888and_eventuallyinabook HowtheOther_HalfLives(Figures7and8). _{Andy Grundberg}describes

hiscrusadeas_"Usingafrantichyperbolenowadays reservedfortabloid newpapers,Riis soughtto

mobilize sentimentagainst slumlife in New York_City,wherein 1877a population of one million was

housedinsome37,000

tenements."43

Hisgoal,Riisstated, wastomake acollectionof viewsfor lantern

slidestoshow"asno meredescriptioncould, the_miseryand vicethathehadnoticedin histenyears of

experience. . . and suggestthedirectioninwhich goodmightbe

done."44

Anothersocial advocate

utilizing photographywasLewis Hinewithhis Child Labor imagesthatshowed_{young Americans hurt}

anddisabledfromindustry's_{exacting labor (Figures 9}and 10). Hine's imagesand_{descriptions,}as well

ashistireless_lecturing,were criticaltotheimplementationof childlabor lawsinthe_earlypartofthe

century. _GrundbergdescribesHine'sworkas"hispicturesof child_labor, ofwhichthereare_hundreds,

are wellknownas exemplars ofthepower ofphotography-_becauseof

them,weare_{told, Congress}

passed_{legislation outlawing}child

labor."45

TheUnitedStatesgovernment wasawareofthesesuccesses

andinthe 1930's believedthat the_strategycould workagaintoconvincethepopulacetosupportthe

agenda of social reforms.

Documentaryphotographywasfoundtobeapowerfulandvaluableforce forthegovernment

administrationthatsupported_it,as well asfortheindividualswho createdit. Thegovernmentsupported

theuse of_{documentaryphotographyduring}the 1930'stogain supportfornewDealprograms and other

relief measures_{for needy}groups ofpeople where_photographywas usedtoillustratethereliefproposals

43

Grundberg,p.54. 44

JacobRiis,HowtheOther_HalfLives,p.23. 45,'

Figure 6.

Hippolyte Bayard. Self-Portraitas aDrownedMan, 1840. Direct Paper Positive. NaomiRosenblum,p.

Figure7.

Figure8.

Figure_9,

HUMAN JUNK

OOOD MATERIAL

AT FIRST

No future and^low wages

"Junk1

SHALL INDUSTRY BE ALLOWED TO PUT

THIS COST ON SOCIETY?

Figure10.

becauseofitspowerful verisimilitude(Figures _{11,12, 13,}and 14). Inone oftheirfirstuses of

documentaryphotography,accompanyingthememorandumto thedirectorofthedivisionofRural

Rehabilitationinthe_EmergencyReliefAdministrationofCalifornia in_{April 1935 regarding}the

"MigrationofDraughtRefugeestoCalifornia,"PaulTaylordescribestheuse of_photographyinthat

"theparties _[are]photographed as_accuratelyasfieldinvestigationmethods permit. Novariationshave

beenmadebeyondthose_necessarytoprovideintelligiblecontext or condensedpresentation. The

photographicdocumentationofthisreportis

authentic."46

The_keywordhereisauthentic._Photography

criticAbigailSolomon-Godeaufurtherrelatesthat"theprevalentbeliefthatphotographic

documentationconstituted an unassailable and objectivetruthwas_largelyunchallengedthroughout the

century."47

Becauseofthe_continuingmisconceptionthatphotographs could notlie_theycontinuedtobe

used_{extensivelyby}theResettlement Administrationandlater_bytheFarm_SecurityAdministrationto

furthertheirown political ends.

The FSAphotographers were_"vitallyconcerned withthefateofthemigrantfarm familiesand

sharecroppers_theyphotographed and were_seekingto_bringabout action ontheirbehalf. _Theywere

well aware ofthepolitical potential oftheircraftin_helpingtodothis."48

Solomon-Godeaudescribes

how_theywere also aware ofthepotentialtomanipulatethesubject_matter,"whensubjects smiledinto

thecamera,theywere stage-managedintomore somberposes;sharecroppers who woretheirbest

clothestobephotographedweretoldtochangeintotheirragged_everydaywear,persuadednottowash

begrimed handsandfaces forthecamera."49

DortheaLange latersaidthat_"everythingispropaganda

forwhat youbelieve_in,actually,isn'tit?"50

Inthe 1970'sphotographersbegan totraintheirlensesonour_livingconditionsand_theydocumentedthe

rapidly proliferatingsuburbs. Theseartistsincluded RobertAdams,JoeDeal,BillOwens,andlater

RichardMisrach. Jonathan _Green,critic,professor, andauthorofAmerican Photography:A Critical

Historyillustratesthisnewapproachas:

46

HowardLevin, DortheaLange,Farm_SecurityAdministration Photographs:1935-1939,p.77.

47

Abigail_{Solomon-Godeau, Photography}attheDock: EssaysonPhotographic_{History, Institutions,}and

Practices,p.157.

48

Levin,p.31.

49

Solomon-Godeau,p.179.

50

Figure 11.

Walker Evans. Mississippi, 1936. Gelatin Silver Print. Aperature,Walker Evans. New York:Aperature,

Figure 12.

Figure13.

MarionPost Wolcott. _TakingaDrinkand_RestingFrom_HoeingCotton,Allen_{Plantation, Natchitoches,}

Figure14.

Marion Post Wolcott. Back_{Staircase, Belzoni,Mississippi, 1939. GelatinSilver Print. F. Jack}

'The earlyphotographers ofthelandstood withthecivilizedworldbehindthemand

lookedouttowardthewilderness. Inthelaterhalfoftheseventiesthenewbreedof

photographers reversedthisorientation. _Theystoodintheopenlandand pointedtheir

camerasbacktowards the_approachingcivilization. Ratherthanexplorers_{pushing into}

the unknown, thesephotographers were observers_documentingtheconflict_takingplace

between manand nature onthenewAmerican frontier. _{Theyphotographedthat}pointin

thelandscapewheretheOld Westwas_unceasinglyand_{irreversiblydissolvinginto}

contemporary,homogenizedAmerica."51

Thework_bythesephotographers wasinresponseto the 19th_{centuryphotographers,}whosephotographs

"weretacitprotests againstthe_contemporaryproduction ofimagesthatdepicteda_{traditionally}sublime

landscape;such photographs were considered_{anachronistic, naive,}andindefensible."52 Green describes

thewhole ofthework as"thedominantthemeofthisnewAmerican Frontierwasthephenomenonof

changethatoccurs withthe transformationofthewilderness,rural_territory, and openland intourban

environment. Thedominantpresencein_{this photography,however,}was notthepresentbutthepast. . .

Fromthisperspectiveit describesthelandasit has been tamed,_{conquered,broken,}anddeveloped_by

the_{advancing line}of settlements. Thefrontierthatisphotographedistheintersectionof_{reality, myth,}

technologyand_wilderness,rural independenceandindustrialdependence."53

"Inthework ofLewis BaltzandRobert_Adams,art,nature,andindustrial form become_inextricably

tangled. Bothphotographthe_meetingpointoflandand settlementinsuch a_waythat thelandscapeand

thebuildingsassume qualities_{traditionally}associated withtheother. Inreality,boththelandandthe

architecture are_{usuallybanal,}sterile,bleak,and_scruffy. . . Thelandscapetakesonattributes of

industrialregularity,urban_brutality,and

artificiality."54

"Thoughthesephotographers presentedtheirworkasformalstatement

and carefuldocumentationandthough_theywere_deeplyaware ofthe difference betweenundefiledterrainanddevelopedland,theirhallmark

was notirony. Neitheraretheirphotographs_emotionallyneutral:these

arephotographs abouttaking, exploiting,and_rapingtheland. Atthesame

time_theyare alsoaboutthevisual potentialsof adamaged landscape.

Uncomfortable beforethe_{traditionally}magnificent_{views, these}

photographers _{self-consciously}avoidedthe_overlydramatic; theywere

unwillingandunabletomakethegrand gesturesof_{Muybridge, Weston,}

51

Jonathan_Green,American Photography: A CriticalHistory1945tothePresent,p. 164. 52

Green,p. 166. 53

Green,p. 164. 54

andAnselAdams. _Equallyuncomfortable_beforethespiritualennui ofthe

contemporarylandscape,theysought outthesublimeaspect ofthe

ordinary. _Photographyprovided a means_{for creatingvisual}

beautyout of

thematerialthat_{in reality}offered_{little hope forspiritual redemption.}

Insteadof_presentingthe_{distressingsuburban worldthatPeter Blake}

recordedin 1973 in God's Own_Junkyard,thesephotographerstooka

view closerto thatadvanced_{byRobert Venturi in 1972 inLearningfrom}

LasVegas. _Theyrecognizedthebeautifulinthedisdainedand endowed

thevulgar andthe_ordinary with a new pastoralism. In_{the end,then,}the

landscapeand suburb arebothglorified anddisparagedintheirwork. The

photography istorn between_beingtrue to theirworld

-whichisthebasis fordocumentation

-and_beingtrue to themedium-_whichis

thebasisof

art. Theessential hallmarkofthe_photographyofthenewAmerican

landscapeisambivalence."55

Adamsisperhapsthemost recognized of theTopographiesgroup,ashe isa skilled writer as well as

photographer. Hephotographedin_Denver,Colorado_duringthe_{1970's,capturing}theincrediblegrowth

that the_cityunderwent_duringthattimeperiod. Heshowsthe_advancingsuburbanlandscapeandits

detritus,form litteron adoomed_grassyplaneto thedoomed livesoftheinhabitants inthis_empty

landscape(Figure 15). Adamsreferstodestruction_with, "ThesuburbanWest_is,froma moral

perspective,depressingevidencethatwehavemisused ourfreedom."56 Heshowsthepopulation

isolated,alone,and miserable. Imagesoflone dinersamidcountless_emptychairshighlightthesolitude

thatismodern_dayDenverandtheNew West (Figure 16).

InAdams'sbook What WeBought,he lamentsthedestructionoftheWest in hiseloquentimagesand

words. In_{the preface,}he describestheencroachment of_{the city "as}themetropolitanarea'spopulation

increased,largetractsof_hastilyconceived commercial and residentialbuildingswereadded,weakening

thesocialfabric. Whowere one's

neighbors?"57

He documentsthese_sprawlingtractsofhousesand

theirinevitablepurposelessness, furiousover ourneglectandlackofcontrol. Hespeaksa sorrowful

testamentof our shortsightednesswith,"In afewyearsthearea'sruin wouldbetestament toabargain

wehadtriedtostrike. Thepicturesrecord what wepurchased,whatwepaid,andwhat wecould not

55

Green,p. 167. 56

Green,p. 168. 57

Figure 15.

B^H'^^^H

m*

-'.!

t

*

X '

'>

3

IT? ri

0"

,

*

y

'

m/t

Tt"^

c^i-

_t\

Figure16.

buy. _Theydocumenta separationfrom_ourselves,andinturnfromthenatural worldthatwe professed

to

love."58

In BillOwens'bookSuburbia,hisportraits of atown's inhabitantswere collectedtogethertocreate a

derogatoryrepresentationofsuburbia. Heplaceshisown views ontohis subjectsthrough theselective

useof quotesfrom_{the subjects,usingshort,fragmentaryphrases and sentencestoadvancehisown}

agenda,asthecompletedialoguethatwas recorded would not_portraythesubjectsinsuch a poorlight

(Figure 17). _Contrarytowhathesaysinthe_{introduction,}Owensisnot_attemptingtoexpressthelives

and_realityof_{the people,}butinstead hisown_realityandhow hebelievesthatsuburbiahasaffectedit.

The_introductoryimagesshowthedestructivenessofthesuburban growth processthatfewofthe

interviewed individualsseemtoacknowledge(Figure 18). Anotherthemepresentedinthebook isthe

generallackof satisfaction withtheirlivesand_lifestyles,andtheways_{they try}tofillthevoid(Figure

19). Oneofthemore_interestingaspectsisthatbecause_theyare so_deeplyhabituatedwiththeideasof

suburban_living,theynever realizethatit isthecauseoftheirmisery. Oneman,latemiddle-aged and

balding,reflects onhis lifeas_{"my hobby}isdrinking."59 Heispictured_sittingat aminiaturebar in his

housewith a multitude of assortedliquor bottles surrounding him (Figure 20). Rampantmaterialismis

another manifestation oftheunattainable salvethatOwensrepresents. Owensalso wantstoexpressthe

isolationandlonelinessthata suburbanlifestyleenforces. Theseparation of everyoneinthe_community

bywalls and_fences,andeachfamily'sretreatintothehidden backyard,maintainsafragmentedand

unhappysociety.Oneoftheimageswithouttext_simplyshows an_emptylivingroom withtwochairs

facingatelevision(Figure 21). The image iscoldandbarrenandillustratesthelackof connection

exceptthroughT.V. Inanother_image,onecoupleinsistedthatitwasasource of

"freedom"

that"no

oneknowswhat you_reallydo,"but actuallythis_feelingofcomplete_{anonymity is}attheroot oftheir

problems.60

Joe Dealphotographs"theoutskirtsof_Albuquerque,Dealrecordstheintersectionofthesocial andthe

naturalworld. The land hasnot yetsolidifiedintourban center or suburb. Itlies uneasily betweenpast

and_present,still_{harboringcontrasting}ruralandurban values. It simultaneouslyembodiestheAmerican

dreamof_{countryliving}andthenightmareofdeveloperexploitation. . . Streetsandutilitypoles

58

Adams,Preface.

59

Figure17.

Bill Owens. We're_reallyhappy. Our kidsarehealthy,we eat good_food,and wehavea_reallynice_home,

Figure 18.

Bill Owens. I boughtthelawn insix-foot rolls. _{It's easy}tohandle. Ipreparetheground and_mywifeand

Figure 19.

Bill Owens. Our house is builtwiththe_livingroomintheback,sointheevenings we sit out_{front of}the

Figure20.

BillOwens. _{My hobby}isdrinking. Ontheweekends_{I enjoy getting}togetherwith_{my friends}andboozing,

Figure21.

suddenly appear,incongruously,on_{empty land.} Ineach single photographthefulltransitionfromopen

land tosuburbhappensrightbeforeour eyes.

"61

Richard_Misrach,while not part oftheNewTopographies_group,is a_contemporaryphotographer who

portraystheWest,thelandscape,andits inhabitantsandthedestructionthataccompaniestheirpresence.

Hisphotographsshow complexissuesof_{historical,political, social,}and aesthetic concerns. Muchof

hisworkdealswithissuesof_beautyand_aesthetics,inthat theimagesof ravagedlandsaredifficultto

reconcilewiththeconcept of_beauty(Figure 22). Misrachdescribesitas_{"aestheticizinghorror",}

influenced_byWalter BenjaminandSusan_{Sontag,making it}not_onlymore_palatable,butattractive.62

Sincethe80'she hasphotographedtheAmerican desertsand man'sinfluenceonthem(Figure 23). He

showsa worldthatisnot a_wilderness,untouched_bymankind,butrather alandthathas been "converted

foreconomic gain andintheprocess stained and_{trampled, franchised}and_{fenced, burned, flooded,}

grazed, mined, exploited,andlaid

waste."63

(Figure₂₄₎

Thesetopographicartists each examinetheAmericanlandscapeanditsinhabitants,but in different

manners. Adams focusesonthesuburbanbuildingsandtheirfailures. Owensphotographsthepeople

wholiveinoneCaliforniansuburb,usingtheirown words as_testimonyoftheirunhappiness.Deal's

imagesare aloof anddistantwiththe_{seemingly deserted}neighborhoods_echoingtheirlackoflifeand

vitality. Misrach seesthe_beautyinthedesertandthewastethatmankind createswiththoughtless

disregard. These fourartists areexamplesof theAnti-Suburbiaworkthat_{has influenced my}

philosophies and_{photography in my desire}to_tryandsubvertthesuburbsand_{eventually play}a rolein

theirdestruction.

TheHarrisons

The 60'swere atimewhen_manyartists were_changingtheirapproachtoart. Itwasatimewhenthere

was a growth of a"counterculture_loathingofcommercialismandareluctancetocreate salable

art-as-objecttobeshowcasedinthegallery-collector'shome-museum

context."64 Asa_result,therewas an

60

Owens,p.42. 61

Green,p.173.

62

RichardMisrach,CrimesandSplendors:theDesertCantos,p.15. 63

Misrach,p.22. 64

Figure 22.

Figure 23.

Figure 24.

increaseintheuseof earth_art,installation_art,performance_art,and_bodyart. "Thiswas a period when

artisticopinionabouttheenvironment wasdominated_by artists such asMichael_Heizer,whoseDouble

Negative₍₁₉₆₉₎involvedthedisplacementof240,000tonsof earthintheNevada_desert;Walter De

Maria,who set400steel poles instraightlines over a square mile oftheNew Mexico deserttodraw

lightningtohis_LightningField_(1977);andRobert_Smithson,whoseSpiral_{Jetty (1970)}was a giant coil

of rock_stretchingfromtheshoreinto Utah'sGreatSaltLake. Createdtomove art out ofthe_{gallery into}

thereal worldandto_defythe_turningof artintoa_commodity,projectslikethese alsohada_{less savory}

sideintheir_tendencyto_usurptheearth asjustanotherkindof raw material availableforartistic

transformationand

exploitation."65

The60'

s were also atimeof counterculture revolution andtheriseofidealsof environmentalism and

ecological_respect,and while some oftheseartists were concerned withtheenvironment andtheimpact

oftheir work,the_majorityof

artists'

pieces weredestructiveand unconcernedwiththeecosystems_they

weresituatedin. The doublenegative_{essentially dumped 240,000}tonsof earthontotheplantsand

animals ofthe_{surroundingterrain,}aswellas_creatinga'tailingspile'

equivalentto thosecreated_bythe

miningcompanieswhicharethesource of pollutantsforcenturiestocome. Someoftheartists realized

thenegative aspects oftheir_work,but_{for many it}waslate intheircareers.

"Towardstheend ofSmithson's_life,his_thinkingbecamemore positive. Hebeganto

thinkof_ecologyandthesocialrolethatearthworksmight_{play in}therehabilitationofthe

environment. Ashewrote: 'Acrossthe_countrythereare_{many miningareas,}disused

quarries,and pollutedlakesandrivers. Onepracticalsolutionfortheutilizationofsuch

devastatedplaceswouldbe landand water_{re-cycling in}termsof"Earth

Art.'"

Theartist

would mediatebetweenecologists andindustrialists. Smithsonproposedbothto_prettify

stripmines,sludge_heaps,and otherdevastatedsitesandtorevealtheravagesof

humankind'spollution. Heexecuted onelandreclamationproject,Broken Circle/Spiral

Hill_(1971),inanabandoned_{quarry in}theNetherlands. Ayearlater hewas_tragically

killed beforehecouldfurtherrealizehis landreclamation

art."66

HelenandNewton Harrisonare aCaliforniacouple whohave been involved in creatingenvironmental

artthatcooperates withthe environment,andlooktonature withtheintentionofpreservation. _They

shareda_teachingposition at the_UniversityofCaliforniain San Diego from 1969to1993,anditwasin

65

Eleanor Heartney. "Ecopolitics/Ecopoetry:HelenandNewton Harrison's EnvironmentalTalking

Cure.'

Butis itArt?The Spirit ofArtasActivism,p.141.

66

the_{early 70's}that_theybegan toformtheirunique approachtoenvironmentalissuersand concerns.

Theirworkhadalarge influenceonthestructure ofthis thesisas well asit'spresentationinthe thesis

exhibition.

Theirapproachstemsfrom_takingan"issuewithconventional_thinkingthat theexpansion of urban

boundaries_ultimatelybreed disaster for boththelandandits humaninhabitants. Instead_theyadvocate

variousformsof restoration and reclamationto_bringhumanneedsback intosynchronism with natural

fa

processes."

Thepresentation oftheirwork was quite uniquefortheir timeas "Overtheyearsthe

Harrisonshave developeda unique_ecopolitics,couchedintheformof an ecopoetry. _Combiningtext

withphotographs,drawings,and_{maps, the}Harrisons_employthelanguageof_storytellingtopresentthe

resultsof theirinvestigations intoa particular problem or a specific ecosystem. Eachworkispresented

as apoeticdialoguewoventogetherfromdiversevoices,_includingthoseof_{planners, ecologists,}

botanists,foresters,theartists_themselves,and eventherivers and waterways whosehistoriesand

futuresareunderconsideration. _{Borrowingpromiscuously from}other_disciplines,thevoices use

metaphor,irony,and_analogytosuggest new ecological strategiesand

approaches."68

(Figures25and

26)

The Harrisonswere_workingon a project withtheSava river in_Yugoslavia,whichhad been damaged_by

industrial_farmingpracticesthatleechedtoxicfertilizers intothesoil andwater,andtheenvironmental

burdensofthe_recentlyarrived_{industryalong}the_{river, consisting}of a paper_mill,acoal_mine,an

atomic_energyplant,and afertilizer_factory(Figure 27).

"Aswith alltheHarrisons'projects, theirworkontheSavacomprisedtwoparts. The

first involvedthe actualconversations withthe planners, scientists,and_ordinarypeople

theyencounteredintheirinvestigationsandthereverberationstheseconversations setin

motion. Thesecond part oftheproject consisted ofthevisualrecordthat theHarrisons

producedintheformof aninstallationof_maps,texts,and photographs. ...thework

wraps aroundthe_gallerywalls. Viewers followthecourse of theriver visuallyas_they

readthe textsinwhichtheHarrisonsmeditate uponthespecific problems and solutions at

variousjunctures. Perhapsmorethan_anyother narrative_bytheHarrisons,thisproject

capturestheconversational natureoftheirwork. Sectionsofthetextare writtenas dialoguesbetweentheartistsandvariousindividualswhom_theyencounteredintheir

investigations. We hear fromaBotanistaboutthedangerouseffectsthatmodern

flood-67

Heartney,p.145.

68

Anaerialview of

Pasadena's Devil's Gate

Damcirca1986reveals

thedrained debris basin

and rubblepilethe

Harrisonsencountered

wheninvitedtodevelopa watershedrestoration planforthearea.

.

Figure 25.

HelenandNewton Harrison. Devel's Gate: A Refuge forPasadena, 1986. Mixed Media. NinaFelshin,p.

The architectural model

for the Harrisons'

Devil's

Gate project was an

importantelementinthe

presentationoftheir ideas to localgovernment

and ecologicalgroups.

Figure 26.

HelenandNewton Harrison. Devel's Gate: A Refuge forPasadena,1986. Installation View. Nina

HelenandNewton

Harrison,Atempausefur den Save Fluss_(Breathing Spacefor the SavaRiver),

1989.TheHarrisons'

planfor theSava River includeda proposalto

createanature preserve

for migratingwaterfowl

inanareacurrently

containing large fish

ponds.

Notingthatrunofffrom thechemicalfertilizers

employedin thefarms thatline the Sava River jeopardizes thewater

shed, theHarrisons

proposedthereplace mentof current practices

byorganicfarming.

HdeTand Newton Harrison. BreathingSpace fortheSuvaRiver, 1989. MixedMedia. NinaFelshin,p.