Social practice within a capitalist state : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University

(1)Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author..

(2) SOCIAL PRACTICE VITHIN A CAPITALIST S TATE. :. A CRITICAL ANALYSIS. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor .of Philosophy at Massey University. I AN F . SHIRLEY. 1986.

(3) i. ABSTRACT. This thesis. se t. as i d e. conven t i onal occupa t i onal d i s t i nc t i ons b e t ween. s c i en t i s t s , admi n i s t ra t ors and managers , i n an p rac t i c e w i t h i n. a. c a p i t al i s t. Stat e .. exami na t i on. The. cen t ral. s o c i al. I t e x p lored bo th t he l i m i t s o f. S t a t e p owe r and t h e capac i ty o f S ta t e prac t i t i oners for ac t i on .. of. t rans fo rma t i ve. p ropos i t i on be i ng exam i ned , sugges t ed tha t S t a t e. prac t i t i oners i nev i t ab ly engage. in. forms. of. a c t ion. wh i ch. t en d. to. p e r p e t ua t e ex i s t i ng s o c i a l and econom i c rela t i onsh i ps .. The e p i s t emology. of. Jurgen. Habermas. prov i d ed the framework f o r t h i s. analy s i s i n wh i ch d i s t i nc t i ons were made s c i en t i f i c enq u i ry. and. c o r r e s pond i ng. be t ween modes. d i s t i n c t i ons equa t ed t h e emp i r i cal -analy t i c. d i f f eren t. forms. o f social ac t i on . t rad i t i on. wi t h. of. These. s t ra t eg i c. ac t i o n , t h e h i s t o r i c a l -hermeneu t i c t rad i t i on wi t h communi ca t i v e a c t i on , and t h e c r i t i ca l t rad i t i on w i t h emanc i p a t ory ac t i on .. D i s t in c t i ons were o f p rac t i ce ;. also made be tween two al t e rn a t i ve bu t rela t e d l e v e l s. namely , i n t e rac t i on , d e f i ned. as. t he. commun i ca t i ve. and. s t ra t eg i c ac t i o n s of knowledgeabl e par t i c i pa t i ng subj ec t s , and s o c i e t a l ac t i on whi ch eman a t e s o u t o f t he forces and r e la t i ons o f produ c t i o n and whic h. represen t s. the. i ns t i tu t i ona l i s a t i on. of. behav i oural. pat terns. e s t a b l i s hed b y s o c i e ty as a who l e .. I n a n exami na t i o n o f t h e s o c ial i nd i ca to r s t h a t crucial. ques t i ons. r e la t i ng. movemen t. it. was. t o econom i c and po l i t i cal � t ru c t ur e s. i n t e re s t group manoeuv r i ngs , and soc i al con f l i c t i n general , omi t ted .. Prac t i t i on e r s. appeared. revealed. to. e x c lude. the. had. pos s i b i l i t y. been of.

(4) ii. p o l i t i cal mo t i va t i o n f rom b o t h the des ign and. of. social. By accep t i ng t he s t ruc t u ral l i m i t a t i ons i mp o s e d by. i nd i ca t or sys t ems .. c a p i t a l i s t econom i c and s o c i al rela t i ons and wi th i n the. cons t ru c t i on. s e le c t i ve. l i m i t a t i ons. p rac t i t i oners i nadve r t en t ly. by. e s t ab l i shed. al igned. t hems elves. agre e i ng. to. operate. by the dominant class , the. e mp i r i cal. d i f f eren t. s c i en t i f i c. w i th. t rad i t i o n and w i t h s t ra teg i c ac t i on .. Al t h o ugh the. Habermas i an. d i s t in c t i ons. be tween. t rad i t i o n s p roved adequa t e i n evalua t i ng the o u t come was n e ce s sary. to. r e a p p ra i s e. the. of. prac t i ce ,. it. theore t i c a l log i c o f c l a s s so as t o. acco u n t f o r those l o ca t i ons w i t h i n t h e S t a t e w h i ch could n o t b e d e f i ned by own e r s h i p o f the means o f p roduc t i on .. Th i s. reappra i s a l. i d en t i f i e d. p rac t i t i oners as membe r s o f the aux i l i ary c l a s s occupy i ng con t rad i c t ory loca t i ons. be tween. t he. p role t a r i a t. and. the. bourgeo i s and p ro l e t ar i an loca t i ons are o c cup i ed by c las s e s d i am e t r i cally o p p o s e d , f rom a. s i mu l t aneous. con s equence , t h e. the and. aux i l i ary par t ial. Whereas. bourgeo i s i e .. wh i ch. are. c l a s s d raws i t s charac t e r i c t i c s. loca t i on. in. two. c la s s e s .. As. a. c l a s s a c t i ons o f S t a t e prac t i t i oners are i n fu s e d w i t h. amb i gu i t i e s .. The s e amb i gu i t i e s b e c ame s t r a t eg i c and. e v iden t · when. commun i ca t i ve. a c t ion .. the. exami na t i on. f o c u ss ed. on. A l though the cogn i t i ve i n t eres t s. o f t he aux i l i ary c l a s s s eemed t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t he values and i n t eres t s o f t h e bourgeoi s i e any i n s t rumen t a l assoc i a t i on b e t ween t h e a c t i on s S t a t e p rac t i t on e r s. and. t he. dominan t. c l a s s was rende r e d p r o b l�ma t i c .. Whe reas the cogn i t i v e i n t eres t s o f S t a t e p r a c t i t i oners exempl i f i ed d i s t i nc t i ve charac t er i s t i cs. of. the. o f d i f fe ren t f o rms o f knowledg e , t h e c l a s s. p r a c t i ces i n whi ch t hey engaged s temmed f rom t he i r s t ru c t ural l o c a t i ons.

(5) iii. w i thin the. S ta t e ,. t he i r. con t r ad i c t o ry. class. i n t e res t s ,. and. t he i r. med i a t i ng capac i t i es .. These med i a t i ng. capac i t i es were exam i ned by ana lys i ng the prac t i ce s o f. Wo rking. an N . R . A . C . unempl oymen t . t h e c r i t i cal. Par t y. wh i ch. was. comm i s s i oned. t rad i t i on. P a r t y d i s p layed. a. p r i mary. d i s p laced boundary. i n teres t s o f. i n t eres t. the. by of. the the. Wor k i ng. in. t he. clas s. were. Wo r k i ng of. i d en t i f i ed. t ho s e in. cons i s t e n t. cogn i t i ve. t he. w i th. the c r i t i ca l of. Worki n g Par ty p romo t e d e i t h e r personal o r p o l i t i cal eman c i pa t i on . i n s t rumen t al. a s s oc i a t i on. b e t ween. t he. eman c i pa t o ry ac t i on could not b e sus t a i ned . exam i n a t i ons. it. became. prac t i t i oners w i t h i n prac t i ce .. Habermas i an. the. apparen t S ta t e. t he o ry. was was. that t he t hen. c r i t i cal. t rad i t i on. As a consequence o f the. the. and by S t a t e manag e r s. Al t hough. bou rgeo i s i e.. the. emanc i pa t i on. con t rad i c t i ons. domi nan t. Party. Whi l s t. t rad i t i o n , t here was no e v i dence t o s ugges t tha t the prac t i ces. any. on. f o r t rans forma t i ve prac t i ce , the expre s s i o n o f. d i sadvan taged by unemployme n t , t h e. around t he. repo r t. Al t hough the Working P a r t y demons t ra t ed the po t en t i al o f. t h i s t he orem i n a c t i on was l e s s t han conclus i v e .. repor t were. to. cen t ral. real i t y nature. con t rad i c t ory ex t ended. in. an. the Thus and these for of. a t temp t t o. r e s o l v e the problema t i c r e la t i onsh i p b e tween t heory and p r ac t i c e ..

(6) iv. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S The pursu i t o f knowledge i s a process wh i ch i s cond i t i oned by many fac t o rs rangi ng f rom the symbol s and language i nd i v i duals use i n unve i l i ng 'real i t y ' , t h rough t o the h i s t o r i cal and cul tural deve l o pme n t o f s oc i e ty i t se l f .. When i t comes t o i s o la t i ng the mos t s i gn i f i can t. fac t o rs i n t h i s p r o c e s s t he task i s ra t h e r daun t i ng because t he f i nal prod u c t o f any s c i en t i f i c en t e r p r i s e i s s i mply the culm i n a t i on o f even t s beyond t he capac i ty o r expe r i ence o f any one i nd i v i dual .. Thi s. i s c e r t a i nly t ru e o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i on . I n exper i en t i al t e rms i t d raws on developme n t i n i t i a t i ves i n . t h e Th i rd Wo rld , wh i ls t t h e t heore t i cal t rad i t i o n s wh i ch i n fo rm t h e w o r k emana t e f rom European i n t e rpre t a t i ons o f s c i en ce and Wes t ern mod e l s o f 'progress ' and ' developmen t . ' The con t rad i t i on s i nheren t i n fus i ng t he s e doma i ns were e v i den t b e f o r e t he s t udy e v en began , b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e i n s igh t s p rov i d ed by members o f b o t h t he auxi l i ary and p ro l e t a r i an clas s es , t hese con t rad i c t i ons became p o t e n t i a l avenues f o r change and symbols of hope ra t he r t han d e s pa i r . I cann� t adequa t ely t hank everyone i nvolved i n t h i s p r o c e s s bu t I d o wan t t o record my g ra t i tude and con t i nui ng c o mmi t men t t o t he work o f t he I NODEP Developmen t I ns t i tu t e i n Par i s and t o t he Di r e c t o r o f t ha t I ns t i t u t e my c o l l eague and f r i end Phi l i p p e Fanche t t e .. I am a l s o. i nd e b t ed t o Z s u z s a Ferge o f t he Hungar i an Academy of S c i ence and t o d e v e l o pmen t age n t s w i t h whom I have been as s o c i a t ed i n t h e As i an and Pac i f i c reg i o n .. Agenc ies such as ESOD , and c o l leagues w i t h i n S t a t e. Depar t men t s , s u c h a s Soc i a l Welfare , S t a t i s t i cs , Jus t i ce , and Mao r i A f f a i rs , suppor t ed t h i s proj e c t b o t h i n s ub s t ance and i n k i n d .. In. d r aw i ng t h i s work t og e t h e r I am g ra t e ful t o my superv i sors P r o f e s s o r Graeme F ras e r , Or Chr i s W i lkes and Mervyn Hancock , and I wan t t o r e c o r d.

(7) V. a val u ed assoc i a t i on wi t h c o l l eagues i n s o c i al pol i cy , b o t h i n New Zealand and in the Un i t e d Ki ngdom . G l e n n i s Fai r l ey t yped t h i s manus c r i p t , and over many mon t h s she n o t only d i s p layed a h i gh leve l o f exper t i s e , bu t cons i derable t o l e rance and good humou r .. Those same qual i t i es were a l s o exh i b i t e d by my. ex t en d e d fami ly , who wi l l no doubt brea t h a s i gh of rel i e f t h a t t h e d i s s e r t a t i on i s " f i n i shed . ". Mary , Tony , Mark a n d Dav id know b e t t e r ­. t hey know t h a t t h i s work i s n o t an end p rodu c t i n i t se l f , b u t r a t h e r a smal l c o n t r i bu t i on t o a new endeavour , i nvol v i ng what Zsuzsa Fe rge has called ,. ' shared commi t me n t s t o a soc i e ty i n the mak ing . '.

(8) CONTENTS. Page. AB STRACT. i. ACKNOVLEDGEMENTS. iv. I NTRODUCTION. 1 9. Thes i s The s i s Ou t l i ne. 13. Notes. 15. CHAPTER ONE : CRITICAL THEORY IN THE TRADITION OF JURGEN HABERMAS. 19. The S c i en t i f i c T rad i t i ons. 24. Three Pro bl ema t i cs Underly i ng the Habermas i an Pos i t i o n .. 30. 1 . The Theorem o f Knowledge a n d Cogn i t i ve I n t e r e s t s. 31. 2 . The O rgan i sa t i on o f the P r o c e ss e s of Enl igh t en me n t. 38. 3 . The P ro blema t i c Rel a t i o n sh i p b e tween Theory and P rac t i ce .. 44. The Ideologi cal Componen t s o f Prac t i c e. 47. The S t a t e a n d Class P rac t i ce s. 50. Summary a n d The s i s. 54. No t e s : Cha p t e r One .. 60. CHAPTER TYO : SOCIAL I NDICATORS - I NTERNATI ONAL. 69. I n t roduc t i on. 69. The Soci a l Ind i c a t o rs Movemen t. 69.

(9) Soc i al I n d i ca t o r Sys t ems. 77. 1 . P r og ramma t i c Developmen t. 78. 2 . Dev e l o pmen t B y Soc ial Goal Area. 82. 3 . Deve lopmen t By L i f e Cycle. 86. The Theore t i cal Bas i s o f S o c i a l Ind i ca t ors. 89. S t ruc t u ra l i sm Versus Volun t a r i s m. 92. Theo r i e s o f t he S t a t e. 101. No tes : Chap t e r Two. 1 23. CHAPTER THREE : SOCIAL INDICATORS - NEW ZEALAND. 137. A Na t i onal S urvey o f S o c i a l Ind i ca t ors. 1 38. The Na t i on a l Dev e l o pmen t Con f e rence. 142. The Soc i al and Cul t u ral Commi t tee o f N . D . C .. 157. The Soc i a l Coun c i l o f the Na t i onal Developmen t Coun c i l. 162. Soc ial I n d i ca t o r s Sub-Commi t t ee o f N . D . C .. 166. S o c i a l S c i en c e Research In i t i a t i ve s W i t h i n the N . D . C .. 170. The Dwi n d l i ng I n f luence o f the S o c i a l Developmen t Coun c i l. 179. The Depar t me n t o f S t a t i s t i cs and S o c i a l Ind i ca t o rs. 181. The Ep i s t emology and M e t hodology o f t h e S t a t i s t i cs Depa r t me n t A p p roach. 187. A Summary o f S o c i a l Ind i ca t o r Dev e l o pmen t i n New Zealand. 195. No t e s : Cha p t e r Three. 203. CHAPTER FOUR :. THE SPECIFICITY OF SOCIAL PRACTICE. Clas s and C l a s s P r ac t i ces. 217 217. Class P r a c t i ces W i t h i n the Na t i onal Developme n t Conference Three Spheres of S o c i al Prac t i ce. 228 233.

(10) 1 . The S p e c i f i ca t i on o f Soc i al Goals. 2 34. 2 . Soc i a l Prac t i ce i n the De par t m e n t o f S t a t i s t i cs. 245. 3 . Proposals t o Reorgan i s e Soc i a l Research i n New Zealan d .. 256. The Ideology o f Soc i al S c i en t i f i c P rac t i ce. 264. The Cogn i t i ve I n t e re s t s o f the Aux i l i ary Class. 271. Summary. 275. No t e s : Cha p t e r Fou r .. 279. Chap t e r FIVE : THE AMBIGUITIES O F SOCIAL PRACT I CE .. 288. The Na t i onal Res earch Adv i sory Coun c i l Working Par ty. 291. Submi s s i ons and Di s cu s s i ons. 295. 1 ) Subm i s s ions i n t h e Emp i r i c al-Analy t i c Trad i t i on. 299. 2 ) Subm i s s i o n s i n t h e H i s t o r i ca l - Hermeneu t i c Trad i t i o n 306 3) Submi s s i on s i n t he Cri t i cal-Eman c i pa t o ry Trad i t i o n. 309. T h e Format and P re p a ra t i on o f the Dra f t Repo r t. 313. The Repo r t o f t he Worki ng Par ty. 319. Summary o f Res ponses t o N . R . A . C . Dra f t Repo r t. 325. The Wor k i ng Par t y Rep l i es. 333. Pol i t i cal P r a c t i ce s A r i s i ng Ou t o f t h e N . R . A . C . Repo r t. 336. The Three Func t i on s o f Cri t i cal Theory. 345. N o t e s : Chap t e r F i ve .. 353. CHAPTER S I X : TOWARD CRITICAL PRACTICE. 364. The Reformu la t i on o f Class and t h e S i gn i f i cance o f Con t rad i c t ory Loc a t i ons. 372. The Cri t i ca l T r ad i t i on and Eman c i pa t i o n. 381. The Amb i gu i ty o f E p i s t emology a n d P rac t i ce. 389.

(11) Prac t i ce i n t he C r i t i cal Trad i t i on. 397. No t es : Chap t e r S i x. 406. APPENDI CES. Appen d i x I. H i s t o r i cal Sources of S t a t i s t i cs. 411. Appen d i x I I ( i ). Soc i al Obj e c t i ves for New Zealand. 419. Append i x I I ( i i ). S o c i a l Developme n t Coun c i l Goal and Obj e c t i ve s for New Zea land. Appen d i x I I I. Appen d i x I V. B i b l i o graphy. 423. The Organ i sa t i o n of S o c i a l Sc ience Res earch : Compara t ive Analys i s o f I ns t i t u t i onal S t ru c t u r e. 426. M e t hodology. 430. Tex t s and Maj o r Ar t i cl e s. 443. Documen t s , Repor t s , Papers. 458.

(12) TABLES. Table I. D i s t r i bu t i on of Na t i onal I n come. Table I I. N . D . C . As s ump t i ons , Targe t s. 73. and Ou t come , 1 9 7 0- 1 9 7 5 .. 146. Table I I I. Ne t Overseas Borrov i ng ( 1 950- 1 982 ). 149. Table IV. Expend i t ure on Soc i a l S c i ences i n Nev Zealand 1971-78. 177. Tab l e V. N . R . A . C . S c i ence Budge t A l l o c a t i ons 1 9 7 1 - 78. 1 78. Table VI. P ro posals for the Reorgan i sa t i on of Soc i a l S c i en t i f i c Research. 261.

(13) 1. INTRODUCTION. The c r i t i cal t rad i t i on from Hege l concerned wi t h. t he. t h rough. power o f i deas .. Habe rmas. has. always. �ha t i deas are produced , by whom ,. and for whose bene f i t , cons t i t u t e the fundamen t a l problema t i cs ' c r i t i cal ' ( 1 ). exami na t i on. human d e v e lopmen t . i deology wh i c h. Those. might. of. the. who. be. been. rela t i on s h i p. p roduce. i deas. in. any. be tween s c i en c e and. possess. t he. power. of. used as a soph i s t i ca t ed weapon o f pro p aganda. and man i p u la t ion , o r as a human i s i ng and l i bera t i ng force o f f e r i ng. the. pos s i b i l i ty o f t rans f o rma t i on ( 2 ) .. Th i s t h e s i s. d i re c t ly. con f ron t s t he con t rad i c t o ry rela t i on s h i p b e t we e n. s o c i a l s c i en t i f i c t h o ugh t a n d human d evelopmen t . p rac t i ce w i t h i n. a. It. exam i nes. social. cap i t al i s t S ta t e , and t hus i t is conc e rned n o t o n l y. w i t h the s o c i a l and p ol i t i cal con t e x t f rom wh i ch w e draw knowledge , bu t also wi t h how t h i s knowledge i s used .. The gen e s i s o f t h i s. s tudy. s even t i e s when. wri ter. t he. Auckland C i t y Coun c i l . renewal p rogrammes new hous i ng. to. was. be. found. employed. in. t he. early. n i ne t ee n. a s Commun i ty Adv i se r t o t h e. Th i s pos i t i on was es t ab l i shed a f t e r. the. urban. o f t h e n i ne t een f i f t i es h a d s pawned t h e c rea t i o n o f. subur b s. Res i den t s who. is. on. t he. p e r i phery. of. t he. Auckland. i s t hmas .. had o c c u p i ed t h e i nner c i t y suburbs o f Auckland f o r mos t. o f t he i r l i ves d i s t r i c t s where. were. r e loca t ed. t he re. were. c os t s , and l i t t l e cho i ce p a t t er n s , s o c i a l. n e t wo rks. of. d u r i ng. the. f i f t i es. and. sixt ies. to. i nadequa t e amen i t i es , high t ranspo r t a t i on hous i ng and. type. or. loca t i on .. F r iendshi p. c i t i z e n r i gh t s were s e t a s i d e i n t he s e. p lann in g d ec i s i on s as t he New Zealand advoc a t e s o f urban r enewal p l a c e d.

(14) 2. i m pl i c i t f a i t h i n t he n i ne t een t h cen t ury t heory t ha t i f. s lum. dwe l le r s. were r e l oca t ed t o new e n v i ronmen t s t hey would g i ve u p the i r lower c l a s s ways a n d t h e ou t come wou ld be a reduc t i on o f s o c i a l patholog i e s t ho ugh t t o ' breed '. in. t he. The. s lums .. Counc i l. i m p l i ed. tha t. by. recon s t ru c t i o n t h e s o c i a l i l l s o f the c i ty woul d be cured . t wen t y years. of. i mp lemen t i ng. res i d e n t s reloca t ed des i gn a t ed o n c e. to. aga i n. new as. this. social. hous i ng. p lan ,. env i ronmen t s. phys i ca l. Ye t. wi thin. many o f t h e s e s ame t he m s e l v e s. found. ' so c i a l problems ' requ i r i ng t re a t men t .. Counc i ls ' remedy i n t he n i ne t een s even t i es w a s the es t a b l i shme n t. The of. a. Commun i ty Adv i s o ry Serv i ce ( 3 ) .. The Adv i s ory. S e rv i ce. was. to. have. two. ma i n. func t i ons. - f i rs t , t o. e s t ab l i sh Adv i c e Cen t re s ( based on t h e B r i t i sh C i t i z ens Adv i ce mod e l ) and. secondl y ,. to. as s i s t. the. commu n i t y ac t i v i t i e s o f t he i r own Advi s e r s e t prac t i ce. cho i ce .. In. of local people i n. t heory. t he. Commun i ty. t o f o s t er a developmen t al a p p roach t o p l anni ng bu t i n. ou t. t he. i nvolvemen t. B u r e aux. role. was. fraugh t. wi th. con t rad i c t i ons .. The s e. con t ra d i c t i on s appeared t o e mana t e f rom t he ambi valent n a t ure o f s o c i a l work p r a c t i ce. wi thin. the. con t e x t. prac t i t i on e r m i gh t a s s i gn p r i o r i t y t o s o c i a l i l ls ,. t he. o r d e r and con t ro l .. of. the the. local S t a t e . a l l ev i a t ion. of. Vher e a s t he human. employ i ng agency was pr i ma r i ly c oncerned w i t h s o c i al Hence l o c al i t i es whi ch had a profus ion o f ' pr e s s i n g. s o c i a l p roblems ' and d i s t r i c t s t ha t ' lacked a s e n s e of commun i t y ' t arge t ed. for. and. commun i ty. w o rk. i n t erven t i o n .. Vhen. i n t e rven t i on was evalua t ed a t the close o f t he n i ne teen. were. f o rm. of. seven t i e s. the. this. i mpa c t o f prac t i c e was a s s e s s ed i n predomi nan t ly n ega t i ve t erms .. Pra c t i t i oners were. accused. o f t rea t i ng t he i nd i v i dual as t he l ocus o f.

(15) 3. a l l d i f f i cu l t i es and t hey were bera t ed f o r i gno r i ng p o l i t i cal i ns t i t u t i on s i n t e rven t i on . t o sugges t. wh i ch. cond i t i on. bo t h. t hose. t he s e. p ra c t i t i oners. and. t he con t ex t and form o f. By analys i ng t h e ou t come o f p r ac t i ce i t. that. social. regard ed. seemed. logi c a l. soc ial prob lems as a n. i nheren t , i n ev i t ab l e and i n e f f aceable par t o f t h e human cond i t i on .. They a s s umed as d i d many group wo rk and cas ewo rk p rac t i t i on e r s b e f o r e them , tha t the p rocess i t s e l f would s u f f i ce as a ' cu re ' . They emphas i s ed means rather t h a n ends , and so preoccup i ed were t hey wi t h t ha t when they moved i n t o a i nd i v i d u a l p a t hology , communal c o n t ex t , t hey mer e ly t rea t ed ' t he commun i t y ' a s the sum t o t a l of i nd i v i dual adj us tmen t s . . . Even where a t t em p t s [ were ] made t o t ended deal wi t h t h e n o t i o n o f s o c i e ty , t he s e . . . to r e p r e s en t ex t rapola t i ons from a t heory or (4) expe r i en c e ga i ned in dea l i ng wi t h i nd i v iduals . A t the. t i me. a s s e s s me n t of. these. p r o f e s s i on ' s Prac t i t i oners ,. In was. h i s t o r i ca l seen. by. e s p e c i a l ly. p u rs u i t. as. wi t h those. work ' s of. t e rms. some. p r e o c c u p a t i on. con t ras t ed commun i ty p r o f e s s i on ' s. s eemed. to. r epresen t. reasonable. a. s o c i a l and commun i ty work p r ac t i ce wi t h i n t he con t ex t o f. t he l o c a l S t a t e . commun i t y work. c o n c lus i ons. u psurge. of. worki ng. and. i n teres t. d e t erm i n i s m .. on. r e form. con t ro l ,. he r i t ag e. of. ac t i v i sm. and. groups ,. marg i na l. w i th. wi th. and. in. t he. a dvocacy .. p lann i ng. making. d i s t in c t i ons t hey a l i gned t h emselves w i t h wha t was des c r i bed as work ' s s corned. in. a n a l t erna t i ve t o t he p lann i n g arch i t ec t ural. emphas i s. o rd e r. t he. these social. They cha l l enged. t he i r f e l low prac t i t i oners to choose s i d e s in . the con fron t a t i on b e t we e n p r i v i l ege a n d h e l p l e ss n es s , wh i l e i n t e rn a t i on a l advoc a t e s s uch as Pus i c exho r te d t hem t o b e c o m e a l l i e s ' agai ns t t he r i ch man ' s i ns o le n c e o f. o f f i ce . '. (5). con t umacy ,. t he. I t was a d e ba t e over t he ends and means o f. p ra c t i ce whi ch was t o b e t aken fur t her i n 1 979 , d u r i ng a. Symp o s i um. on.

(16) 4. t h e Soc i a l Res pons i b i l i t y o f Sc ience .. Des p i t e t he fac t t h a t t h e s o c i a l res pons i b i l i ty deba t e was p r om i n e n t i n i n t e rna t i onal fo rums. d u r i ng. s u c h as t he impa c t o f eng i ne e r i ng , rac i sm. s c i ence and. f i rs t. New. Zealand. rel a t i o n s h i p be tween. n i ne t een f i f t i es and s i x t i e s , i s s u e s. on. the. sex i sm ,. Aus t ra l a s i a than e l s ewhe re . the. the. global. appeared. food. to. cris i s ,. be less con t en t i o u s i n. I ndeed t he 1 9 7 9 ANZAAS Sympos i um fo rum. s c i en t i f i c. for. a. publ i c. t heory. and. gene t i c. p ro v i d ed. examina t i on. prac t i ce .. of. t he. �i t h i n. the. con t e x t o f t h i s Sym po s i um t h e s c i en t i f i c es t a b l i s hmen t was p o r t rayed a s a h i e ra r chi cal. male. p r i es t hood. i n f luence beh i n d mys t i f y i ng wi t hou t con t en t . '. i n t en t. j argon. Prac t i t i oners. on pro t ec t i ng t he i r p o w e r a n d 'a. sor t. of. plas t i c. language. were accused o f monas t i c a t t i t ud e s o f. non- i nv o l vemen t , r e s u l t i ng i n a c e l i bacy o f t h e i n t el lec t d i vo r ced f rom concre t e real i t y , and t hey were remi nded o f B e rge r ' s. o b s e rva t i on. t ha t. t he r e was ' s ome t h i ng o b s cene a bou t t he s c i en t i s t who cla i ms t h a t [ he o r she ] i s. no t. r e s p ons i bl e f o r the uses t o wh i ch s c i en ce i s p u t . ' B e rge r. d i d n o t deny t h e r igh t o f i n d i v i duals t o l i ve t he t heore t i cal to abs tain. f rom p o l i t i ca l engageme n t .. i ts. p r ac t i t i oners. to. pursue. or. He s i m p ly s t ressed t ha t s c i e n c e. w a s ' t o o much l i nked t o t he agon i s ing d i lemmas o f our mos t o f. l i fe. t i me. to. permi t. t he i r theore t i ca l i n t e re s t s i n. d e t achmen t f rom t he ongo i ng s t ruggles o f t he i r f e l l owman . ' ( 6 ). Thes e i ssues a r e n o t new . d e b a t e s whi ch. have. Indeed t hey r e f le c t t h e var i ous. p l agued. developmen t o f t h e s o c i a l. crises. and. the h i s t o ry of s c i en ce in gene ral and t h e. s c i ences. in. par t i cular .. As. each. social. s c i en t i f i c d i s c i pl i ne h a s s o ugh t t o become m o r e p r e c i s e i n t h e mould o f t he n a t ural. s c i ences ,. s o t hey have b ecome p r e o c cu p i ed w i t h t echni que ..

(17) 5. The res u l t i s e v i d enced i n f ragmen t ed t ra p p e d wi t h i n. and. d i s i llus i oned. p r o f es s i o n s ,. t h e con f i nes o f a seemi ngly a f fluen t oas i s ( ca p i t a l i s m ). and w i t h i n t he paroch i al chambers o f the i r res pec t i ve d i s c i p l i ne s. (7) .. Econom i cs prov i des a good i l lus t ra t i on .. Since the. days. o f Adam S m i t h ( 8 ) , t h e mos t f e r t i le minds i n e c o n o m i cs. have been engaged i n r e f i n i ng proces s e s , resources , the. such. as. t he. As. c l e a r ly. d emon s t ra t ed. cons i d e rable. a. Bu t. marked advan t age .. the. types. of. o u t s ide. gave. it. a. ques t i ons abou t our s o c i al and. p o l i t i ca l l i fe wh i ch m i gh t b e called fundamen t al o r part ,. d i s c i p l i ne. t echn i cal s k i l l s i n. hand l i ng the narrow range o f que s t i o ns f o r wh i ch i t s tools. the mos t. of. d i s t r i bu t i on o f i n come , i n creas i ng economi c g r ow t h , and. regula t i ng t he volume o f p roduc t i on and employmen t . econo m i cs has. a l l o c a t i on. rad i ca l. for. lie,. t he recogn i s ed bounda r i e s of e conom i cs , g i ve n. i t s i n t ellec t ua l t rad i t i on s ( 9 ) .. Yhen a n econom i s t. s tud i e s. i nsti t ut i onal stru c ture. unemployment ,. wh i ch. can. t aken. as. g i ven .. In. t akes. we l fare. the. And. when. p o l l ut i on o r c o n s e rv i ng energy , s o c i a l o rgani s at i on. is. g i ven. an. Yhen h e / s he. p rogrammes ,. a. wages. p romo t i on o f i n t e rn at i onal f ree. t rad i ng agreemen t s , i t is a ssumed t hat t h e r e e x i sts a sove r e i gn state s .. as. i t s e l f b e ques t i oned .. asks how t o i mp rove s o c i a l s e cu r i t y and system is. he/she. ques t i ons private. t aken a s g i ve n .. are. asked. en t erprise. mu l t i pl i c i ty. of. a b ou t c o ntrol l i ng as. a. system. of. A s a consequence , " ma i n s t ream. economi sts " ( lO ) seem to avo i d quest i ons a i me d a t exami n i ng. f un d am e n t al. f eatur e s o f our s o c i a l and pol i ti cal sys t em .. Obvi o u s ly , thi s. form. of. s c i enti f i c. p ra c t i ce i s not o n ly c o nf in ed t o.

(18) 6. Soc i o logi s t s ,. e conomi s t s .. educa t i onal i s t s ( 1 1 ) ,. a n t hropolog i s t s. psycholog i s t s ,. have. o f ten. t rea t ed. and. knowledge as a p o l i t i c a l l y. n e u t ral commod i ty , i n the b e l i e f t ha t t he s c i en t i f i c me t hod a l o n e m i gh t somehow lead t o t h e p roduc t i on o f knowledge i n the Th i s i n t e rpre t a t i on. of. s c i ence. i n t e res t s. of. all .. i s based on the b e l i e f tha t i n c reased. sys t ema t i c emp i r i cal unde r s t and i ng o f how s o c i e ty works , w i l l n a t u ra l l y lead t o the i n t e l l igen t formula t i on o f po l i c i e s , a n d o f s o c ial. i n e qu i t i e s. and. inj us t i ces .. It. is. the. ame l i o r a t i on. an al t ru i s t i c v i ew o f. s c i en c e , wh i ch argues t h a t publ i c , a s opposed t o p r i va t e , i n t e r es t s a r e s e rved i n. cond i t i o n s. emp loymen t. of. a. of. pol i t i cal. ra t i onal. neu t ral i ty ,. techn i cal. and. exper t i s e ,. s i mply. over. by. wh i ch. the only. s c i en t i s t s have p r o f es s i onal mas t e ry .. Such a v i ew i s s c i en t i s t s have c l a i med .. obv i ou s ly no t. naive .. In. ma i n t a i ned. a. ado p t i ng. t h is. p o l i t i c a l ly. s t ance ,. neu t ral. s o c i al. a p proach. as. Ins t ead , a f undamen tal t rend has been t owards t he adop t i on o f. a n i m p l i c i t conse rv a t i ve ideology , wh i ch a c ce p t s p ol i t i cal r e la t i o ns h i ps around t echn i cal. wi t hou t ques t i on .. p ro b l ems ,. when. the. exis t i ng. social. and. Thus argumen t s have c e n t red. i ss u e s. d emanded. social. and. p ol i t i cal a l t e r na t i ves .. As. an. e p i s t emolog i cal. d e ba t e. it. t akes. us. under s t and i ng of s o c i a l real i t y .. Inev i t a b l y i t. whi ch was. when. engaged. by. s c i en t i f i c parad i gm . d i f f e r ences. are. Kuhn ( 1 2 ) In. the. e l i mi na t ed. Kuhn i an and. Vel t an schauung and me t hodolog i cal Vel tan s chauung compon e n t. i n cludes. a. he. to. of. consensus. compon e n t s. hea r t. revives. advanced. v i s i on. beliefs. the. his. any. on. our. a rgumen t. n o t i on. s c i ence ,. r eached of. t he. of. of a. pol i t i ca l both. parad i gm .. t he The. abou t the n a ture of s o c i al.

(19) 7. r e a l i ty and t he a t t i tudes and. way. the. values. world. t ha t. should. be ,. prac t i t i o n e r s. as. well. b r i ng. to. as. s c i en t i f i c. t he i r work .. t echni cal componen t i n c ludes the t oo l s , me t hodologies , and. The. approaches ,. t h a t s c i en t i s t s u s e i n t he pursui t o f knowledge .. Al t hough Kuhn ' s. i n t er p re t a t ion. s o c i al s c i en t i s t s. s eeki ng. t rad i t ions , ( l 3 ) t he is useful. in. s c i en t i f i c. to. d i s t i n c t ion. The. t hough t . b e l i eve. e mphas i se s c i e n t i f i c. s c i en c e. claim. d i s c r i m i n a t i ng. s c i en t i s t s who. s c i ences .. of. hegemony. been a p p ro p r i a t ed by for. t he i r. f i rs t. is. values. obj e c t i vi t y. in. two. maj o r. schoo l s. charac t e r i sed obscure the. by. fac t s ,. t rad i t i on. The second group comp r i s e t h o s e who argue. b el i e f sys t e m. r e s pe c t i ve. he makes be tween bel i e f and t echn i qu e. be tween. that. has. of. s o c i al. those. s o c i al. and. t hus. of. t he. that. it. they. n a t ural is. t he. wh i c h s t ruc t u res t he focus and execu t i on o f any r e se a r ch. p rogramme , and t hu s t hey empha s i s e f u s i o n. b e tween. wel t ans chauung. and. techni que .. The f i rst. s chool. s c i ences , and mathemat i cs .. of. thought. endo rses Thi s. emphas i ses. d i s c i p l i ne s. f o rmal. " ma i nstream. m id d le- range theor i sts ,. such. hypothet i cal-deductive mode l. as. is. and. t y p i f i ed. by. bases. his. who. log i c a l ly i nterrelated p ropos i t i on s In. theo r i e s ,. Merton ' s where. ter m i n o logy. connecti on s. b etwee n s c i enti f i c explan ation , prec i s i on , t es t a b i l i ty and Merton does. not. endor s e. a. c o l l e ct i on o f. d ata. as. c o r r elations. f ro m. whi ch. and natural l og i c. as. s u ch. Mer t o n ,. Rob e rt. upon. m i dd l e - r ange. emp i r i cal. trad i t i on " ( 14 ). whi ch have e mp i r i ca l consequences . ( l S ) means systemati c. t he. th i s. a r e made. p r ed i c t i on .. v i ew o f s c i en c e whi ch s i mply e spous e s the. the. bas i s one. m i ght. of. stat i sti cally. s ig n i f i cant. formulate. e mp i r i ca l. then.

(20) 8. gene ral i sa t i o n s .. Nor. does. func t i onal i sm , al t hough. he. endorse. t heo r i e s. g rand. as. such. he clearly be longs t o t h i s t rad i t i on .. Indeed ,. he devo t e s h i s energ i es t oward cod i fy i ng f un c t ional theory , becau s e h i s v i ew. such. grand. conc e p t i ons only f a l l apa r t when con f ron t ed w i t h. e mp i r i c a l tes t s . ( 1 6 ) Ul t i ma t e ly , he a l i gns and. s c i ences. in. wi t h. He. emp i r i c i sm .. is. wi t h. minor. d u r i ng t he. day rou t i nes o f s c i en ce " , and f rom wh i ch one m i gh t. to. e v e n t u a l ly d e r i v e. " emp i r i cally. evolved. natural " t heo r i e s. in. i n t er e s ted. hypo t heses. t he. i n t e rmed i a t e t o t h e day. wo rki ng. h i ms e l f. in. uni formi t i es. o b s e rved. abundance. of. social. behav i ou r . " ( 1 7 ). T h e al t e r na t i ve. s chool. of. t hough t ,. charac t e r i s ed by J u rgen Habe rmas. ( 1 8 ) , ma i n t a i ns t h a t i t is e p i s t emo log i ca l l y i mpos s i ble t o. d i s t i ngu i s h. b e t ween " fac t and value" i n analys i ng and d e s c r i b i ng human d ev e l o pm e n t . I n con t ras t. to. the. ma i n s t ream. language i s devo i d o f value t h a t all. language. is. t rad i t i on. i mp u t a t i ons ,. whi ch holds t ha t t e c hn i c a l " c r i t i ca l ". s o c i a l l y cons t ru c t ed .. t heo r i s t s. argue. Th i s means t ha t the v e ry. c a t egor i es by wh i ch we d e s c r i be and i n t e r p r e t human behav i ou r a r i s e o u t o f s p e c i f i c s o c i a l and po l i t i cal s i t ua t i on s , and even whe r e t echni cal language. we. are. we. use. a. fab r i ca t i ng c a t ego r i es wh i ch a r e roo t ed i n. values and b e l i e f s .. There a r e o f c o u r s e many var i an t s w i t h i n t he s e two s chools but for. the. of. t hough t. purposes o f t h i s s tudy , based as i t i s upon a Haberma s i an. i n te r p r e ta t i on , ( 1 9 ) i t s eems appro pr i a t e t o ' ma i n s t ream ' and. ' cr i t i cal '. t rad i t i ons. d i s t i ngu i s h. are. p r i ma r i ly. t he. on t hr e e fundamen t al g r o und s .. F i rs t , t hey d i f f e r bo t h i n t erms o f purpo s e and m a i n s t ream t h eo r i es. b e t we e n. concerned. appl i ca t i on . wi th. t he. Whereas. prov i s i on o f.

(21) 9. ' fa c t s ' , the c r i t i cal t rad i t i on seeks t o e n l igh t en human agen t s s o t ha t t hey are able t o d e t e r m i n e whe re t he i r t rue i n t eres t s l i e .. Se condly , ma i n s t ream and c r i t i cal t heor i es d i f f e r cogn i t i ve s t ruc t u r e .. Whe reas. ma i n s t ream. in. t heo r i e s. t e rms. of. are o bj ec t i fy i ng ,. c r i t i cal theo r i e s a r e always par t o f t he obj ec t doma in wh i ch subj e c t ed t o analys i s .. is. and. c o n f i rma t i on .. c r i t i cal Whe reas. c o n f i rma t i o n by. theo r i e s. requ i re. mai n s t r eam. d i f feren t. k i nd s. requi re. theories. Th i r d ly , of. emp i r i cal. means of obse rva t i on and e x pe r i men t , cr� t i cal t h eo r i es. mus t surv i ve a more comp l i ca t ed t heory mus t. b e i ng. I n o t her wo rds c r i t i cal t heo r i es a r e s a i d t o b e. r e f le c t ive and t hus t hey are always i n par t s e l f re feren t i a l . ma i ns t ream. their. no t. only. process. i nves t iga t e. of. social. evalua t ion . real i ty. but. A. c r i t i cal. also. s o c i al. knowledge wh i ch i s par t o f tha t real i ty .. Thus a cen t ral e l emen t i n t h e. c on f i rma t i on o f. i ts. a. c r i t i cal. theory. is. ab i l i ty. to. demons t ra t e. r e f l e c t ive a c ce p t ance .. T he s i s. The maj o r con c l u s i on wh i ch m i gh t b e d rawn from t h e d i s cus s i on s o f a r i s t h a t a very clear d i s t i n c t ion has. been. made. be tween. t wo. s c i en t i f i c. t rad i t i ons , and t h i s a rgumen t w i l l be e xpanded l a t e r i n t h e deve l o p me n t o f a comprehens i v e t he o r e� f o r c r i t i ca l p r ac t i c e . t erm " prac t i t i o n e r ". has. been. age n t s engaged i n s o c i a l ac t i o n . s c i ence and. c ommuni ty. used. to. A t t h e s ame t i me t h e. encompass. Al th o ugh. t he. a d i ve r s e g r o u p o f. prac t i ce. domai ns. of. developme n t seem rela t i ve ly unconne c t ed , i t can. b e argued t ha t p ra c t i ce represen t s t he d ual i sm of agency and s t ru c t ur e ..

(22) 10. Whe t he r w e. refer. to. s o c i al. s c i en t i f i c. prac t i ce. work. soc i al. or. i n t e rven t i on , we are i ne v i tably fus i ng the e p i s t emology and me thodo l ogy o f social. If. ac t i on .. o u t come o f agency conce rned wi th a c t i on . d i f fe r e n t. we. and. t he. Whe reas. accept. s t ru c t ural. r e l a t i o nsh i p. conve n t ional. forms. of. the. a c t i on. argumen t that prac t i ce i s t h e. fac t o rs ,. t hen. t ha t. body. are. i ne v i t ab l y. be tween i n d i v i dual and i ns t i t u t i on a l. s t ud i es and. usually. b e t ween. p rac t i t i oners , t h i s t he s i s goes beyond such m i gh t examine. we. d i s t i ngu i sh. b e t ween. d i s t i n c t ive. groups. of. d i s t i n c t i ons. so. we. that. o f bel i e f s , value s , i deas , laws and t h eo r i e s. whi ch cons t i t u te t h e med i a o f prac t i ce .. B ry s o n l eads us i n t o t h i s. examina t i on. in. her. c r i t i cal. analy s i s. of. She mai n t a i ns t h a t few people t oday would o p e n l y. s ci en t i f i c prac t i ce .. c l a i m s c i ence i s value f ree and ye t ' researchers seem t o b e d o i ng. much. t h e s ame as t hey were b e fore . ' ( 20 ) The reason for t h i s , she argues , i s t h a t s c i en t i s t s. enj oy. a. rela t i vely. p r i v i leged. pos i t i on i n t erms o f. i ncome , pres t ige and power , and t hus t he p e r p e t ua t i on o f c u r ren t s o c i a l arr angemen t s i s b road ly i n t he i r own. i n t eres t s .. A. s im i lar. argume n t. seems v a l i d for o ther g roups o f p rac t i t i o n e r s whe ther they be p l a n n e r s , admi n i s t ra t ors o r s o c i a l workers . S t a t e the. ac t i on s. of. these. W i t h i n t h e c on t ex t o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t. " p rac t i t i on e r s " seem t o suppor t d o m in a n t. group i n t eres t s and on the s u r face a t leas t t h e log i ca l explana t i on f o r t h i s merging o f i n t e re s t s po i n t s to t h e shared ideolog i ca l pers p e c t i ve s held b y prac t i t i on e r s and members o f t h e d o m i n a n t class . apparen t merging. of. i n t e re s t s. wh i ch. curren t s tudy and t hu s i t s eems s ign i f i can t d i s t i n c t i o ns. b e t ween. is. appro p r i a t e. of. p r i mary to. se t. It. is. this. concern i n t he aside. t he. less. d i f f e re n t groups o f p r ac t i t i on e r s s o. t h a t w e m i gh t exa m i n e t he ou t come o f p r ac t i ce and ' the bas i c. i n teres t s.

(23) 11. of . . .. p rac t i t i oners . ' ( 2 1 ). The mos t appro p r i a t e f ramework f o r t h i s type of analys i s i s provi d e d by Habermas who. i d en t i f i es t hree maj or fo rms of s c i en t i f i c enqu i ry .. These fo rms o f s c i ence are conce i ved h i s t o r i ca l -he rmene u t i c and. as. shapes. and. emp i r i cal-analy t i c ,. t h e c r i t i cal- eman c i pa t o ry t rad i t i ons .. t rad i t i on is s u p posed ly governed by a ( 2 3 ) w h i ch. the. par t i cular. kind. of. emp i r i cal-analy t i c t rad i t i on. eman c i pa t ion .. Each. ' i n t e re s t '. is. said. of to. s c i en t i f i c be. enqu i ry .. and. the. c r i t ical. t rad i t i on. by. an. i n teres t. i n teres t. Ac cord i ng t o Habermas t hese i n t e res t s emana t e. rep roduc t i ve p r o c e s s e s. of. The. governed by a t echn i c a l. i n t e r e s t i n con t ro l , t he he rmeneu t i c t rad i t i on b y a p rac t i cal und e r s t and i ng ,. the. d e t ermines wha t we cons i d e r t o be knowledge as. wel l as p r es c r i b i ng a l t erna t i ve me thods. in. (22). f rom. in t he. s o c i a l l i fe and as such t hey a r e cons i d e red. fundamen t al charac t e r i s t i c s o f t he human spec i e s .. I t w i l l be a rgued. in. cap i t a l i s t S t a t e ,. these. mode s of p rac t i ce . equa t e d w i t h. this. s tudy. t h ree. t ha t. wi t h i n. con t e x t. of. the. f o rms o f s c i ence corres pond w i t h t hree. The emp i r i ci al -analy t i c. mai n s t ream. t he. t rad i t i on ,. wh i ch. can. be. o r t hodoxy , s ugges t s t ha t p rac t i ce w i l l c e n t re. around a c cura t e ly des c r i b i ng ' wh a t i s ' so t h a t. ' t he. remed i a l ac t i on .. argues f o r an i n s i d e r ' s. The. hermeneu t i c. t rad i t i on. State'. can. t ake. v i ew o f t h e world so t h a t t h e pa t t erns o f i nj us t i c e and i n e qu i ty can b e unders t o o d .. Prac t i ce i n t h i s t rad i t i on i s supposedly m o r e i n t une w i t h. t h e s u bj e c t �s. wo r ld. p a r t i c i pan t r a t h e r t rad i t i o n goes pra c t i t i oner i s. even. because t han. the. p r ac t i t ioner. an. is. empa t he t i c. a ' d i s i n teres t ed observ e r . ' ( 24 ) The c r i t i ca l. fur t he r .. Wi thin. this. form. of. s c i en c e. the. s a i d t o b e guided b y a n eman c i pa t ory i n t e res t and t hus.

(24) 12. h e / s he i s. not. only. p ar t i cular s oc i al. conce rned. s i t u a t i on s. wi th bu t. d e s cr i b ing. also. and. unde rs t an d i ng. wi th chang i ng t hem .. Wi th i t s. e mphas i s on power the c r i t i cal t rad i t ion an t i c i pa t e s the conduc t. of. a. po l i t i cal s t ruggle i n any movemen t t oward emanc i pa t i on .. I f we. a c ce p t. thi s analys i s o f t he res pec t i ve s c i en t i f i c t rad i t i ons a s. an adequa t e theo rem f o r evalua t i ng prac t i ce , then t h i s s t udy two maj o r. The. tasks .. con f ron t s. f i rs t cen t res around Bryson ' s t he s i s t ha t i n a. cap i t al i s t soc i e ty i t i s d i f f i cu l t to e s cape. from. hold i ng. i deolog i e s. whi ch s u p p o r t domi nan t group i n t e r es t s .. Th i s does no t mean t ha t s o c i a l. p r ac t i t i on e rs. State. wi t h i n. the. cap i tali s t. p a r t i c i pan t s i n a prede t e rm i ned plan . w o u l d need. to. ado p t. a. T o promo t e. determini s t i c. au t oma t i c a l ly d i s conne c t s. the. knowledgeable par t i c i pa n t. in. human l i fe .. are. v i ew agen t. merely such. of. a. social. from. be i ng. incidental thes i s. a c t i o n wh i ch an. ac t i ve ,. Th i s i s n o t wha t B ryson i n f e r re d. becau s e p r ac t i ce , i rr e s p e c t i ve o f t h e form i t t akes , i s grounded p a r t i cu l a r s o c i al. and. e conomi c. one. sys t em ,. in. a. and wh i l s t t h i s t o tal sys t em. cond i t i on s the n a t u r e and o u t come o f i n t erven t i on , the prac t i t i o n e r c a n a c t e i t he r. pos i t i vely. nega t i ve l y i n. t e rms. in of. t e rms. of. f o r e b earance .. e f f e c t i ng. cer t a i n. even t s ,. ( 25 ) Bo t h cons t i t u t e fo rms o f. a c t i o n wh i ch p roduce c e r t a i n resu l t s and thus t h e f i rs t ass i gnmen t t h i s s t ud y. is. to. exami ne t he ou t come or i mpac t o f p r ac t i ce .. exam i na t i on reveals t h a t dominan t group or c l a s s the bene f i ca r i es. of. or. i n t eres t s. for. I f t ha t. have. been. i n t e rven t i on t hen w e c a n r easonab ly conclude t h a t. t h e s e p r a c t i t ione r s e ngaged in a form of ac t i on i deologi cal reprodu c t i o n. wh i ch. re i n forced. t he. o f the cap i t al i s t f o r ma t i on and i n the a c t i ve. r e p re s s i on o f al t e rna t ives ..

(25) 13. The s econd t as k , whi ch i s a corollary t o t h e f i rs t , d eg ree o f. volun t a r i sm. and. d e t e rm i n i sm. b e tween agency and s t ru c t u r e .. i nvolved. is in. to. gauge. the. t h e i n t e r a c t i on. One way i n wh i ch i t migh t be feas i b l e t o. analyse t h i s i n t e ra c t i on i s t hrough t he eyes o f par t i c i pan t s t he m s e l v e s a n d t hus the focus i n t h i s second phas e o f the r esearch w i l l cen t re i d en t i f y i ng t h e. bas i c. i n t eres t s o f prac t i t i oners .. on. Th i s wou ld s ee m t o. b e cons i s t e n t w i t h the Habermas i an i n t e r p r e ta t i on o f ideology as a f o r m o f prac t i ce wh i ch d raws i t s s ign i f i cance f rom mean i ngs t h a t i nd i v i du a l s a s c r i be t o t hemselves , t he i r ac t i ons , and the i r. h i s t o r i cal. s i t ua t i o n .. Thes i s ou t l i n e. I n o r d e r t o execu t e t h e s e tasks t h i s s t ud y has been chap t e r s .. Chap t e r. One. p r a c t i ce. and. Chap t e r s. Two. cen t re s. to. F i ve. exam i n e. t he bas i c i n t e res t s o f p rac t i t i on e r s .. exam p l e s a r e d rawn f rom t wo areas o f p rac t i ce . t he exami na�i on. into. six. o u t l i nes a t heorem f o r c r i t i cal prac t i ce based. o n the work of J urgen Habermas . o u t come o f. d i v i d ed. on. research. In the. p rac t i t i oners. c o ns t ru c t i on o f s o c i a l i n d i ca tors , whi ls t the s econd. f i rs t. t he The s e. i n s t an ce. engaged. in. the. focu s s e s. on. t he. a c t ions o f a Na t i onal Research Adv i s o ry Counc i l Working Par ty wh i ch was a s ked t o repo r t on t h e s o c ial phenomenon o f unemp l oymen t .. Chap t e r Two analyses d o cumen t a ry ma t e r i a l rela t i ng t o t h e I n t e r na t i on a l S o c i a l I nd i c a t o r s. Moveme n t .. o u t come o f p r a c t i ce . i nd i ca t o r s movemen t. The. emphas i s. i n t h i s chap t e r i s on t h e. Cha p t e r Three f o c u s s es a t t e n t ion w i t h i n New Zealand .. on. t he. s o c i al. Docume n tary evi de n c e f ro m t h e. S o c i a l Dev e l o pme n t Coun c i l and f rom t he Depar t men t s o f. Soci al. Wel fa r e.

(26) 14. and S t a t i s t i c s. provides. the. emp i r i cal d a t a f o r t h i s evalua t i on wh i ch. also deals essen t i ally wi t h the ou t come of prac t i ce .. Thes e d o c ume n t ary. r e c o r d s p ro v i ded t he names o f p rac t i t i oners who could be key p e rsonnel Zealand .. i nvolved. in. the. as. s o c i a l ind i ca t o rs movemen t wi t h i n New were. i n t ervi ews. Uns t ru c t u red. d e s c r i bed. these. wi th. conduc t ed. p rac t i t ioners i n o r d e r t o ve r i fy document ary e v i d ence and as a means o f i d en t i f y i ng the. bas i c. i n t e res t s. of. prac t i t ioners .. T h i s ma t er i al i s. summa r i s ed i n Chap t e r Four .. Chap t e r F i ve prov i de s an a l t e rna t i ve case s t udy o f social New Z ealand .. Th i s. Counc i l ' s Work i ng. s t udy Party. d o cumen t s c o l le c t ed. cen t res of. by. wh i ch. t he. on the. prac t i ce. in. the Na t i onal Research Adv i s o ry wri t e r. was. a. membe r .. All. working par ty , i nclud i ng w r i t t en a n d o ral. submi s s i ons , were ava i lable t o par t i c i pan t s and thus t h i s. s e cond. case. s tudy p r e s e n t s an ' in s i d e rs v i e w ' o f s o c i al p rac t i ce wi t h i n t h e con t ex t of a. cap i t a l i s t. State.. Chap t e r S i x t hen p rov ides a summary o f s o c i al. prac t i ce based on Habermas ian t heory and con t a i ned i n. the. case. on. the. empi r i c i a l. e v i d en c e. s t ud ies ( The me thodologi cal i s sues i nv o l v e d i n. con d u c t ing t h i s exam i na t ion a r e ou t l i ned i n Append i x I V ) .. The t a s k b e f o r e us n ow c r i t i cal p rac t i ce. is. based. add re s s e d i n ·chap t e r One .. to on. set t he. ou t. a. wri t i ngs. comp rehen s i ve o f Habermas .. theorem. of. Th i s t as k i s.

(27) 15. NOTES - INTRODUCTION 1.. The t e rm " c r i t i ca l " i s used in the con t ex t of the c r i t i ca l s c i en t i f i c t rad i t i on . A s s u c h i t emana t e s f r om the p h i losoph i ca l s p e cula t i on and emp i r i c i sm o f t h e Frankfur t S chool wh i ch , i n i t s ear l i e r years , b roug h t toge t h e r a d i verse group o f Ge rman s c h o l a r s wi t h i n t e res t s rang i ng f rom ph i l osophy, psychoanalys i s , phenomenology and Marx i s m t o mus i c , l i t e r a t u re , the law and po l i t i cal economy . The o rgan i sed programme wh i ch subsequen t ly eme rged found i t s parad igm i n Marx ' s Cr i t i que o f Pol i t i cal Economy and t h e Hege l i an-Marx i s t con c e p t o f " t o t a l i t y " t ha t i s , t he b e l i e f t h a t no p a r t i al as pec t of soc i al l i fe and no i s ola t ed p henomenon can b e unders t ood unless i t i s rela t ed to the h i s t o r i cal who le ( t o the s o c i a l s t ru c t ur e conce i ved a s a g l o b a l e n t i ty ) . T h e domi nan t f i gure o f t he C r i t i cal Trad i t i on i n m o r e r e cen t t i mes h a s b e e n Ju rgen Habermas , whose work ranges o v e r t h ree i n t erconne c t i n g s phere s : t he me t hodo logy o f t h e s o c i a l s c i ences ; t h e connec t i on b e t ween the development o f t he na t u r a l s c i ences and t h e i n t eres t i n ins t rume n t a l con t rol ; and the r e la t i onsh i p be tween s c i ence , po l i t i cs a n d pub l i c o p i n i on i n advanced capi t al i s t s o c i e t i es .. 2.. The d e f i n i t i on a t t r i bu t ed t o E r i k W r i g h t i s t h i s s tudy . Thus :. the. one. ado p t ed. in. "Trans f o r ma t i on r e f e rs t o a mode o f de t er m i na t i on by whi ch c l a s s s t ruggle p rac t i ces d i rec t ly a f f e c t t he p r o c e s s e s o f s t ruc t u ral l i m i t a t i on , s e lec t i on and reproduc t i o n / non-reproduc t i on . " E r i k W r i gh t , Clas s , C r i ses and t he S ta t e , New Le f t Books , 1978 21. London ,. 3.. A f u l l accoun t o f t h e urban renewal p rogramme i n i t i a t ed by t he Auckland C i ty Coun c i l and an evalua t i on o f t he Commun i t y Adv i s o ry Serv i ce e s t ab l i s hed i n the n i ne t een s even t i es i s t o be found i n , Ian Shi r ley , P lann i ng For Commun i ty : The My thology o f Commu n i ty Dev e lopme n t and S o c i a l Planni n g . Dunmo re Press , Palme r s t o n N o r t h , 1 9 7 9 , Rep r i n t ed 1 98 4 .. 4.. Ian Shi r ley , P lanni ng For Commun i ty ( i b i d ) 1 9 7 9 :. 5.. Eugen Pus i c , " So c i al Real i t i es - A Wo rld V i ew" . Paper p r e se n t ed a t t he 1 8 t h I n t er n a t i onal Congress o f Schools o f Soc i al Work , Pue r t o R i c o , J u ly 1 97 6 . Quo ted by Ian Sh i rl ey , "The S o c i a l S c i ences : A n Exam p l e o f Soc i al I rres pons i b i l i t y " , i n Wren G r e e n ( i b i d ) 1 97 9 : 108 .. 6.. " Focus on Soc i a l R e spons i b i l i ty i n S c i ence " , ed i t ed by Wren G r e e� and publ i shed by t he New Zealand Asso c ia t i on o f Sc i en t i s t s . T h i s p ub l i ca t i o n c o n t a in ed t h e proceed i ngs o f the General Sym p o s i um whi ch was held a t t h e 49 t h Congres s o f the Aus t ra l i an and New Zealand Associ a t i on for t he Advancemen t o f S c i erice , Auckland ,. 3 2 and 20 ..

(28) 16. January 1 97 9 . See i n par t i cular , Lo i s B ryson , How d o w e P roceed Now we know Sc i ence is No t Value Free? pages 8 7 - 1 0 6 and I an Sh i r ley , The So c i al S c i ences An example of Soc i a l I r respons i b i l i ty , pages 10 7 - 1 1 6 . 7.. I n a s e m i n a r a t Mas s ey Un i vers i ty , 17 June 1 9 7 7 , Johan Gal t ung r e f e rred to the way in wh i ch the var i ous academ i c d i s c i p l i nes had d eveloped s e l f- i mages and languages wh i ch d i f feren t i a t ed t he i r a p p roaches t o t he explo r a t i on o f common problems . H e wen t o n t o s ugges t t h a t t hese bar r i ers , refle c t ed too i n t he d i cho t omy be t ween t heory and p r ac t i ce , we re i n t en t i onally cons t ru c t ed so as to ensure the ma i n t enance o f s t a t us , powe r and p r e s t ige wh i ch a c c rues t o those who have exclus ive pos ses s i on o f knowledge .. 8.. Adam Smi t h , The Wea l t h o f Yo r k , 1 9 3 7 .. 9.. E conomi cs as prac t i s ed i n t he wes tern world t en d s t o f a l l p r edomi nan t ly w i t h i n t he func t i onal i s t s o c i a l t rad i t i on . Th i s means t ha t des p i t e var i a t i ons i n b o t h ep i s t emology and me thodo logy i t i s a d i s c i pl i ne wh i ch acce p t s the s t ruc t ural l i mi t a t i ons i m posed by the cap i t al i s t mode o f p roduc t i on , and i n t he t e rm i n o logy o f Talco t t Par sons i t i s concerned p r i ma r i ly w i t h p a t t e rn mai n t enance , i n t egra t i on , goal a t t a i nmen t and adap t a t i o n . I t i s no t always f ramed exp l i c i ty i n t hose t e rms bu t i ts ove r r i d i n g concern t o be apoli t i cal , non- ideologi cal and consensua l clearly i d en t i f i es i t wi th t h i s t rad i t i on . One example of t h i s a p proach is e v i d en t i n the soc ial pol i cy t ex t by Culye r . H e wri tes : " I have s t u d i ously t r i ed t o avo i d ' po l i t i c i s i n g ' t he s u bj ec t . . . i ndeed , i t i s t he bel i e f tha t s o c i a l s c i en t i s t s s hould abs t a i n f rom such par t i sansh i p t h a t und e r l i e s t he whole o f t h i s book " .. Na t i ons ,. A . J . Culye r , The Econom i cs O f Soc ial London , 1 97 3 .. Modern. L i b rary. Pol i cy ,. Mar t i n. ( I nc . ). New. Robe r t son ,. 10.. I have u s ed t he t erm " ma i n s t ream economi s t s '' i n the same way t h a t Berns t e i n r e f e r s t o s o c i a l s c i en t i s t s belong i ng t o t he " ma i n s t ream t rad i t i o n " . Cf no t e 1 4 .. 11.. I n d i s cu s s i ng t he d i f f e r e n t i n terpre t a t i ons o f knowledge t he s o c i a l s c i ences are u s ually perce i ved as a s e t o f d i s c i pl i ne s u n i t ed b y an i n t e res t i n t he rela t i onsh i p b e tween human b e i ngs and t he i r world . I t is feas i bl e t o cons i d e r these d i s c i p l i ne s on t he i r own however and d e t a i l ways in wh i ch t hey have d i s t or t ed knowledge . Economi c s has been exam ined in this s t udy . An t h r o p ology also p r o v ides a good i llus t ra t i on . I n 1 9 5 3 Kennard and MacGregor r e po r t ed t ha t Alexand e r Le i gh t on ( employed by t he U . S . Governmen t t h roughou t World War I I ) was s ugges t i ng t h a t s o c i a l s c i en t i s t s should ga t h e r i n t e ll igence o n t rends i n f o r e i gn coun t ri e s wi t h r egard t o d e t ec t i ng s i t ua t i ons o f t ens i on and con f l i c t before t hey w e re man i fes t ed in n a t i onal o r i n t er na t i on a l v i o le n c e . As l a t e as 1 9 6 2 ano ther a n thropolog i s t , Ward Goodenough , was recommen d i ng t ha t " the army is ano t h e r po t en t i a l.

(29) 17. marke t f o r t h e e t hnograph i c s k i lls o f an t hropolog i s t s . The s u c c e s s o f modern gue r r i lla war fare obvi ously req u i res e x t en s i ve and i n t en s i ve e t h nograph i c i n t e l l i gence ! " Th i s compl i c i t y o f an t hr o p o l og i s t s and the S t a t e reac hed new heigh t s when i n 1 9 6 5 t h e i nvolvemen t o f an t hropolog i s t s in Proj e c t Came l o t f i na l ly presen t ed a moral con f l i c t wh i ch the d i s c i pl i ne could no longe r a f f ord t o i gno r e . The Fellows o f the Ame r i can An t h r o p o l og i cal Asso c i a t i o n mee t i ng i n 1966 pas s ed a con t rovers i al r e s o l u t i on r e f lec t i ng moral i n d igna t i on and e t h i cal con fu s i on regard i ng t he ac t i v i t i es o f some o f i t s members . Paul Kaplan and Sco t t Ro b i nson , Wha t i s Happen i ng t o A p p l i ed ��--�--���� �----��--An t h ro p o logy? Cornell Un ivers i ty , vol . 4 , No . 1, 1 9 69 . For a c r i t i que o f s o c i ologi cal n e u t ral i t y see Lo i s Bryson ' s : How do we p ro c eed now we know S c i ence is no t Value Free , in Wren G r e e n ( ibid) 1979 8 7 - 1 06 . A s i m i l a r i n t er p re t a t i on o f p sychology a s i t h a s b e e n appl i ed t o commun i t y work prac t i ce i s con t a i ned i n I a n Sh i rley , P lann i ng For Commu n i ty T h e My tho logy o f Commun i ty Dev e l o p men t and S o c i a l Plann ing , Dunmo re Press , Palmers t on N o r t h , 197 9 . 12 .. Thomas Kuhn , The S t ru c ture o f Sc i en t i f i c Revolu t i ons , Un i ve r s i ty o f C h i c ago Pres s , Ch i cago , 1 9 6 2 ( Second ed i t i on , en larged 1 9 70 ) . Thomas Kuh n , ' Commen t ' on t he Re l a t i ons o f A r t and S c i en c e , in, Compara t i v e S t ud i es i n Soc i e ty and H i s t ory , I I , 1969: 403 - 1 2 . Thomas Kuhn , Second Though t s o n Parad i gms , i n , The S t ru c t u r e o f Sc i en t i f i c Theor i es , e d i t e d by F rede r i ck Suppe , Un i ve r s i ty o f I l l i n o i s P r es s , U rbana , 1 9 7 4 .. 13 .. The a p propr i a t i o n o f Kuhn ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i on o f s c i ence was par t i c u l a r ly e v i d en t dur i ng t h e early 1 9 60 ' s when parad i gma t i c d i v i s i on s i n Soc i ology were commonplace . Becker r e f erred t o t he s e d i v i s i on s a s " a w a r o f soc i o logi cal r e l i g i ons , charac t e r i s e d by f a i t h r a t he r t han reason ? " Becker quo ted by Chr i s W i lkes , Soc i o lo g i cal Ba t t le s Kuhn and t h e D i v i s i ons i n Soc i o logy , unpub l i shed , 1 9 7 8 .. 14 .. B e rn s t e i n r e f e rs t o mains t ream s oc i a l s c i en t i s t s as t ho s e who conc e i ve o f t he i r d i s c i pl i n e as one t ha t d i f fe rs i n degree and n o t i n k i nd f rom t he well-es t ab l i shed na t ural s c i ences . They are a l s o s a i d t o be conv i n c e d t h a t t h e grea t e s t success i s t o be f o u n d i n emula t i ng , mod i fy i ng and adap t i ng t e chni ques t h a t have been s u c ce s s f u l in o u r s c i en t i f i c und e rs t and i ng o f na t u re . A t t h e s ame t ime one mus t no t t h i nk t ha t the mains t ream t rad i t i on i s more mono l i t h i c o r homogeneous t han i t real ly i s . R . J . B e r n s t e i n , The Res t ru c t ur i ng o f Soc ial and P ol i t i cal Theory , M e t hu e n , G r e a t B r i t a i n , 197 9 .. 15 .. Rober t K . Mer t on , Social Theory and S o c i a l S t ru c t ure , The F r e e P r es s , G lencoe I l l i noi s , 1 9 4 9 ( Re v i sed a n d enlarged e d i t i ons , 1 9 5 7.

(30) 18. and 1968 ) . 16.. Robe r t K .. M e r t o n , ( i b i d ) espe c i al ly pages 4 - 5. 17.. Robe r t K .. M e r t o n , ( i b i d ) page 5. 18.. Jurgen Habe r mas , Knowledge and Human I n t eres t s . J . J . Shap i ro , Beacon Press , Bos ton , 1 9 7 1 J u rgen Habe rmas , Leg i t i ma t ion C r i s i s. Beacon P r e s s , Bos t o n , 1 9 7 5 J u rgen Habe rmas , Theory and Prac t i ce . Beacon Pres s , Bos t o n , 1 9 7 3. Tran s la t ed. Tran s la ted by T .. McCa r t hy , Viertel ,. T rans la t ed by J .. Jurgen Habe rmas , Toward a Ra t i onal Soc i e ty , Shap i ro , Beacon P r e s s , Bos ton , 1 9 7 0. Trans l a t ed. J u rgen Habe rmas , Towards a Recons t ru c t i on of Ma t e r i al i s m , i n Theory and Soc i e ty , 2 , 1 9 7 5 : 2 8 7 - 300. by. by. J.J.. H i s t o r i ca l. Jurgen Habe rmas , Towards a Theory o f Commun i ca t ive Compe t e n c e, I n qu i ry , 1 3 , 1 9 7 0 : 360-75. in. 19.. J u rgen Habe rmas , Knowledge and Human I n t e res t s ( i b i d ) , 1 9 7 1 .. 20 .. Lo i s B ryson , ( i b i d ) 1 9 7 9 :. 89.. 21.. Lo i s B ry s o n ( i b i d ) 1 9 7 9 :. 103 .. 22.. J u rgen Habermas , Knowledge and 308 .. 23.. I n t e re s t i s a l i t e r a l t rans la t i on o f the Ge rman ' In t e re s s e ' . In t h e t er m i n ol ogy o f Habermas , i n t e resse r e fers t o ' cogn i t i v e ' o r ' Knowledge-cons t i t u t i v e ' i n t e r e s t s .. 24.. The no t i on o f t h e ' d i s i n teres t ed o b s e rve r ' as one who e x p la i ns , under s t and s , i n t e rp r e t s or s i mply d e s cr1bes what i s , charac t e r i s e s t he mai n s t r e am unde rs tand i ng o f s o c i a l and pol i t i cal enqu i ry .. 25 .. See An t hony Giddens , Cen t ral Problems i n Soc i al Theo ry : A c t i on , S t ru c t ur e and Con t rad i c t i on i n S o c i a l Analys i s , The M a cm i l lan Press L td . , London 1 9 7 9 .. Human. I n t e res t s ,. ( i bid). 1971.

(31) 19. CHAPTER ONE. CRIT I CAL THEORY IN THE TRADITION OF JURGEN HABERMAS. H a b e rmas iden t i f i es three func t i ons of wh i ch i s. mea s u r ed. in. t e rms. of. ' c ri t i cal '. a. d i f feren t. cri teria . ( l ). f o rma t i o n and e x t en s ion o f a c r i t i cal t heorem wh i ch s c i en t i f i c d i s co u rs e .. Secondly ,. the. p roces s .. s e le c t i o n. t he. a p p rop r i a t e. s t ra t eg i e s ,. s o c i a l prac t i ce e s s en t i a l ly f rom. wi thin the. cha p t ers. a capi t al i s t S t a t e . w r i t i ngs. of. F i rs t , s t and. And. up. t h i rdly , of. solu t i on. q u e s t i ons , and t h e conduc t o f pol i t i cal s t ruggle . f u n c t i ons wi ll b e addressed i n l a t e r. can. each. of the to. app l i ca t i on of such a t heory t o. s pe c i f i c groups by means o f a re f l e c t i ve of. theory ,. t he. t a c t i cal. The second and t h i rd. in. an. exam i na t i on. of. T h i s chap t e r , wh i ch d raws. Habe rmas ,. a i ms. to. e s t abl i sh. a. f ramewo rk f o r a d e t a i l ed e mp i r i cal analys i s o f s o c i al prac t i ce .. T h e wr i t i ngs o f Habermas embrace a range o f d i s c i p l i nes a n d s o c i o logy ,. t o p h i l o s ophy , psychology and l i ngu i s t i cs .. t o h i s d e t a i led c r i t i que o f pos i t i v i s t and h i s. me t i culous. enqu i ry , he. has. evolu t i on . ( 2 ) I t. from. exam i n a t i o n f a s h i oned. of. e p i s t emology the. t heo r i e s. sys t ems. and. I n add i t i o n me thodo logy ,. approach. language ,. of. p ol i t i cs. t o s o c i al. action. and. i s o bv i ous t h a t t h i s o n e cha p t e r cann o t do j us t i ce t o. h i s encyclopaed i c analy t i c work , bu t i t c a n i so l a t e some o f t h e cen t ral e l emen t s in h i s t heore t i cal repe r t o i re and i n. so. f ai th. syn t he t i c. wi t h. the. Habermas i an. pursui t. of. a. d o i ng. it. can. ye t. keep. c r i t i cal. under s t and i ng of human s o c ial l i fe .. The bas i c e lemen t s u s ed by Habermas i n h i s analy s i s o f s o c i e t a l. change.

(32) 20. d e r i ve f rom M a r x who s e i n t erpre t a t i on o f l i beral cap i t a l i s m i s a c ce p t ed as largely c o r r e c t . as a. c r i t i que. I n agreeing wi t h t h e fundamen tal tene t s o f Marx i sm. of. c ap i t al i s t. Habe rmas i d en t i f i es two a l t e red con t em p o rary. development. h i s tor i cal. fo rms. of. i n the n i ne t een t h cen t u ry ,. t enden c i e s. wh i ch. have. advanced capi t a l i s m .. rad i cally. These t enden c i es. a re the es cala t i ng power o f the S t a t e and t he t rans forma t i on o f s c i en c e a n d t echnology . o f c a p i t a l i sm o f s c i ence. as. Habe rmas add resses bo t h i s sues by t rac i ng t h e f rom. o r i g i ns. i t s phi losoph i c base t h rough t o the sys t e ma t i c u s e. an. i deo log i cal. i n s t rumen t. of. the. State . ( 3 ). His. exam i na t i on i d en t i f i e s four s o c i a l fo rma t i ons . ( 4 ). The f i rs t o f. t hese. f o rma t i ons. f am i l i al and. t r i bal. is. s t ru c t u res. d e f i ned. p lay. a. as. ' pr i m i t i ve '. cruc ial. role. as. in. t he maj o r. d e t e rm i nan t s o f bo t h s o c i a l i n t e rcourse and sys t em i n tegra t i on . i s rela t ed to d emograph i c. i n t e r e t hn i c. dependency subj e c t t o e conom i c exchange , war and conques t .. World v i ews. norms. wh i ch. are. e cologi cal. d i f f i cu l t. to. fac tors ,. Change. wi t h. and. and. tha t. d i f feren t i a t e. wi thin. s o c i e t i e s a r e i n t eg ra t ed wi t h r i t uals and taboos and s an c t i ons are n o t requ i red .. thus. p r i m i t i ve i nd e p e n d e n t. Organ i sa t i onal r oles in t h i s f o rma t i o n a r e. d e t e rm i ned by age a n d sex , wi t h t h e s a t i s fac t i on o f bas i c needs d e f i ned as the ' mo t i va t i ng fac t o r ' in the p roduc t i on of goods .. Wi t h t h e adve n t o f t r ad i t i onal f am i l i a l f o rms. of. s oc i e t i es ( S ). o rgan i s a t i on. t here. is. a. shi f t. f rom. in t he p roduc t ion and d i s t r i bu t i on o f. s o c i al weal t h , t o p r i v a t e owne rs h i p o f t he means. of. p rodu c t i on .. The. k i n sh i p sys t em s u r r enders i ts c e n t r a l func t i ons o f power and con t ro l t o the State .. I n t h e course o f t h i s t rans f e r , the fami ly loses a l l o f i t s. e conomi c func t i on s. and. some. of. i ts. s o c i a l i s i ng. func t i ons .. S o ci a l.

(33) 21. i n t egra t i on , l egal and w i t h i n t he. State. mo ral. autho r i ty ,. are. usurped. by. subsy s t ems. s t ruc ture and legi t i m i sed by t rad i t i onal i d eo l og i es .. � i t h p r i v a t e owne r s h i p o f the means o f produc t i on , a power r e la t i on sh i p i s i n s t i t u t ional i s ed i n wh i ch the. p r i v i leged. s o c i a l ly produced. appro p r i a t i on. weal t h .. Thi s. class is. appro p r i a t e s. h e i gh t ened by t h e. e x p lo i t a t i on o f l a bour powe r , and a s a con sequence of clas s t h e legi t i macy. of. the. social. the. r e p re s s i on. and po l i t i cal order is threa tened .. It. l ead s even t u a l ly t o a t rans forma t i on o f t he po l i t i cal sys t em and t o new f o und a t i ons of l e g i t i ma t i on .. The new s o c i a l f o rma t i on to emerge i s l i beral cap i t al i sm ( 6 ) , S tate. and. the. marke t p lace. complemen t a ry r o l es .. exe rc i s i ng. rela t i vely. au t onomous. p r o v i d i ng. are. i deolog i cal e n d s .. ye t. med ium ,. wi th. t h e cond i t i o n s und e r wh i ch the marke t e conomy can. b e expanded and s us t a i ned . c ap i t al i s t phas e. t he. Econom i c exchange , and therefore the rela t i o ns h i p. o f wage labour and cap i t al becomes the d o m i nan t s t eering t he S ta t e. wi th. The a c t ions of the. s een. as. supers t ruc t ural. The S ta t e , in the hands. of. State. in. the. l i be ral. - that i s , they s e rve capi tal ,. r e c e i ves. i ts. power f rom t h e e c onomy , and i n turn t he pol i ty uses knowledge t o ex t en d the i n teres t s. o f c ap i t al .. These i n t e r e s t s advance t h e no t i on o f " fa i r. exchange " b e t w e e n c a p i t al and labour i n the marke t place a s the of i n d i vi dual. f reedom. even t ually f a l t e rs re-engages t he. and. ( in. economy .. a. compe t i t i on , series. of. e p i t ome. but the accumula t i on p r o c e s s. depres s i ons ) ,. and. the. State. Thi s re-engagemen t by the S t a t e s igni f i es t he. adve n t o f advanc ed cap i ta l i sm .. � i t h i n advanced cap i t a l i s m , knowledge and i deology ( forme r ly u n d e r con t rol o f. c ap i t a l ). the. are t rans f er r ed t o the expand ing S ta t e a p p a r at us ..

(34) 22. I n the i n t e r na t i onal arena , global S t at es such as t h e t he I n t e r n a t i onal. Bank. and. Mon e t ary Fund , crea t e and i mp rove cond i t i ons f o r t he. u t i l i sa t i on o f accumu l a t ed cap i tal , wh i l s t a t the S ta t e ac t ually. Wo rld. replaces. the. marke t. in. na t i onal. level. the. non - p r o f i t able sec t o rs , t hus. c r e a t i ng and i mprov i ng cond i t i ons for the real i s a t i on of cap i tal .. The S t a t e. execu tes. this. unproduc t i ve governme n t. res t ru c t u r i ng ,. economi c. by. rep lacemen t. i mp rovemen t s to t he ma t e r i al and. consump t i on ,. i mma te r i al i n f ras t ru c t u re s , a he i gh t en i ng of h uman produc t i v i ty and r e l i ev i ng the s ame. t i me ,. soc i al and ma t e r i al cos t s of p r i va t e p roduc t i on . increas i ng. r e po l i t i c i s a t i on o f. the. involvemen t. State. now ac t i vely engaged i n t he reproduc t i ve of. a. At t h e it. a. rela t i ons o f p roduc t i on , and as a conse q u e n c e. Governme n t c r ea t e s an i n c reased need for leg i t i ma t i on .. a r i s i ng o u t. wi t h. b r i ngs. by. process ,. As the S t a t e i s. the. con t rad i c t i on s. c o n f l i c t o f i n t e res t s be t ween s o c i al i sed p rodu c t i on. and p r i v a t e appropri a t i o n means that the S ta t e mus t f i nd an a l t e rn a t i v e way o f. legi t im i s i ng. a c h i eved by. c i t i zen. avo i d s p ar t i ci pa t i on .. i ts. a c t i ons .. Th i s. d e pol i t i c i sa t ion ,. leg i t imat ing. is. func t i on. wh i ch i nduces mas s loyal t y b u t. C i t i z ens " enj oy the s t a t us o f pas s i ve ( su bj ec t s ). w i t h only t h e r i g h t t o w i thhold acclama t i on " . ( 7 ). The p r o c e s s o f d e p ol i t i c i s a t i on i s legi t i ma t ed i n f i rs t. i ns t ance. it. s t ems. f rom. wha t. Habe rmas. two refers. p r i va t i sm , which i s p ol i t i cal abs t i nence comb i ned w i th to. career ,. le i s ure. and. consump t i ve. pursui t s . ( 8 ). In. ways . to an. as. the civic. o r i en t a t i o n. Second ly ,. it. is. rei n f o r ced by a bourge o i s f o r m o f soc i al s c i ence wh i ch al lows t he S t a t e t o r e p l a c e my t h w i t h s c i en t i f i c rat ional a c t i on t o whi ch a l l reasona b l e p e o p l e w i ll accede . ( 9 ) By u t i li s ing t he. s c i en t i f i c. and. t e chnolog i c a l.

(35) 23. i nnova t i ons. of. advanced. cap i t al i s m ,. i n c reas i ng c a pac i ty t o con t rol the only r e l a t e. to. State. envi ronmen t .. as sume s These. in. produ c t ion. fus i o n. of. repres e n t i ng the. and. e conomi c. i deology of marke t forces. ever. con t ro l s. is. i n t e res t s. and. r e p l a ced of. the. and. re produc t i on , p o l i t i cal by. an. i s sues .. no t. admi n i s t ra t i on .. Que s t i ons. " publ i c " ,. the. The. old. and. thus. State. pol i t i cs i s a. " be n i g n ". wh i ch w e re regarded a s pol i t i cal ma t t ers i n. p r e v i ous h i s t o r i cal conj unc t ures a r e. rede f i ned. as. t echn i cal. requ i r i ng o bj ec t i ve , s c i en t i f i c analys i s and resolu t i on . the. to. i n t e rven t i o n i s t. p o r t rayed a s b e i ng largely i r relevan t i n the l i gh t o f such. wh i ch p r o v i des. an. t h e n a t ural envi ronment bu t they ext end t o the S t a t e ' s. ac t i ve e ngageme n t conseque n t i a l. the. i deologi cal. f ounda t i on. soc i al and p o l i t i ca l l i ves , and in. this. for. s ense. i s sue s ,. I t i s s c i en c e. S t a t e con t ro l o f our it. is. s c i ence. wh i ch. becomes t h e i deolog i cal ins t rume n t o f the S t a t e .. In equa t i ng s c i en c e w i t h i d eo logy , Habe rmas refers t o a form o f s c i en c e wh i ch t re a t s knowledge as a p ol i t i cally neu t ral value i mpu t a t i ons .. In. e s sence. s o c i a l s c i en t i f i c t rad i t i on parad i gma t i c .. It. is. it. whi ch. based. on. corresponds regards. a. bel i e f. d e vo i d. commod i ty , wi th. t he. t h e ma i n s t ream. n a t ural. that. of. s c i ences. as. i ncreased sys tema t i c. emp i r i ca l unders t an d i ng o f how s oc i e ty wo rks w i l l n a t ural ly l e ad t o t h e resolu t i o n o f. social. prac t i t i on e rs who. p r o b l ems .. have. a. It. mand a t e. f o l lows to. that. resolve. the. s u ch p rob lems are the. t ec hn i c i an s o f t h e S t a t e who have su c c e ss fully i so l a t ed " fac t s " .. In. a c ce p t i ng. i llus t ra t ed ,. conse rva t ive i d e o l ogy. the. requ i s i t e. t h i s manda t e s o c i al s c i en t i s t s c l a i m t h a t t h ey. have a s sumed a pol i t i ca l ly neu t ra l o th e r s has. s c i en t i f i c. t hey. whi ch. a p p roach ,. but. o p ted. i ns t ead. have accep ts. e x i s t i ng. as. Habermas for. s o c ial. an and. among. i mp l i c i t pol i t i ca l.

(36) 24. r e l a t ions h i p s. w i t hou t. ques t i on . ( lO ). Wi t h i n. the. con t e x t. t he. of. c ap i t al i s t S t a t e t h ey au t oma t i cal ly a l i gn t hemse lves w i th t h e t e chn i cal ra t i onal t rad i t i on , and in prac t i ce t h i s r e s u l t s in an unexp r e s s e d f o r m o f s o c ial and p o l i t i cal dom i na t i on .. The S c i en t i f i c Trad i t i on s. T o apprec i a t e wha t i s bas i cally a c r i t i qu e o f the mai ns t ream i t is. necess ary. to. exam i ne. t he. be t ween al t e rna t i ve s c i en t i f i c i n t e r es t s ,. and. t he i r. way i n wh i ch Habe rmas d i s t i ng u i shes. t rad i t i ons ,. c o r res pond i ng. t he i r. to. c o r r e s pond. ca t egor i sed as t h e. cogn i t i ve. i n t e res t. s c i ences. t he. i ncorpora t e. cogn i t i ve i n t eres t s i s e x i s t ence ,. wi th. an. eman c i pa t o ry. g rounded. "work". gui d i ng. in. one the. t rad i t i on .. i nc o r p o r a t e. i n t eres t .. t rad i t i ons ,. o r i en t ed. Each o f t he s e. of. human. emp i r i cal-analy t i c. Thes e. a. s c i en c e s. c r i t i cally. t rad i t ion ,. wh i ch. These f o r m s a r e. wh i ch. d i mens i on. " in t erac t i on " t he h i s t o r i cal-hermene u t i c c r i t i cal-eman c i pa t ory. t he. s o c i al. i n t eres t s. h i s t o r i cal -he rmeneu t i c. wh i ch i ncorpora t e a p r a c t i cal i n t e r e s t - and s c i ences whi ch. cogn i t i ve. human. of. w i t h t h r e e f o r m s o f s c i ence .. emp i r i cal-analy t i c. t e ch n i cal cogn i t i ve. rela t i v e. d i mens i on s. e x i s t ence . ( l l ) He i d en t i f i es t hree p r i mary are s a i d. p os i t i on ,. and. social. t rad i t i on , " powe r ". t he i r. t he. r e l a t i ve. cogn i t i ve i n t er es t s , and t he i r corres pond ing d i mens i ons of human s o c i a l e x i s t ence , may b e mod elled as i n F i gu r e I ..

(37) 25. FIGU R E I. S c i e n t i f i c tra d i t i o n s. A N A LY T I C. H I STO R I CAL H E R M E N EUTIC. C R I T I CA L. T EC H N I CA L. P R ACT I CAL. E M AN C I PATORY. WOR K. I NT E RACTION. P OW E R. E M P I R ICAL. SCI ENTI F I C TRADITION. COGN ITIVE I NT E R E STS. H U MAN SOCIAL E X I ST E N C E. By " wo rk" ,. Habe rmas. i nd i v i duals s h a p e. means. and. tha t. c o n t ro l. dynam i c. s oc i al. process. by. wh i ch. t he i r envi ronmen t i n order to s u rv i v e .. Th i s i ns t rumen t a l - ra t i on a l a c t i on i s governed by t ec h n i c a l rules in. t u rn. are. based. on. e mp i r i ca l. knowledge .. \ol i t h i n. wh i ch. Haberma s '. t e rm i n o l ogy ,. t h i s emp i r i ca l f o rm o f knowledge d eman d s the i sola t i o n. o b j e c t s and. eve n t s. i n t o d e p en d e n t and i ndependen t vari a b l e s , w i t h any. i nv e s t iga t i on focus s i ng o n r egular i t i es b e tween t he m . e mp i r i ca l general i sa t i on s u n d e r eve n t ual c on f i rma t i on cogn i t i ve. i n t e res t. of. or in. con t rolled. f a l s i f i ca t i on t e c hn i ca l. The deduc t i on o f. c o n d i t i ons. of. leads. hypo t heses .. con t ro l. to. the. " Th i s i s t h e. over. o bj ec t i f i ed. to. communi ca t i v e. p r o c e s s es " . ( 1 2 ). I n d e f i n i ng. " i n t e ra c t i on " ,. a c t io n , gove rned. by. Habe rmas. consensual. n orms. is. r e f e r r i ng and. l e a d i ng. to. d e s cr i p t i o n ,.

(38) 26. explana t i o n , a n d unders tand i ng . shape and. con t ro l. �i thin. t rad i t i on ,. i nd i v i duals. the i r l i ves th rough wo rk , and th rough commun i ca t i ve. a c t i on and language .. The m e t hodolog i cal. p rac t i cal. wh i ch. i n t e res t. has. '' i n t e r p re t a t i o n of tex t s " ( 1 3 ) man i pula t i on .. this. Access. to. as. as. framework. i ts. aim. opposed. the. to. is. based. upon. clari f i c a t i o n. t echni cal. con t ro l. a and and. t hese fac t s i s prov i ded by the unders t and i ng. o f mean i ng , n o t observa t i on .. By emanc i pa t i on , Habe rmas refers t o a f o rm wh i ch is. " empower i ng " .. Tha t. is ,. it. and. leads. process. of. knowledge. par t i c i pan t s. t o s e ek a. s e l f - cons c i ous unde rs t an d i ng o f the con t rad i c t ions ma t e r i al e x i s t en c e , and t rans formed . f o rms of. con s c i ousness. the that. i deolog i cal. and. d i s to r t the mean i ng of s o c i al and be l i e f. and. They v i ew any ar t i f i c i a l d i v i s i on , s u c h as. and prac t i ce .. t h e mai n s t r e am d i s t i n c t i on be tween bel i e f and fact , as r e f l e c t i o n of. t he i r. mys t i f i ca t i ons. p ol i t i cal l i fe , c r i t i cal theo r i s t s s eek a genu ine un i ty of f ac t , theory. in. s o t h a t t he s e con t rad i c t i ons migh t b e a p p r op r i a t ed. By pen e t ra t i ng. false. imp l i c i t. an. i de o l o g i cal. a soc i e t y in wh i ch s c i e n t i f i c p rac t i c e s e rves t h e s t a tus. quo .. I n d i f fe r en t i a t i ng be tween these t h r e e s c i en t i f i c t rad i t i o n s , emphas i s es t h e. need. to. Habermas. comprehend the d i s t i n c t i ve charac t e r i s t i cs o f. t h e s e non- r e d u c i ble med i a and. c ogn i t i ve. i n t eres t s . ( 14 ). His. emphas i s. l i e s , no t i n d e nigra t i ng any par t i cular t rad i t i on , bu t i n e x p l o r i ng t h e i n t e r r e l a t i on sh i ps and. dynam i c s b e t ween them .. a d i a le c t i ca l syn t he s i s whi ch i mp l i ca t es i n t e r p re t a t i o n o f. s o c i al. and. p ol i t i cal. H i s ul t i ma t e p u r s u i t i s. emp i r i cal. correla t i on s ,. t he. real i ty , and any c r i t i que o f. t ha t " re al i t y " , a s t h r e e i n t ernal momen t s o f. theor i s i ng. abou t. s oc i al.