The "New" new typography?: A Critical view of the state of typography

Rochester Institute of Technology

RIT Scholar Works

Theses

Thesis/Dissertation Collections

5-1-1995

The "New" new typography?: A Critical view of the

state of typography

Joseph DiGioia

Follow this and additional works at:

http://scholarworks.rit.edu/theses

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Recommended Citation

The

"New"

New Typography?:

A

Critical

View

of

the

State

of

Typography

A Thesis Report SubmittedtoThe

Faculty

of The Collegeof

Imaging

ArtsandSciences

In

Candidacy

fortheDegree ofMasterofFine Arts

Joseph A. DiGioia

DepartmentofGraphic Design

ii

Approvals

_

Advisor

Professor R. Roger Remingtol1

_--:-~-~~~--.:::::;;;;;;;;---Date:

~

1/4

("~s:

)

,

Associate Advisor

Dr. Richard Zakia

-Date:

;' /

'~~

/

'1-f.j-Associate Advisor

Professor Bruce Ian Meader

_

Date:

----<-M~a.~1----::./.J-I-f/'--'-/....:..r--'-r....::;5""---Department Chair

Professor Mary

Ann

Begland

_

Date:

,s_o--'-I.-'-'Z_·--<f_S'=c...-.-

_

I,

Joseph

Ao

DiGoia

herby grant permission to

the Wallace Memorial library of RIT to reproduce my thesis

in

whole or part.

Any reproduction will not be for commercial use or profit.

Af-'-'#:....L-_--',h'_~_~~;__..:..../_f'.--"q'---Contents

Introduction 1

Choosing

aTopic 1

DevelopmentalProcess

The Diagram 2

General Research 2-3

Bibliography

Database 3

Digital Timeline 3-4

The

Essay

Research/Writing

4-5

The Application.

Thesis

Identity

5

Grid 5

Page Spreads 5-7

FrontandBack Covers 7-8

Posters 8

Evaluation 9

Future Plans 9

Conclusion 10

Acknowledgements 11

Print Appendices

Thesis Proposal 13-14

Thesis

Planning

Report 15-20

Research

Methodology

16

Mission Statement 17

Goals, Objectives,

andProcesses/Strategies 17-19

Project Timeline 20

The

Essay

21-39

MiscellaneousQuotations 21-23

Questions 23-24

Final Critical

Essay

24-34

Endnotes 35

Bibliography

3 6-39

Additional Notes 40

Glossary

ofTerms 41-44

Digital Appendices ResearchInformation

Bibliography

Database Research 1/25

Research 3/25 Proposals

Thesis Plan/Pro 1/11/94 Thesis Pro State1/26 ProcessDiagramsk Process Diagrameps. Thesis Abstract Zed TimelineInformation

Logo Logo20% Logo40 % Logo60%

Typographic Timeline Timeline Infosea. Timeline Fonts Intro

Copy

Logos

Thesis Logo Sketches Thesis Logo Sketches ii Thesis Logo Sketch 1/26 Thesis Logo

Thesis Logo422eps.

Essay

3/12

Essay

Essay

Miscellaneous. Quotes t Preface

Questions Questions 2/27

Appendix informationcommitted_{in its entirety} tothe CD-Romattheend_ofthisreport.

Application Cover Images Book Images Page Spreads Covers Posters Thesis Labels Thesis State. Show Thesis Report

Thesis Report q Reportmw Diagram ii

Introduction

The

following

thesisreportdetailstheprocessof_mygraduatethesisapplicationfromthe

selection of atopicthroughthefinalprintedbook Thisprocessinformationwillbepresentedin chronologicalorder and willbeaccompanied

by

printed anddigital appendices.

Thethesisapplication attemptstoanswer several questions_concerningthestate of

typography

today

through theeyesof agraphicdesigner. Oneof_mygoalsfromtheoutset was

toproduce a_scholarly

body

of work ontypography,

breaking

newgroundincriticaldesign

tninking.I intended fortheviewertobepresentedwith new and_enlighteninginformation. Thetargetaudienceisa mix ofdesignpractitioners,designeducators,anddesign students.

My

intentwastodiscuss howthedifferences between digital

typography

andtraditional

typography

have ledtoa newdesignaestheticandhowthishas changedtherole of

typography

ingraphicdesign. I havesupported_mybeliefthat thecurrent stateofgraphicdesign isa continuumintheevolution ofgraphicformwith_{many historical}precedentswhich validate

thenewtypographicforms. Therole oftheMacintosh intheproliferation ofgraphicdesign wasinvestigated.Alsoexplored weredifferenttheoriesof

legibility

as

they

pertainto

appropriateness of content.

Thevisual concept oftheapplicationisthepresentationof multiplelevelsofinformation. Therearethreeblocksof_copyon eachpage,each

having

thesame_content,but different

typographic treatments.Thisallowstheviewerthe_opportunitytoaccesstheinformationat a levelofthe_{ease/difficulty}thatiscomfortableto them.Oneblockof_copyisset centered and justifiedin Bodoni

book;

thisrepresentsa more classical use oftypography.Thesecondblockof

copy issetflush

left,

raggedright in Futura

book;

thisblockrepresents a more modem use of

typography.Thethirdblockof_{copy is}setflush left in

Beowulf;

this_everchangingtypeface

representsthe transformationoftraditional

typography

todigitaltypography.

Choosing

a

Topic

Choosing

athesis topicbeganinthesummer of1994.1paid_especiallyclose attentionto

pastand presentdesignwritings.Itwas an article written

by

noteddesignhistorian/writer Steven Hellerentitled"The CultoftheUgly"

thatsparked_{my interest in contemporary} typographic thinking.Icontinued

by

_researching

typography

anddiscoveredcritical_writingon

typography

inthedigitalrealm was scarce.Anotherreason wastoreflecttheradical changesin

thefieldofgraphic

design,

as well_as,designeducation.Themost noted_writingwasfeatured in thedesignpublication"Eye."

Developmental Process

Process Diagram

General Research

My

research andinformation_{gathering began}inthesummer of1994and continued

throughthe_writingof_mycritical essay.Ispent numeroushours inthe

library

tracking

down

articles on

typography

andtypographers. Iwas_constantly

looking

formaterials which might

pertainto_mytopic.Ipurchased severalbooksongraphic

design,

typographic

history,

Bibliography

Database

clear_{understanding}ofthebreadthoftypography.Iusedtheresearchtofamiliarizemyself with thework of_manytypographersanddesigners bothpast andpresent,such as:Neville

Brody,

El

Lissitzky,

David

Carson,

JanTschicholdandZuzana Licko.Theresearch enabled metoformulate

myopinions_concerningthecurrent state oftypography.

Theresearchinvolvedtheaccumulation of alargeamount of material and soIdecidedthat

therewouldbea needto_catalogthisdata. Professor RemingtonandI discussedthe_possibilityof

developing

a

bibliography

database in FileMaker Pro. We discussed different_organizing

structures:time,names, products,topics,quotes, etc..

During

one of our_weeklymeetingsRoger

suggestedthatIcreatethreeseparate categoriesinthedatabaseonefornotes,oneforcomments,

and anotherforquotes._{I eventually decided}on a workableformatthatallowstheviewer several differentwaystoaccesstheresource.

They

havetheoption of_researchingvia:author,title,

subject, publisher,copyright

date,

_volume,or

book,

magazine_article,

journal,

or video. Imet withProfessor David DickinsonsothatIcouldgethis inputon_mydatabase. David is very knowledgeable in FileMakerPro_{documentssohiscomments were}

especiallyhelpful. This

databasewillbeusefulinthefuturetoanyone whois interested in_researchingtypography.

Digital Timeline

I_{had my}earliestdiscussions concerning

devising

adigitaltimelinewithDr. Zakiaand

Professor Remington in_earlyNovember. Dr. Zakiawasinterested ina cross

disciplinary

_study to

showtypographicinnovations inrelationto art and other events.Both heandIbelievedthat thiswould create arichexperiencefortheviewer.

ImetwithformerRITgraduatestudentErin Malone_{for approximately}twohours. Erinwas

familiarwithHyperCardand was abletogivemebasicinformationthatassisted mein

devising

mytimeline.Ibegan

by

going

through_myresearch and_notingimportant typographic

informationanddates.The first bitofdataentered wasfromthe timelineIdesigned for mybook

A Post-modernDiscoursecompletedinthe_springquarter1994.Aftera_meetingwithProfessor

Remington inwhichhesuggestedI

try

andfind Rob Carter'sbook Typographic Design: Form

andCommunication Iutilizedthetimelinein thisbookinadditionto_myowntimeline.

Philip

Meggs'

book.A

History

ofGraphic Designwas also ofgreatuseinthe

gathering

oftimeline information. Frederick Hartt'stwovolume set entitledArr: A

History

_of

Painting, Sculpture,

Architectureprovided a wealth ofinformationbothinother artfieldsbutalsoimportantworld

events.Icontinued_addinginformationto_mytimelinewith_particularly

interesting

data_coming froman articleinDesign

Quarterly

#148,

an articlein Printmagazine_{Nov./Dec. 1989,}and

Inthemiddle ofDecember RogersuggestedthatIadd anintroductionscreento_mytimeline thatwould_{describe my}intentions.Thiswould allowthe timeline tobea stand alone piece of

digitalinformation. Ispent sometime_writinganintroductionand whenthiswas completedI

askedErin Malone toassist mein_addingadditionalscreens and navigationalbuttonsto the timeline.Whenthiswas_{complete, I}tookalogothatI_{had designed for my}thesisand addedthis in_varyingscreens of a colorto the timeline toaddvisualinterest. Aftersome refinementI felt it

wastimeto_{stop working}onthe timelineforthiscouldhave becomeathesisprojectinand of

itself.I latersubmittedthe timeline toa publication entitledZedwhich was

looking

topublishthe graduatethesisof studentsfromRITaswell asothernotedgraphicdesignprograms worldwide.

The

Essay

Research/Writing

Theoverall research ofthethesistopicconcluded withthemore specific research ofthe

critical essay.The_writingofthecritical _essaybegan

by

taking

notesfromthenumerousbooks

and articlesIhadaccumulated.Someofthemost notable referencesIcameincontact with

were, Lewis BlackweU's

Twentieth-Century

Type;

Looking

Closeredited

by

Michael

Bierut,

et.

al.;andJonWozencroft'sThe Graphic Language_ofNeville

Brody

2.Theseand_manyother references shaped_my

tninking

and aided mein

being

abletoreach aninformedview onthe topicoftypographicexpression.

The_essaybeganwith an outline whichistheusual method of

beginning

a piece of writing. Istruggled withthisoutline and after somediscussionwithDr. ZakiaandProfessor Remington Idecidedtodisregardtheoutlinefora more useful series of questions.Theoutline wastootraditionalas well astoolineara method oftliinking.Thequestions came

directly

fromthe_{reading I}hadbeendoing.The firstdraftofthesequestionsturnedouttobethree

pageslong. This first draftwas a_purgingof_{my brain}and neededtoberefined.Ishowedthis draftto_mycommittee members and all concludedthat thiswastoomuchtowrite about

Professor_{Remington continually}reminded methatIwas not_writinga

book,

butan essay.I

pairedthisdraft downtoone page and prioritizedthe_remainingquestions.

Answering

this

amount of questions was a more manageabletaskIdecidedto

keep

thequestions more

generaltoallowmyselfthefreedomtoanswertheminwhateverfashionIdeemedappropriate

for mytargetaudience._{While working}ontheformulationofthefinalset of questionsitwas

imperative that Iremainedfocussedon_mypoint of view and_mytargetaudience.After the thirddraftI

finally

hadaseriesofquestionsthat_{both my}committeeandIagreed on.

Lastly,

during

a_meetingwithProfessorRemington hesuggestedtheneedforan_overarchingquestion

whichwouldbecome myintroduction. Idealtwiththisinsuggestioninaninformal_wayin thatIbegantowrite_myintroduction.

wantedto_{hand my}committee a roughdraft. Whatcame ofthat_{meeting concerning}the

essaywerethe

following

suggestions: _{1)that the essay}(andtherefore the application)have

sometypeof

heading,

₂₎ this_essaywillgivethereader a_{better understanding}oftypographic

formsof_today,their

history,

meaning, etc.,3)the_essayshouldhavea conclusionthatwill

answerthequestion:what arethe"x"most_{important ideas? and,4)}thereisa needto

bring

in thepassionto the topicinsome areas ofthewriting.Icontinued_workingonthe_essayfor

thenext month while atthesametime

beginning

towork on_myapplication.Onthe tenthof

March I decidedthattherewas no moretimetorefmetheessay.If Iconsidered_submitting

this_essayforpublicationIwould continue_refiningitatthatpoint.

The Application

Thesis

Identity

On

January

nineteenthI_{began spending}moretime

designing

andlesstimeresearching.

Itwas atthistimeIbegana_studyofthesisidentities. Theconceptbehindthemwasthat

they

wouldtake their_{form using}typographicmeans.Itook the titleof_mythesisand applied differenttypographicvariables_attemptingtoachieve a_{syntactically pleasing identity.}

Icontinuedtoworkthrough_{different logo forms for approximately four}weeks.Thereal

breakthroughcame about whenIdecidedonthe themeof contrast.The

identity

leadmeto

thinkabouthowIwould approachthethesis application.When I haddecideduponthefmal

identity

Irealizedthat theideaof

juxtaposing

differenttypefacesinoneformcould makefor an

interesting

finalapplication.

Grid OntheseventhofMarch Idevisedatypographicunitgrid.Istarted

by

_printingout sample

blocksof_copyinthe threetypefacesI hadchosen.

They

ended_up

being

10/14Futura

book

11/14Bodoni

book,

and 13/19Beowulf23.

Knowing

thisIchose 1 5points as_myunit and constructedthecolumns, half columns,margins andguttersas perthisunit.Ichosetochange thesizes ofthetwomain_reading

texts,

Futuraand

Bodoni,

becauseofthevaried x-heights of

the twotypefaces.The Beowulfwas setlarger forthreereasons, itwas

going

tobe gray,the

changingcharacters canbebetterrecognized atthelarger_size,andit isunusualtoseetext

typethislarge.

PageSpreads Professor RemingtonandIbegantodiscuss different formsinwhichthefinal application

wouldmanifestitself.

My

initialideawhichwediscussed

during

thesummerandthefallquarter

was oneinwhichIwouldexecute a series of postersthatwould pushtheboundsoftypographic

expression.Butastimewent onitbecameapparenttomethatthefmalapplication neededtobe

a culminationof_mytwoyearexperience andalsobeafinalstatementina portfolio

presentation.Thismade_{my initial idea}of a series of posters muchless functional. RogerandI

content of abookontypographicexpression.Iwould alsotakeone ortwopage spreads and

enlargethem toalargerposterformatfortheexhibit.

The preliminaryconceptsforthethesisapplicationbegan inthe

beginning

of

February

with rough notepad sketches whileIworkedonotherfacetsofthethesis. Ibegan

by

_workingout some pragmatic concerns such asthefinishsize,

format,

andhowthepiece wouldbeproduced. I also generatedainitialcover sketch atthattime.

Shortly

thereafterIcame uponthevisual concept of multiplelevelsofinformation. I decidedthatitwouldbe

interesting

toshowthesame contextualinformation inthree

distinctly

differenttypefaces_{allowing my}viewerthe

opportunitytodecideonhowmuch effort

they

wantedtoputinto_accessingthe information I was

try

toconvey.ThefirsttimeIexpressedthisconceptto_mythesiscommittee was at afull thesis_meetingonthefifteenthofFebruary. Even though itwas a rough computer sketchit was

well received.Atthat timeIshowedatwopage spread with

dummy

_copyand photos.Itneeded tobecomemoremanageable_visually,more accessibleto theviewer.

Shortly

afterIbegantogatherimagesthatcorrespondedto_mywriting.On MarchseventhI scanned fifty-fourimages.I knewthatIwould_probablynot use each ofthesebut itgaveme a

good_workingimagebase.Itook the time tocolorbalancetheseimagessothatIwould not need

todothislater. This involved

boosting

thecontrasttocompensateforthe

fallibility

ofthe

printingmethod.

Ibegantheapplication

by

_{setting up} amaster pagein QuarkXPress.Themaster page

allowed metomake slight adjustmentsto_mygridwithout

having

tomakeiton eachindividual page.Oncethiswas completedIcouldthenadd pagestothedocumentand each page would

retainthegrid.Thenext_stepwastobegin

imputing

_{the essay copy into the document. I}didthis foreach ofthetypefacesontheintroductionpage.Atthispoint all ofthe_copywas

theoretically

intheQuark document. Ialso set_mystyle sheets atthis time.This functionallowed metoset

theparametersforeachtypefaceonce and anytimeIneededtomake a changeIwould access

thestyle sheetfunctiontomake changestoall ofthe_{corresponding}text.Ithencreatedtext

boxeson each_precedingpage andlinkedthem.Thismadethe_{copy flow from}thelasttextbox

intothenew one withthesametypographicattributes.Soall oftheBodonitextboxesare

linked,

all oftheFuturatextboxesare

linked,

etc.Ishowed adown-sized

dummy

toProfessor RemingtonontheeighthofMarch. Hepointed outthat therewas a_{very distinct}neutral space

aroundtheedgeofthepages.Heasked mehowImight consider_activatingtheedges.He

reminded metobeconcerned withthenegative space created

by

the textblocksand

illustrations.Therewas alsothequestion ofhowthe threeparagraphs relatedtoeach other and

howmuch

they

overlapped.ProfessorRemingtonsuggestedthatIset parametersfortheentire application,bothtypographic:width ofcolumns, overlap,grid,edges, andvariables;and illustrative:howare

they

dealtwith? etc..

Icontinued

by

_puttingallofthe text intothebook This helpedin

determining

approximately how manypageswouldbeinthefinal. AtthispointIcreated a small

dummy

bookto

help

metovisualizethefinal. Fromthetenthuntilthe thirteenthofMarch Irefinedthe

Iprintedthe_{first full working}sketch.Thiswas a significant pointintheprocessbecause it

allowed meto handlethebookand experiencehowthepagesflowed.Imade slight adjustmentstothepagesupon_seeingthemon paper.The

following day

IwenttoUFO Systemstoget_{my first full-sized}color output of one ofthepage spreads_{for my}thesis

presentation.Twocommentsthatcamefromthe_workingsketch wasthattheheadlineswere treatedina_verytraditionalmanner andhowwasI_goingtomake referenceto theillustrations. Thesecomments came

during

a_{weeklymeeting}withProfessor Remington. Afterwards I

decidedtomaketheheadlinesmore a part of_{the page,}make_{them smaller,}andIpushedthem

totherighthandedge ofthepagetoactivatethatedge.Ialso madetheconclusion more legiblethanithad been.

OnMarchtwenty-firstIagain wenttoUFO Systemsandthis timeIprinted_{my first}full

color proof. Ispilt_{my document into}fourdifferentpostscriptfilestoeasethetimeofthe

printing.Theentire processtook twoand onehalfhours.Ithenwentto_mycommittee

members

individually

togettheirfeedbackontheproof.Overallthecommittee members were veryimpressedwiththebookatthispoint.Someofthecomments were_concerningthe

binding,

the textof_{the preface,making}visual referencestowhatIwas_{saying in}theheadlines

by distressing

themand alsointhepage numbers

by

_showingatypographic

history

insaid

page_numbers,and_makingthecover more shocking.Itookitupon myselftoworkthrough

each spread page

by

page_makingsurethat therags ofthelinesweregoodandthat therewere nottoo_many

hyphens,

_creatingmorehorizontalcontinuity,refiningthenegative space and theoverall placement of alltheelements.Icontinuedtomake refinementsforthenextfour

daysuntilthe twenty-ninthofMarch. IwenttoUFO Systemsforthelasttime toprintthefinal

copyofthebook

Thelastpragmaticdetails_{included cutting}eachindividualpage and_{spray mounting}them

backto

back,

(sevento eight,nineto_ten,etc.).I leftthesideIwas_goingtobindextra

long

so

thatIcouldtrimallthepages

including

thefrontandbackcoverstogether.Ialso made alast

minute additiontothecoverwhichwas a piece ofthinacetatetocreateanotherlevelof informationand alsotoprotectthecoverfrom

handling

whileitwas inthegallery.

Lastly,

I boundthebookinanasymmetricfashion_usingtwocoordinates on_myhorizontalgrid.Idid thisintheMedia Center_punchingalltheholesinthepages and

inserting

thebinding.

FrontandBack Covers Thecoverofthebook begantotakeshapeMarchtwenty-_{first. Thethemeofthecoveris} that thisis_myviewonthe typographicformsoftoday.

Therefore,

Iused_mythesis

identity

andphotographsof myself.AtanearlierdateIscannedtwoblackandwhitephotographs of myselfinat600dotsperinchbecauseIwas not sure astotheirfmalsize andifIneededtoI could alwaysreducethedpiat alater date.As it turnedoutIenlargedthemabout400percent

whenIusedthemfortheposters sothe600dotsperinch_actuallyturnedouttobe 150.1 workedthrougha couple oflayoutsafter

deciding

onthecolorfirst draft. Ishowedthiswith thefirst fullcolorproof ofthe entirebook Theoverallcolorationwas violet.This brought into

bookandbecauseofitsregal connotations.After_speakingtoDr. Zakiaonthetwenty-thirdof

MarchhesuggestedIusethecolor as a metaphorfortheentire_{project, specifically}newness and

thatImakeitshocking.Aswe spoke we agreedthata neon-likegreenmightbemore

appropriateAtthatpointIreturnedhometoworkthrough_myPantone colorguideand chose

PMS375asthebasecolor.

Imade atestprint ofthisnewcoverdesign onMarchtwenty-seventhatUFO Systemsand

didnotlikethe_waytheinkcovered.Itwas_{very streaky}and unacceptable.I decidedtogoto

Printing

Prep

in Buffalo. Imadethis

trip

onMarchtwenty-eighth.Iwas muchhappierwiththe

qualityofthisprint which wasfromaCannon CLC 700color copier with a

Fiery

interface.This

istheprintIused on_myfinal book

Thebackcover was usedto_unifythewholebook I intendedfromtheoutsettomakeitas

simple as possible anddidso

by

_placinga singlethesislogo onthePMS375background.

Posters Thepostersthataccompaniedthebookin the

gallery

were200percent enlargements ofthe

cover,and pages seven and eight.Thesepages were chosen

by

me withtheindividualapproval of

mythesiscommittee.Ichosethesebecause

they

bestexpressedthevisual concepts oftheentire

bookThecover wastoact as a poster_{for my}application.Icreated a separate QuarkXPressfile

whichincludedthese threepages.After_makingatestprint atUFO SystemsonMarch twenty-seventhIdecidedtomaketheseprints_alongwith_mycover andbackcover at

Printing

Prep

in

Buffalo. Therewas one problem_though,andthatwasIdidnothavea swatchbookthatwould

indicatehowthecolors would print.So Ihadto takeall of_myfilesthathadtodowiththe

posters soIcould make_anynecessarycolor adjustments onthespot.Idecidedtomake whatis

termedaGiant Print. When I lookedatthecolor swatchthatcorrespondedtoPMS 375thatIused

onthecoverIwas not pleased.But itseemedthatthisprinter reproducedthecolorIwas

looking

forif IspecifiedPMS 368. AtthispointIneededtochange_myAdobePhotoshop _filessothat

they

utilizedPMS368 insteadofPMS375. 1didthison aPower PCthat

they

allowed metouse

andIstayedtoseethefirst halfofthecover printIsupplied

Printing Prep

withhalf-inch foam

Evaluation

Formal evaluationofboththe_essayandthebookwas conductedthrough_weekly

meetingswithProfessor Remington. Ireceived more casualfeedback from fellowgraduate

students. Itooknotes about specific problems and questionsconcerningbothcontent and

aesthetic qualities. Changeswere madebasedon_{these evaluatory}encounters.

Thethesisapplication was on

display

forthreeweeks

during

the thesisshow.Comments

directedtowardthework were_extremelypositive.Thebookwas_constantly

being

observed

and people seemedto_{be reading}thecontentwhich was a surprisegiventhe_gallerysetting.

Many

students asked aboutthe_availabilitythebook inthefuture.

They

thought itwasboth

informativeand_{visually interesting.}

Professor BruceMeaderandImetinthe

gallery

todiscussthefinalapplication onApril

tenth.Professor Meaderwas_extremelypleased withthe

book,

as well_{as, the}posters. Hepaid

specificattentionto the headlinesandto the

binding

as wehad discussedpossible solutions

in ourlastmeeting.Hewas pleasedtoseethe_{way I}solvedtheseproblems.Wediscussedthe

possibleforums inwhichImight

try

topublishtheessay.Professor Meadermentioned

Information Design

Journal,

Design

Issues,

andVisible Language.

On April seventeenthDr. ZakiaandImetinthe_gallerysothathecould review_myfinal

solutionsforthebookandtheposters.Dr. Zakiawasimpressedwiththebookandthought

that_mychoice of colorforthecover was_especiallywell chosen.Healsogavepositive

feedback concerning mytreatmentoftheheadlines. He didthink thattherewas a needto

discusshow there isa perceptual precedentforthedesignoftypefacessuch as

Barry

Beck's

CausticBiomorph. Hesaidthathewould

drop

some_{information in my}mailfolder.

(See"Additional

Notes")

Future Plans

When itwasdeterminedthat theapplication would changefroma series of posterstoa

bookinwhichIwould writethe textaswell asdesignthe pages,Professor RemingtonandI

begantodiscussthe_possibilityof_submittingthe_{essay for}publication.

Originally

wetalked

aboutthe_possiblyof_submittingthe_essaytoDesign IssuesandVisible Language. Thesetwo

publications seemed appropriateto the_{scholarly writing}Ihopedtoachieve.Ina_meetingwith

Bruce Meaderhementioned anotherpublication, InformationDesign

Journal,

towhichI

should consider_submittingtheessay._{After making}some revisionstothepresent_{essay I}

intend tosubmitit tothese threepublications.

Recently,

Isent slides and athesisabstractto

Zedwhichisa publicationinterested ingraduate thesisworkfromsome ofthemore

prominent programsin the United Statesand abroad.Thiswas an unexpected submissionbut

Iam

hoping

that_mythesiswillbeacceptedforpublication.

Thisthesishasopened_myeyestoasubjectthatIwill continuetobeinterested inand

continuetowriteabout well_{beyond my}educational experiencehereatRochester

Conclusion

Thisthesisprojecthasafforded methe_opportunitytoexplorethetopicofdigital

typography

in greatdepth. I havetaken_awayatremendousamountofinformationinthe

process andfeelthat_myopinions are expressed with agooddealofknowledgetobackthem

up.I havecompleted_manydifferentaspectsofthisthesiswhichI feelwillbeusefulto

anyoneinterestedintypography.There isthedatabaseof resources which canbea wonderful

resourcetoanyone

doing

research on

typography

anditsrelated subjects.There isthedigital

timelinewhich couldgiveadesignstudent,as well_as,a professionaldesignera_verygood

understandingofthe

history

oftypography._{There is the essay}which will_supplythereader

with_myviewof_{many different}aspectsthathaveledto the"New"New Typography. There isthe

book,

which will notbewithin reach ofthepublicbut is certainlya progressivelookat

book design.

Lastly,

therewillbeaCD-Romthatwill _accompanythis thesisreport.This is

noteworthy becausethisformat forappendiceshas been rarelyused as a_waytoshowthe

process of agraduate graphicdesignthesis. Iam_extremelypleasedwiththefinaloutcome of_{my hard}work andfeelthatI havesatisfiedtherequirementsof aMasterofFine Arts

degree,

as wellas,satisfy myown personal_standards,which attimeswasthemostdifficult

obstacletoovercome.

Acknowledgements

1995Joseph A DiGioia

Writtenanddesigned by:

Joseph A DiGioia

Theauthorhastherighttobeidentifiedastheauthor ofthiswork

All rightsreserved.

Nopart ofthispublication_{may be}reproduced_{in any}manner

without prior permission_{in writing from Joseph A. DiGioia.}

The accompanying Illustrationswhere acquiredfromvariousdesignbooksand magazinesfor

theexclusive useinthisbook

They

were neither manipulated nor cropped.

This bookwas created on aMacintosh Quadra

800,

_usinganApple 16-inchcolormonitor,

Hewlett Packard ScanJet Ilexscanner,MDS88cSyquest

drive,

and aHewlett Packard LaserJet

4mlprinter.Thefinalpages were createdin QuarkXPress3.31,

importing

Abode Illustratorand

Adobe

Photoshop

documents. Typefacesused areBodonibookand

bold,

Futura bookand

bold,

andFF Beowulf. The finaloutput wasdoneon aXerox 5770color copier.

The book isa 100%digitalproduction.

Iwouldliketo thank_mymother_{Jean M. DiGioia. Without her unquestioning}support and

encouragementIwould nothave beenableto_{further my}design education.

Iwouldliketo_{thank my}thesiscommittee membersR. Roger

Remington,

Dr. Richard

Zakia,

andBruce

Meader,

for theirsupport and encouragement

Iwould_{especially like}tothankProfessor Remingtonfor hissupportand_{understanding}

throughout_{my stay here}atRochester InstituteofTechnology.

Thisthesisisdedicatedto the_memoryof_my

father,

Joseph A DiGioia.

Thesis

Proposal for

theMasterofFineArts Degree

College of

Imaging

ArtsandSciences Rochester Instituteof

Technology

Title:

The "New"

New

Typography?

Submitted

by:

Joseph A. DiGioia

Thesis Committee:

Chief Adviser: R. Roger Remington

AssociateAdvisers: 1. Bruce Meader

Thesis

CommitteeApproval:

(signature

ofChief

Advisor)

Approval,

Department Chairman:

(signature

ofDepartment

Chairperson)

September

16,

1994

September

16,

1994

September

16,

1994

Computerneeds othprthanword processing:

Yes No

isotnpr

Committee Approval:

Thesubject ofthis thesisisexperimental

digital

typography

andits influence

ongraphic

design.

Iwillexplore the theoriesof

legibility

andappropriateness as

they

pertainto typography. Iwill

try

to

determine

whetherthecunent

situationisa

"movement",

a serious aspectintheevolution ofgraphic

design

orjustabsurdity.

This

study

_maymanifestitself ina series of posterswhichwouldchallenge theideasof

legibility,

typeas communication andtype asimage.

The

designed

pieceswill asktheviewerto

be

an active participantinthe message

making

process.

Thesis

Planning

Report

Title The"New"

New Typography?

Client Rochester Instituteof

Technology

One Lomb Memorial Drive

Rochester,

NY 14623

Designer Joseph A DiGioia

22-_{2HFairwood Drive}

Rochester,

NY 14623

ProblemStatement Thisthesisproject will bea culmination of_myresearch onthesubject ofdigitaltypography.I

willdistinguish between

"digital"

typography

and whatistermed"traditional"typography. I

willexplore_many

different,

and sometimes_opposing,theoriesoflegibility. Iwill alsobe

investigating

therole of content vs. context andhowtheseinfluencethe"look" ofthe designedpiece.Iwillsupport_{my belief}that thecurrent state ofgraphicdesign isa

continuumintheevolution ofgraphicformwith_manyhistoricalprecedents.Thisproject will

addressseveral ofthe

following

questions:

fe

Isthereadiscernable difference betweenwhatisdigital

typography

besidesthefactthat digital

typography

existsintherealm ofthecomputer?

|r

Hastheproliferation of

typography

beenspurred on

by

thenew

technology

oris ita reaction

tocultural shifts_{in reading habits?}

tk

Is it(digital typography)a calltoaddresstheletterformin new and more appropriate ways?

|r

Is ita reactiontoModernist"dogmatic"

credoswhich werelessuniversal

and more elitist?

Audience ThetargetaudiencesthatI hopetoreach willbean eclectic mix ofdesign practitioner, design

educator,anddesignstudent.I hopethat thiswillbetterenable metofocus_myefforts

towarda more meaningful application.

Pre-Application _{This study}will manifestitselfwith a critical_essaythatwillbeaculminationof_mythoughts

and research.Thecritical_essaywill enable metosynthesize _myresearch andthoughtsintoa

logical

format,

as well_{as, become}theword matterfor myapplication.Theanticipated

publication of_myessayinseveraldesign journalswill assist mein_{reaching my}target

audience.

Application

Having

spent sometime_researchinggraphic

design,

philosophy, typographic

history,

typographic

theory,

andthepresent state ofdigital

typography

I have concludedthat thebest

way forthis thesisprojecttomanifestitselfwouldbetwofold:_one,a pragmaticapplication

suchas abookthatwouldbeaculmination of_myresearch andthoughts ondigital

typography

and_two,aseries of panelsthatwouldbeenlargements of actual spreadsfromthe bookThepanels wouldspeaktothe

duality

ofgraphicdesign asan

informative,

as well_as,a

visually pleasingmedium,not unlikepainting.Ifeelthat thiswouldbe the definitive

statementto_mytwoyears of_studyhereatRIT.

Research

Methodology

Iwill undertakethetaskof

looking

at experimentaldigital

typography

from_many

differentpointsof view sothatIcan

fully

understanditssignificance.

By looking

atthe topicfromthese

differing

viewpointsIwillbesuretowidenthescope of_{my knowledge.}

The

following

diagram illustratessomeoftheviews atwhichIwillbe

looking

at experimentaldigitaltypography:

"New"

New

Typography

.i

Modernist(M.VigneUi) Post-modernist(R.VanderLans)

Design Historian (S.Heller) New Futurist (N.Brody)

Traditional Printer(D.Pankow) Tradtional Typographer(M.Carter)

Cognitive Psychologist (R.Zakia) Sociologist (CPlummer)

Mission Statement This thesisproject on experimentaldigital

typography

willbean analytical and

interpretiveendeavorthatwillinvestigate the ideasof

legibility,

readability, style, movement,

appropriateness,and contextto_clarifyand educatedesignersand potentialdesigners.

Goals

Objectives

Process/Strategies

Establishthe_validityof

experimentaldigital

typography

Tocollectinformationon

experimentaldigital

typography

sothattheviewer/user willhavea

better understandingof whatit is

Collectarticlesthatpertainto

subject

Interview cuttingedgetype

designers

Tocompilethe

history

ofdigital

typography

sincetheinventionof

theMacintosh

(1984)

sothat the

viewer willhaveahandleonthe

differences between

digital,

metal

and other methods oftype_setting

Researchthe

history

ofthe

Macintosh in booksand

magazines

Createadiagramthatwill show

thesignificanthistorical

precedents oftheprinted page

Researchand analyze

typography

inthe

history

ofgraphicdesign

Tocompilehistoricalexamples of

typographic

theory

willbetter

enabletheviewertounderstand

typographic

theory

asitpertains

tographicdesign

Gather basictypographic_theory

information

Makealistwith visual examples

ofdifferenttypographic theories.

To

identify

significanthistorical

typographicinnovationssothat

theviewercanbetter determine

thatwhatis

being

done

today

is

partoftheevolution of

typography

Compilebothwritten and visual

informationontypographic

history

Makea chart of above

information

including

atimeline

withimportanttypographical

innovations .a rt _ S i-i

Tocollectvisualexamples of

digital

typography

willbetter

enabletheviewertoseethe

differenttheoriesandtypefaces

putin touse

Makean audit of_existing

examples ofdigital

typography

Illustrate differencesbetween

metal anddigitaltype

Researchand analyze

perceptual

theory

Toaggregateinformationon

perceptual_theorywill allowthe

viewertounderstandhowthese

theoriesarehelpful intypographic

analysis

Conduct interviewswith

perceptualtheorists

Compile

library

research:

books,

magazinearticles,etc.

Togatherinformationon

legibility

Obtaina_copyofthesis

by

and_readabilitysothat theviewer

willbetterunderstandtheterms

when

they

are usedinthecontext

ofthis thesis

designer Phil Baines(Title:The

Bauhaus Mistook

Legibility

for

Communication)

Obtain Emigre issues 15ft18

whichdealwith currentideason

legibility

3

Researchpastideasof

legibility

(Tschicholdft

Bayer)

Analyzesocietal changes and Tocompiledemographic Callmagazines etc.for

theireffects ontheformof informationon particulargraphic information

graphicdesign pieces(i.e.:

Ray

Gun, MTV,

etc.)

theviewer willgetanideaofhow Check

library

toseeifthis

.2

>> age, culture,andupbringing play informationexistsinprint

rt

3

a roleintheappropriatenessof a

_

1

graphicdesignpiece

Analyzeresearch Toreflect on research compiled so Readover research and prioritize

thatIcanbetterunderstandits it

significance asitpertainstowhat

istobeachieved

Identify

deficienciesinresearch

Disregardunusableinformation

Start_preliminarysketches/ideation Tocreate_preliminarysketchesto

workfromsothatIcanexplore

many differentpoints of view

Create_manypencil roughs

Writelistofimportantwords

relatingto topic

18

a

o

s

Continueto

develop

ideas

and comps

To

identify

semanticand syntactic

problemswill ensure a_strong

graphicstatement

Deviseagridsystem

(compositional,

constructional,or

typographic unit)

Considerdifferentintervalsystems

To

identify

pragmatic concerns at

thistime Iwillbebetterprepared

tocompletetheproject on

schedule

Researchservicebureaus

Researchpaper

Research fonts

?

o

-P

Researchsoftwaretodetermine if I

own allthatis necessary

Getregularfeedback from

committee members

Togetsuggestionsfrom_mythesis

committee willbetterenable me

tomake sureIam ontrack to

completetheproject as stated

Set upthesismeetingstoreview progress

Utilizecommitteeto testconcepts

_ a

>

Designseries of poster- Tosolvethesyntactic concernsto

ensure a_{visually pleasing finished}

product

Combine existingcomps etc.into

a cohesive poster series

Tosolve pragmatic concerns so

that thepieces canbeoutput

correctly

Compileall_{necessary digital}

informationto

by

shippedto

servicebureau

Establishmethodsof evaluation Toestablish evaluation methods

will enable metodetermine

whetherIhavemeet_{my initial}

goals

Comparesolutionstohistorical

precedents

Writeevaluationform

Recruitpiersforevaluation

19

Project Timeline

WinterQuarter November30th

November

30-January

24

December20

December21_-January2

January

3

January

17

January 24-Februaiy

7

February

7-20

February

15

February

20

February

20-27

February

27-March 3

March1-March25

March6 March13-29 March14 March28

Spring

Quarter 20 April2 April 3-19 April 7 April 10

April

24-May

10

April 28

May

2

May

11

May

12

May

20 Classesbegin

Researchand analysis oftopic

Begin imageresearch

Startthesis

diary

Lastdaytimeclassesbefore break

Christmas Break

Classesresume

First fullcommittee_meeting

Discussproject and_research, etc.

Outlineforcritical_essay

Synthesis

Writing

of critical _essay

Ideation

Meetwith committee members

individually

todiscuss_essay

Fullcommittee_meeting

Showworktodate Etnew research

Discuss direction

Lastdaytimeclasses

Evaluateworktodate

Winter/Spring

Break

Implementationoffinal designsolutions

Daytimeclassesbegin

Firstthesisshow

Thesispresentations

Fullcommittee_meeting

Completeapplication

Sendofftoservicebureau

Hang

thesisapplication

Secondthesisshow

Beginevaluationofapplication

Opening

forsecondthesisshow

Beginwrittenportionofthesis

Thirdthesisshow

Havecompleted writtenportion

(rough)

First"final"

draftofthesis

Fullcommittee_meeting

Finaldraftofthesis

Getfinalsignatures!

Last daytimeclass

Miscellaneous Quotations

"Communicating

themessage- _not

technology

or egos- is_our

job."

Phil Baines notingthe role ofthedesigner.

Noise

(embellishment)

intypography. Signal ?

Typographicexperimentationdid not start onthereownbuttook theircueformthe

innovations

taking

placeintheworld offineart circa 1910.

Brody'sobsessionis_questioningthe_{relationship between}theprinted word and

digitallanguage

Jan Tschicholdand

Stanley

Morisoncometheclosesttoserious

theory

aboutthe

designprofession.

"Goodtypographical

design,

...is

ultimately dependentupon afunctionalresponse of the_{participating}elements or_tools,to therequirements oftheproblem andits

environmentalfactors."

Lester Beall

"Tocategorize

typography

as_{traditional, liberal}conservatism oravant-gardismistoignore

theoverallquestion ofhowtypographicaldesigncanbestserve as an_acutelysensitive

instrument forcommunicationbetween divergent ideasanddivergentpeoples.'

Lester Beall

"Only

heisalive who rejectshisconvictions of

yesterday"

Kazimir Malevich

"I_{have nothing}to_say

(show)

andIam_saying

(showing)

it."

"Everything

isbeautiful"

"Iwanttobe freewithout

being

foolish"

"Thehighestpurposeistohaveno

purpose"

"Musicis the interactionof sound and

silence"

"If_somethingis

boring

for2 minutes,

try

itfor

4,

ifstill

boring

try

itfor

8,

ifstill

boring

try

it

for16...

Eventually

onediscoversit'snot

boring

but very

interesting."

Cageseemedto_{be saying}that_everythingisart. Heperceived art as anextensionoflife. His

influenceallowed_manyartiststofreethemselvesfromthe preconceivednotions of art.

Althoughheseemed_{veryunstructured,}hewas, in

fact,

verystructuredinhisthinking.

John Cage

Speaking

onthedemocratizationof

typography

broughton

by

theadventofcomputer

technology

MatthewCarterstates:"Ibelievethat thisdemocraticsituationisagood_thing, experimentaland_overflowingwithvarious_styles,

including

thegoodandthebad."

"My

revolutionisaimed attheso-calledtypographical

harmony

ofthe page,which_{is contrary}

to theebb and

flow,

theleapsandbursts of styletherunthroughthepage.Onthesame_page,

therefore,

we will usethreeorfourcolours of

ink,

or even

twenty

differenttypefacesif

necessary.Forexample:italicsfora series ofsimilar or swift_sensations,boldface fora violent

onomatopoeias,and so on.Withthis typographicalrevolutionImeantoredoubletheexpressive

forceof

words"

Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

Laszlo Moholy-Nagy'smanifestoissuedupon arrival attheBauhaus in 1923:

"Typography

must

beclear communicationinitsmost vividform.

Clarity

must_{be especiallystressed,for clarity is}

theessence of modern_{printing in}contrasttoancient picture writing.

Therefore,

firstof all:

absolute_{clarity in}alltypographicwork Communicationought nottolabourunder preconceived

aesthetic notions.Lettersshould neverbesqueezedintoan _arbitraryshape-like a square.

Anewtypographiclanguagemust_{be created,combiningelasticity,variety}and afreshapproach

tothematerials ofprinting,alanguagewhoselogic dependsontheappropriate application of

theprocesses of

printing"

"Thepurpose of all

typography

iscommunication.Communicationmustbemadeinthe shortest,

simplest mostdefinitiveway."

From 'ElementaireTypographic' 1925

"Typography

isthearrangement of wordstoberead"

"All

typography

isan arrangement of elementsintwo-dimensions"

JanTschicholdfromAsymmetric

Typography

Brody's intentionsforThe Facewere:"howcandesign

bring

agreaterdynamismto the content,

nowthatwelive ina_{predominantly}visual age?...

following

theideaofdesignto reveal,notto conceal."

"Designand

typography

aretheways

by

whichinvisiblegoodsare made

visible"

Neville

Brady

"Seize_{the eye, then}addresstheintelligence."

El

Lissitzky

"

It'sdifficulttomeasurereadability.

Legibility

canbemeasuredbecausesuccessive

degradationsdemonstrate howletterformsholdup.But_readabilityisdifficulttomeasure.People

read and comprehendbestthose typefaceswhich

they

are mostfamiliar.There isa_congeniality

factorwheretypeisconcerned."

MatthewCarter

Analogy

isthe_onlylanguageunderstood

by

theunconsciousness. Carl

Jung

Themostintelligiblepart oflanguage isnotthe words, butthe_tone,

force,

modulation, tempo

inwhicha

group

of words arespoken_that

is,

themusicbehindthewords theemotionbehind

thewords, theemotionbehindthe music;everythingthatcannotbewrittendown.

Frederick Nietzsche

Type is

going

tobeas abstract as sand on abeach.Inthatsensetypedoesn'texist anymore.

Max Kisman

Questions

concerning

topic

Typography

How is

typography

_{presently defined?}

What istherole of

typography

ingraphicdesign?

What isthepurpose ofthe"New"

New Typography?

What isthedifference betweenadesigneroftypeand atypographicdesigner?

Only

tenyears agotherewere_{approximately} 1,000 typefaces and

today

thereare over

9,000,what purposedo

they

serve?

Technology

Howhas digital

technology

influencedtypographicforms?

1)Hasthecomputerdemocratizedtypedesign?

History

Doestypographic

history

havea rolein_validatingthe"New"New Typography?

1)Whatsignificancedoesthework oftheBauhaushaveontodays

letterforms,

did it have in its day?

2)How doestheNNTrelatetomovementsinfineart?

HowhasModernism

(structuralism)

and post-modernism

(post-structuralism)

influenced

the"New"

New Typography?

Theory

Arethenewdigitaltypographicformsa calltoaddressletterformsinnew and more appropriate ways?

Isthe"New"New

Typography

kitsch,

or"Type Deco"?

Aretypedesigners like N.

Brody

trying

tocreate a new_codingsystem,onebased independentoftheletterform?

HowhastheNNTaddressedtosemioticcodes,such as _perception,theunconscious,

culturalcodes,etc.?

Graphic Design What is therole ofgraphicdesignandthegraphicdesignerinthe

"New"

New Typography?

Isthedemocratizationofdesign theendof"good"design?

l)Whowill determinewhatisgooddesign?

Is it timefora newdesignvernacular?

HowdoestheNNTeffect_{the syntactics, semantics,}and pragmatics ofgraphic

communication?

Final

Critical

Essay

Introduction The

following

isa critical_essaythatattemptstoanswer questions_concerningthestate of

typography today

through theeyes of agraphicdesigner. I intendtodiscuss howthedifferences

between digital

typography

andtraditional

typography

haveledtoa newdesignaesthetic and

howthishaschangedtherole of

typography

ingraphicdesign. Iwill support_mybeliefthat the

current state ofgraphicdesign isa continuumintheevolution ofgraphicformwith_many

historicalprecedents andhowthis

history

validates_manyofthenewtypographicforms. Iwill

investigate therolethattheMacintosh hasplayedin theproliferation ofgraphicdesign. Iwill

also exploredifferenttheoriesof

legibility

while

looking

atthequestion of appropriateness asit

pertainstocontent

Iwill usethe term"New"New

Typography

torefertothenewdigitaltypographicformsand

the

theory

behindthem.Theuse ofthe termcame about whenIbegantolookbackattheperiod

indesign

history

termed theNew

Typography

andtheradical nature ofitclaims.Ifeel it ismost

appropriate_consideringthefervorthat_manyofthecurrentnewtypographicformsare_causing

inthegraphic_{design community}today.

Typography

Whendesignersthinkoftypography,we

invariably

consider semiotics which consists of

semantics(therelationbetweensignsandtheconcepts

they

_represent),syntax(theformal

relationbetweensignsinasystem),and pragmatics(the studyof signsinuse).

Depending

upon

our concept and our_sensibilitytotypographicformthe typecanbeour main concern orthe

invisiblecarrier of our message.Inthissense

typography

becomes"...theraw materialthatgoes

into communication, servingman andhisexchanges."1

However,

thisdefinitiondoesnottake

intoaccounttheexpressive nature oftypography.Typecantakeon a_{painterly quality creating}

an

inviting

visualtexturemuchthesame_wayas aJasperJohnspainting. It hasbeensaidthat

artdirector/designerDavidCarsonusestype the_wayapainter usespaint- _{to create}

emotion,to

expressideas. Carsonuses newtypographicforms in his layoutstoexpressthe_meaningofhis

concepts andideas.

When

looking

atthework ofdesigner Neville

Brody

onegetsthe

feeling

thathe too,is

strivingtowardsa_painterlyquality.Brody's designsare_visuallyand _mentallydenseandthereis

a certainemotive_qualitythat_{his typography}exudes.Itisthe

typography

of ourtimeand

culture.It is dependentonthetechnology,pushingthe

technology

inthat

Brody

is interested in

theformalqualities affordedtohim

by

thecomputer.

Brody

himselfsays, "Digital design is likea

paintingexceptthepaint neverdrys. It islikea_claysculpturethatisalways

being

twistedinto

new shapes without ever

being

fired."2Emigre magazine,too,withitsfocuson newtypographic

forms has becometheparadigm ofthiscomputerized composition._{In many instances Emigre}

questions whatgraphicdesign is inthisdigitalenvironment

Herbert

Bayer,

Bradbury

Thompson,

David

Carson,

Neville

Brody;

upon

hearing

thesenames,

whatdoyouthinkof

first, designer,

typographerorboth? Alloftheaforementionedareboth

designer,

one who works withtypeandimageand_typographer,one whodesigns letterforms.

Matthew

Carter,

Adrian

Frutiger,

andZuzanaLickoare moreknown fortheir typographic

achievements.The

interesting

phenomenonbroughtupon

by

current computertechnologiesis

that becauseoftheease of manipulationinherent inthesoftware, thedesigner maymore_readily

cross over anddesignthe type thatwillbeusedinthecommunication ofhis/hermessage,

removing

typography

fromtheexclusivedomainofthespecialist,placingitonce againinthe

handsofthedesigner.Thishascontributedtoa

breaking

downof_manypreviousdesignbarriers.

History

There have_{been many different}"definitions"

givento

typography

throughout the

history

of

graphicdesign. Some_veryutilitarian,such asthisdefinition

by

Stanley

Morison:

"Typography

may be definedasthecraft of_rightly

disposing

printed materialin accordance with specific

purpose;of so_{arranging the}

letters,

distributing

thespace and_controllingthetypeastoaidthe

maximumthereader's comprehension ofthetext.

Typography

istheefficient meanstoan

essentiallyutilitarian and_{only accidentally}aestheticend,fortheenjoyment of pattern_{is rarely}

thereader's chief aim....It followsthatintheprintingofbooksmeanttobereadthereislittle

roomfor"bright"typography."

Morison continues, "thegoodtypedesigner knowsthat,fora

newfounttobesuccessful,ithastobesogood_{that only}afewrecogniseitsnovelty."3_{This is}

onthecontinuumof

typography

describedas a_purelytechnicaland utilitarian actType ismuch

morethan_this;it is thevisual representationoflanguage.

Typography

ispart of everyone's

environment andthereforeshouldbeconsidered as agreatercontributorto our culture.

The formsofthe"New"New

Typography

are attheforeof

blurring

thelinesbetweengraphic

designandfineart.Thesetypographicexperimentationsdidnotstartontheirownbuttooktheir

cuefromtheinnovationsthat tookplacein theworld offineart attheturnof thecentury.

Many

ofthese"fine"

artists oftheavant-garde worked commercially.Theproponentsof

Futurism, Dada, Constructivism,

De

Stijl,

etc. moved

freely

_{between painting}andbook designas

well as advertising.

JustasFuturistpainters attemptedto

bring

movementtothe two-dimensionalspace,sotoo

didtheFuturistpoetswho, through typographic

innovation,

tried to

bring

movementtothen

words.

They

brokefromthetraditionalverticalandhorizontalstructureofthe page,settingit in

motion.In hisposterfortheNew Futurist Theater

Company,

thepainterturned

designer,

' _Fortunato

Depero,

_{illustratedhowtheuse offlatplanesofvibrant}

and angular repetitiveformscontributeto adynamicpagelayout.

Dada,

withitsrejection of art

and

tradition,

stretchedthevisual_vocabularyofFuturism.

By

_releasingtheletterformfrom

traditionalphonic symbolismDadapushedtheCubistconcept oftheletterformas a concrete

visual shape.Dadacontinuedtopush

typography

further from ittraditionalusage"througha

synthesis of spontaneous chance actions with planneddecisions."4ThedesignerKurt Schwitters

createdan offshootofDadawhichheentitledMen. Inhiswork,

Schwitters,

combined a_strong

sense ofdesignwiththeelements ofchance and nonsense proposed

by

theDadaists. Hewrote

and_{designed poetry in}whichheplayed sense against_nonsense,

defining

_poetryasthe

interactionof elements:

letters,

syllables,words,andsentences.5_Inthe

early 1920'sSchwitters

was

deeply

influenced

by

thework oftheRussian

Constructivists,

as well_as,contributorstoDe

Stijl,

especially designer/painter/writerTheovanDoesburg. Heand van

Doesburg

collaborated

on abook designentitled, "Die Scheuche

Marchen"

whichhadasitscharacterstypographic

forms.

Also,

between 1923 and 1932Schwittersproducedtwenty-fourissuesofhisperiodical

"Merz"

whichcontinuedtopushtheboundsofgraphicexpression.

In hiswork ofthe 1920'sthedesignerEl

Lissitzky

pioneeredanewapproachto typographic

art whichhadahugeimpactupongraphic design. In

designing

"Forthe

Voice",

withitsstrict

useof_{Constructivist motifs,}

Lissitzky

provedthatagraphicdesignercanhaveadefinitivestyle

and_philosophyand_effectivelyuseittointerpretthespecific message and content of an

assignment.In both

Lissitzky

andLaszlo

Moholy-Nagy

we see emphasis placed upontheelement

of expression- _{theexpression of contentthrough}form.

In contrast,thedesigner/typographer

Jan Tschicholdwas more concerned with order and organization.Contrastwas emphasizedin

order"torevealthelogicalarrangement oftheprintedtext."6

In 1925,inthearticle"Elementaire

Typographic",

atwenty-threeyear oldJan Tschichold

wrote of a newtypographicstandardthatwas meant as anintroduction forprintersto the

avant-garde practices ofEl

Lissitzky'

s_pioneeringdesignworkItspoke ofthemerits of sans

serif_type,asymmetric _{compositions,}thebenefitsof white space andthe

limiting

oftypefaces.It

alsoberatedthestandards of_{nineteenth-century printing}anditsstatic visual qualities created

by

symmetricalcompositions.Thisarticlewas a synthetic re-statement oftheprinciples of

elementary,

functional,

and modern

typography

being

practiced

by

Lissitzky,

Schwittersandthe

Bauhaus.Thesewerethe "mastersources"

ofthe_emergingNew Typography. In 1928Tschichold

published"Die NeueTypographic"whichbecamethe_{revolutionary}textbookfor functional

typography.7_In

publishing"Die Neue

Typographic"

Tschichold

introduced,

forthefust_time, a

theoreticallookat

typography

devoidof concerns_{for printing}practicality.Tschicholdcontinued

toexpressa needfortypographic_{clarity in his 1935}statement:

"Typography

is thearrangement

of wordstoberead"8_and"All

typography

isan arrangement of elementsintwo-dimensions."9

TypographerHermann ZapfreiteratesTschichold'sstatementsin 1960 thisway:

"Typography

is

fundamentally

twodimensionalarchitecture."10

Aroundthesametimethe_{young designer Herbert}Bayerbecametheheadofthe

typography

workshopattheBauhauswherehebegantodraw his Universal type. An

interesting

historical

27

lineageisapparent when onelooksintothedevelopmentofBayer'stype.Bayer's interests in

designing

thistypecameaboutfromthe

increasing

technologicalnature oftheworld andhis beliefintherational methods of engineering.Hedesigned letterformsthatwere reductions of

Roman_{letterforms consisting}of_{interchangeable parts,}andthusrepresentedhisattemptto

expressthe_purityof_geometryand an increased functionality.Bayerwas_rejectingtheorganic

nature ofthecraftstraditioninan attempttorepresenttheessential structure oftheletterform

Hissearchfor universalityand_{efficiency led himto do away}with capitalletterformsand use

onlylowercase letters.Hismost

interesting

hypothesiswasthatsince speechdidnot recognize

upper-case

letters,

novisualdistinctionwas neededinhistypeface.

Following

Bayer'sattempt at_{simplification,}designer/painter Josef

Albers,

inhisstencil

typeface,employed a

building-up

methodbasedon_elementaryforms

(squares,

_triangles,

half-circles,etc.)whichtranslatedintoatypeface thatexpressed_{purity,regularity}and simplicity.

Similarly,

Paul

Renner,

in

designing

histypeface

Futura,

relied

heavily

on precise

drafting

tools

such as_{the compass,}T-squareandthe triangle.ThisallowedRennertoescapethe traditional

methods oftypedesignin favorofthe

rigidity

of mechanicalconstructions.11

Beginning

in1928,Tschicholdalso attemptedto_{do away}withtwosignsforone_symbol,but

hisattempt at

designing

his UniversaltypelookedmuchdifferentthanthatofBayer. Hemixed

bothupperandlower-caseletters

thereby

_creatinga single-case alphabet.InhisUniversaltype

design Tschicholdreiteratesthat_clarityisthehighestgoal.

Interestingly,

healso attemptedto

create an alphabetthatwouldbemuch more_closelyrelatedtospeech.Thiswork predates

Bayer's "foneticalfabet"

by

some

thirty

years.This isnot unlike what concrete_poetry,

Dada,

and Futurismwere_attemptingtoachieveinthe_earlypart ofthecentury.Inhis Futurist

Manifesto,

Filippo Tommaso Marinettistatestheneedforthis typeoftypographicexpression one which

would more_closelymirror verbal expression.

Designer

Bradbury

Thompson followed both BayerandTschichold intheirattempttocreate a

typeface_{using only lowercase}letters. His Monoalphabetof1940used_onlylowercase letters but

increasedtheirsize atthe

beginning

of sentences andforproper nouns.In _1950,Thompson designed

Alphabet 26 inwhichhecombinedbothupper andlower-case letterstocreate an alphabet

consistingof_only26signs.Thompson'sgoalwas also an attempt at_clarityand simplicity.

As itturnsout,muchlaterwe seeTschicholdrejectthevaluesheproposedin "Die Neue

Typographic".In 1959atthe_{Type Directors Club seminar, Tschichold}statedthat"good

typography

hasto_{be perfectly legible}and as_such,theresult ofintelligentplanning.The

classicaltypefacessuch as

Garamond, Janson,

BaskervilleandBellare_undoubtedlythemost

legible. Sansserifisgoodforcertain cases ofemphasis,butisusedtothe point ofabuse."12_His

explanationforthis"moreprudent"

evaluation of

typography

wasthathisearlier principlestoo

closelyparalleledthatof national socialism and

fascism,

indicating

thathe believedthat there

are social implicationstobothgraphicdesignandtypography.

Incomparisonto the

typography

of_today,throughwhichdesignersare_attemptingto

the 1920's and1930'slookedat a new and_{ever-changing society}anddecidedthatthepresent

formoftheletterwas_possiblynolongervalid.Therewas adrive forsimplicity,clarityand

humanity

thatranthroughall ofthesedesigners'work

They

looked beyondthe traditional

utilitarian view of

typography

andwere

designing

with absolute_clarityinmind.

They

seemed

disconcertedwiththe_salabilityoftheirexperimentation rather were more_{interested in searching}

formuch more universaltruths_connectingthewritten word andthespoken word_alongwiththe

growingindustrialnature oftheir_contemporarysociety.Butwhenthe"look"

ofModernismwas

appropriated

by

industry

and namedtheInternational

Style,

itlostitsmoral authority.The

letterformsofthepasthadno placeinthismodern_{industrial society}wherethemachine was

king.Ifwe projectthisidea intothepost-modern_{era, the}postersthat_accompanythe

experimentaltypefacedesigns_{in Fuse magazine,}which starteddistribution in _1990,highlight

how letterformsmight once againbecomeobjects of

beauty

andinspirationratherthan the tools

of commerce.

Technology

Beforetheinceptionofthepersonal _computer,

typography

waslimitedto thefewwhohad

studiedthe

drawing

of

letterforms,

hadtheskills manipulatetheprecise

drawing

tools and

processes,hadqualityhandiworkand understoodthe

history

oftype.Therewas aguild-like

sentimentto typedesign.This inhibited thelayperson from

designing

typebecauseofits

technical,craft-like nature.Withtheadvent ofthepersonal computer andthecomputer

programsthatallowfortheease oftype

design,

thelaborioustaskofletterform design has been

democratized. Nowanyone with a computer andthe_accompanyingsoftware_can,toa certain

extent,designatypeface.What hasthismeantto typography?Thiscanbeanswered_simply

by

comparingatypespecimenbookcirca

1985,

_onlytenyears_ago,with a specimenbookof a

digitaltype"foundry"oftoday.Thefirst

thing

thatstands outisthepure number oftypefaces

thatare available

today

as comparedto 1985(over9,000insome cases as comparedto 1,000).

Thisproliferationoftypehasallowedthedesigneran expanded_{voice, theability}tobetter

visuallyexpresslanguage. It hasallowedthe typedesignera vehicletodesigntypethat_{may be}

specifictoeachapplication with a muchgreatereasethanhand drawntype.Itseemsthat this

democratizationisagood

thing

for

typography

andgraphic

design,

butnot a well received one.

It has leadtoagreatdealof experimentation and_varietyof

letterforms,

bothgoodandbad.

Hermann Zapfcontributedthisexplanationfortheneedtoexpandtheperimeters of

typographicform in 1959:"Asthereare_manysplendidtypesof earlier centuriesthatwe still

gladly

useinprinting, itmayperhapsbeasked_whynewtypesaredesigned.Ourtime,

however,

setsthedesignerothertasksthandidthepast.Anewtype must,alongwith

beauty

and

legibility,

beadaptedto thetechnicalrequirements of_today,...Justas musicians and artists seek

tocreate some new expression of ourtimeandlinkittoa_{rich past,} sotoo mustthework of

typedesignersandtypefoundersremainboundtothe greattraditionofthealphabet."13

Interestingly,

Zapflooksoutside ofgraphicdesigntoexplaintheinnerworkings of

typography

indicating

the interconnectednessof

design,

technology,

fineart andmusic.

Similarly,

Matthew

question of needbutwantfornewtypographicformsandtheirexpressivequalities.14_{The Dutch}

graphicdesignerGerardUngerviewstheneedforthe_expandingtypographicchoices as a_way

toexcite_readers,ratherthan

designers,

_stating

that,

"Oneofthereasons_whythereisa constant

demand fornewtypefacesisthefactthatwegetusedto thepeculiarities of oldertypefaces.

Whatyou seetoooftendoesn'tworkanymore."15

When

looking

attheeffects of

technology

on_societyon thewhole anddesign inparticular

one_{discovers many}

interesting

parallels.Atthe timeofGutenberg'smovabletype the_printing

press made massdistributionof_{information possible, encouraging}the_steadyerosion of oral

traditions,

butinturnleadto the

Renaissance,

a_steadyincrease in

literacy

andtheeducational

system. Since 1984 theMacintoshcomputerhas becomea commontoolforallkindsof creative

processes,a_{way for}creative peopleinallfieldstocommunicateina commonlanguage.16_The

Macintosh has eliminatedmany,ifnotall,ofthelaborioustasksofgraphicdesignandtype

design

freeing

thesedisciplinesfromtheconstraints oftradition.

Postscript,

thecommonlanguageofthecomputer, isa page-description_{programming language}

created

by

Adobe Systemsthathandlestextandgraphics,placingthemonthepage with

mathematical precision.Postscripthas becomethe

industry

standard.Before Postscripttypewas

device-dependentmeaningthatitwasdedicatedto theparticular equipment usedtoproduceit.

What Postscripthasallowedforisa competitivefieldoftypefacepurchasebecausethetypedoes

nothavetomatch specific equipment(exceptinthecase of_platform,be it

IBM, Macintosh,

etc.)

Never before havetechnologicaladvances_completelyovertaken an

industry,

orforthat

matter asociety,as_rapidlyasthecomputerhas.It is

hard,

ifnot

impossible,

toavoidthe

computer

technology

intoday'ssociety.Whetherwe are_usingtheATMat ourbankor

"surfing"

the

internet,

thecomputerhas becomeanintegralpart of our

daily

lives. Digital

technology

has

thrustitselfupon

typography

and

design,

as well_as, otherindustriessuch as music withit's

conversiontocompact_{disk technology,}withbreakneckspeed.Thisclosetieoftechnological

advancesto typographicadvancesisnot uncommon.Whentherewas animprovement inrouter

technology

inthemid-1800'stherewas also a proli