ROBERTSON, HEATHER JEAN. Youth Gangs: Lived Experiences in an Emergent Area. (Under the direction of Edwin R. Gerler).
This qualitative research study sought to gain an understanding of youth gang members who live in area where gangs are beginning to emerge. Four gang involved youth males, ages 18-23, two black and two Latino, were interviewed, made a neighborhood map, and were part of a photovoice project. The four main goals this study hoped to discover were who the most influential people were in the youth’s life and if they had anything to do with the youth becoming gang involved; if where the youth lived had anything to do with them becoming gang involved; how these youth were different than other gang involved youth who do not seek intervention programs; and finally what part of the intervention program they are involved in is helping them the most and what do they think would help other gang involved youth most in the future.
Youth Gangs: Lived Experiences in an Emergent Area
by
Heather Jean Robertson
A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Counselor Education
Raleigh, North Carolina 2008
APPROVED BY:
_______________________________ ______________________________ Chair of Advisory Committee Dr. Stanley B. Baker
This dissertation is dedicated to three very special people in my life. First and foremost, to my parents, Russell and Judy Robertson. They believed in me from day one, and never gave up on me. Even during statistics. That says it all!
Heather Jean Robertson was born in Michigan. She and her family moved to Connecticut when Heather was in the first grade. Heather attributes her academic success in life to the well-rounded education she received in the Tolland Public School System, and to her parents who encouraged education as a number one priority in life.
Heather graduated from Tolland High School and headed to Keene State College in Keene, NH for her Bachelor’s degree. Heather lived abroad during the fall semester of her junior year in Seville, Spain. She was afforded the opportunity to study with a full time academic schedule taught completely in Spanish at the Semester in Spain program, as well as the opportunity to travel. Some of the places Heather visited were Madrid, Barcelona, and Grenada in Spain; the Algarve Coast, Lisbon and Fatima in Portugal; Paris and Avignon in France; and Geneva, Switzerland. This part of Heather’s life encouraged an appreciation of multiculturalism, and a love for the Spanish language, its culture, and its people.
degree in Spanish and a teaching certificate. She moved to North Carolina soon after graduation and accepted a high school Spanish teacher position. She taught for one year in high school, took a year off from teaching, and moved to Topsail Island, NC. Heather worked briefly for a weight loss company in Wilmington during that year off from teaching, and consistently held a top sales position for the national company.
Heather then moved to beautiful Emerald Isle, NC to work at a nearby elementary school teaching Spanish classes to children in grades kindergarten through fourth grade. Heather taught elementary school Spanish classes for 2 years, and was then accepted to East Carolina University to work on her Master’s degree in counselor education. Heather completed her Master’s degree in one year, while working as a graduate assistant in both teacher education and counselor education departments at ECU. Before she graduated, Heather accepted a job as an elementary school counselor at W. J. Gurganus Elementary School in Havelock, NC. She worked at Gurganus Elementary for six years under Mr. Pat Williams as principal. Heather learned everything important about being a respected school professional from her principal Pat Williams. He is like a second father to her, and even though Heather does not work for Pat now, she and Pat continue to stay in touch and he continues to inspire and encourage Heather both personally and professionally.
Heather also successfully completed her national board certification for school counselors during that school year.
During her second year in the doctorate program, Heather switched schools and job positions in the Wake County School System. She accepted the position of a student assistance program counselor at Cary High School, and remained there for two years while attending NCSU full time. Heather also began working on and completed her national certified counselor and licensed professional counselor licenses during her second and third year in the doctorate program at NCSU.
During the next three years, Heather moved around quite a bit, and had the opportunity to gain some valuable experience to help her with her future dream job of owning her own private practice specializing in treating troubled adolescents and
children, and sexual abuse and assault survivors. Heather lived in Beaufort, NC; Hatteras Island, NC; Raleigh, NC; and finally moved back to Morehead City, NC-which she considers home. Heather worked as an adolescent counselor/advocate for the Carteret County Rape Crisis Center while she worked on her negotiated exam and her dissertation proposal, then in Wake County Schools as a transition counselor, then at New Bern High School as the drop out prevention counselor, and she currently works as the school counselor at Bridges Alternative School in Morehead City, NC.
to educate communities about the issue of gang involved youth and what communities can do to help these youth move away from gangs to more positive lifestyles. Heather is a member of the American Counseling Association.
Heather intends to complete 20 years in the NC public school system, and as soon as she completes her doctorate, she will pursue opening her own private practice
I will be forever grateful to my parents for emotionally and financially supporting me throughout this entire graduate school process. They were never further than a phone call away when I needed them. And I sure did need them! A lot! Thank you both for all your hugs and kisses and support. I would never have been able to get through this degree without your help and your love. I know you have always been so proud of me.
Thank you to my brother Mark, his wife Heather and her family, and my niece and nephews. You always acted interested in my education, and never seemed to tire of hearing about Heather and her doctorate degree.
Thank you Grandma and Grandpa Johnson, who provided a little financial support over the summer and every Christmas, and for always talking about how proud you were to have a granddaughter who was pursuing her doctorate degree.
Thank you to my two very best girlfriends, Michelle and Susan. You have loved me through the entire six years of my degree. We have laughed and cried together over the years, but mostly we have just had fun and kept each other sane. I treasure every memory, and the many more we have coming! I am so blessed to have the two of you in my life. Thank you Laura, for continuing to make me a better and more creative
counselor every year, and for always being my partner in furthering ourselves
anyone else I may have forgotten. I learned so many wonderful things about each of you and from each of you. You will always hold a special place in my heart. Heloisa-thanks for helping me with all the final dissertation prep and graduate school requirements. I don’t know what I would have done without you!!!
Thank you to the little and quaint Beaufort library in downtown Beaufort for providing me with a quiet and supportive environment. The staff was so wonderful and helpful. Oh, when I think back to all the hours I spent there…Thanks to the Beaufort Cru Wine Bar and Coffee shop. I wouldn’t have passed my statistics class without the help of Wanda-my research assistant
Thank you to all of the wonderful teachers and professors I have had in my life. Thank you to Mr. Vostinak, my middle school science teacher. Thank you to Mr. Leeds, my creative writing teacher in high school. Thank you to Dr. Donald Fleming, my friend, advisor and mentor at Keene State College. Thank you to Dr. Gerler, my wonderfully patient advisor at NCSU. I truly appreciate all your advice and support over the years. Your kind words helped me through some very challenging times. Thank you Dr.
Nassar-McMillan for being such a wonderful and strong feminist woman. I thank you for all your supportive talks over the years. You helped me grow as a professional and I am grateful for that. Thank you to Dr. Martin, for advocating for your students and
cherish every word and piece of advice you have ever given me. Remember my IEP for Research class? Thank you to Dr. Ware at Chapel Hill, who supercharged my self esteem about mathematics and statistics. Remember mountain people may be wise, but I’m at the beach and I’m happy! Thank you to Dr. Sutton, who also inspired me and befriended me. You were such a gifted teacher in the classroom. You challenged me in ways no other professor ever had before. Thank you to Dr. Ting for always making sure we knew about any professional opportunity that came available to us. And for our field trip to the coffee shop! Thank you to all my ECU professors, Dr. Joseph Ciechalski, Dr. James Pinkney, Dr. Jack Schmidt, and Dr. Florence Weaver. You have all inspired me to become the confident professional counselor I am today. I look forward to more
professional presentations with you all, and in working more with you all in the future. Thank you to all of my bosses and co-workers during my years in this program. My bosses at Brentwood Elementary School, Myrna and Carrie; at Cary High, Dr. Coley, Bonnie, and Rachelle, Michael, Natalie, Stuart, Magda, Julia, Erin, Madeline and Donna; at the Rape Crisis Center, Bryan and Jane; and in the Wake County Public School
the Second Round program. You allowed me to research a population I might not have been able to reach any other way. A special thanks to Alan and Matt, and the 4
CHAPTER 1 – YOUTH GANGS:
LIVED EXPERIENCES IN AN EMERGENT AREA ...1
Rationale for Study ...2
Problem Statement ...4
Purpose of the Study ...5
Research Questions ...6
Need for the Study ...7
Definition of Terms...8
Organization of Chapters ...10
CHAPTER 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND THEORIES ...12
History of Youth Gangs in the United States...14
Demographic Characteristics ...15
Youth Gang Proliferation ...16
Contemporary Youth Gangs ...19
Modern Day Gang Characteristics ...19
Public Stereotypes and Scientific Findings ...20
Criminal Behavior in Youth Gangs ...21
Combative Strategies Against Youth Gangs...23
Youth Gang Prevention ...24
Youth Gang Intervention ...24
Youth Gang Suppression ...25
Related Theories and Model ...25
Ecological Systems Theory ...26
View of Human Nature and Development ...28
Postulates, Assumptions and Hypothetical Constructs ...29
Relevancy to Youth Gangs ...31
Critique of Ecological Systems ...31
Related Empirical Research on Ecological Systems Theory ...33
Ecological Systems theory: Synthesis in Regards to Youth Gangs ...39
Social Disorganization Theory ...40
View of Human Nature and Development ...40
Postulates, Assumptions and Hypothetical Constructs ...43
Relevancy to Youth Gangs ...44
OJJDP Comprehensive Gang Prevention and Intervention Model ...50
Five Strategies of the OJJDP Model ...51
Critique of the OJJDP Model ...52
Related Empirical Research on OJJDP Model ...53
OJJDP Gang Prevention and Intervention Model: Synthesis in Regards to Youth Gangs ...58
Gaps in the Literature and Future Research Needs ...58
CHAPTER 3 – METHOD ...60
Research Design ...62
Participants ...64
Researcher as the Interviewer ...65
Instrumentation ...65
Semi-Structured Interview ...65
Neighborhood Map ...66
Photovoice...66
Procedure ...67
Data Analysis ...67
Coding and Themes ...68
Validity ...68
Summary ...69
CHAPTER 4- RESULTS ...70
Participant Biographies ...70
Common Themes ...79
Research Question One Findings ...81
Research Question Two Findings ...89
Research Question Three Findings ...92
Research Question Four Findings ...95
Triangulation ...99
Summary ...100
CHAPTER 5- DISCUSSION ...102
Summary of Results ...104
Question One ...104
Question Two ...106
Comparing to Existing Literature ...108
Relation to Ecological Systems Theory and Social Disorganization Theory ...113
Relation to the OJJDP Gang Prevention and Intervention Model ....115
Limitations ...116
Implications for Future Research ...118
Concluding Remarks ...119
REFERENCES ...120
APPENDICES ...128
Appendix A. Consent/Confidentiality Form for Participants ...129
Appendix B. Consent Form for Adults Who May Appear in Photographs ..131
Appendix C. Consent Form for Guardians of Minors Who May Appear In Photographs ...132
Appendix D. Assent Form for Minors Who May Appear in Photographs ...133
Appendix E. Outline for Research Sessions ...134
CHAPTER 1
YOUTH GANGS: LIVED EXPERIENCES IN AN EMERGENT AREA Public school systems and communities in many areas across the United States are just beginning to wake up and notice gang activity. “A gang is a visible group of youths who engage at least some of the time in behaviors that are troublesome to the community of which they are a part and sometimes are illegal” (Griffin & Meacham, 2002, ¶3). Gangs are no longer just in big cities and instead “… increasingly exist in medium sized and small towns and in suburban communities” (Griffin & Meacham, 2002, ¶2). What is the reason behind why so many young, especially minority males, are feeling the need to join gangs? Does it have something to do with the media and how popular rap artists/actors like Snoop Dogg receive so much attention? Snoop Dogg proudly proclaims himself a gangster and highly publicizes his affiliation with the Crips gang. The message the media portrays about gangs being cool and that you can be successful and wealthy while being a member of a gang is clearly giving a mixed message about what being in a gang really means for the majority of youngsters that get involved. The purpose of this research study was to do a qualitative analysis of data from youth gang members on what the lived experiences are like for the youth in an area where youth gangs are an emerging issue.
this qualitative research study, the author utilized a technique discussed by McCaslin and Scott (2003) involving the five-question method for developing the framework for a qualitative research design. This process involved the following steps, and informed this study’s introduction. First, a method of inquiry was chosen which allowed the researcher to associate a particular tradition of qualitative research to her particular study or desired form of obtaining knowledge and data. This study used a phenomenological approach. Next, a problem statement was developed, which can give a study value more than any other factor while establishing the entire reason behind why one would need to conduct the study (McCaslin & Scott, 2003). From a defined problem, one develops a purpose statement, and finally the research questions can be developed by taking into account the problem, the purpose, and what will hopefully be answered in the study. All of these steps assisted the author in framing this research study design and hopefully led the way towards a high quality research design.
Rationale for Study
others in a world where they may not otherwise be presented with that feeling.
According to Rollins, adolescents may feel that “if you are not successful in mainstream society-in school, on the job-and you have an opportunity to go out on a mission and your gang tells you how great you did, that’s where you’ll want to be” (p. 12). In Twemlow and Sacco’s (1998) article, a 16 year old gang member gives the following reasons as to why he felt the need to join a gang: to be affiliated with a group, to have power, physical security, activities to keep from being bored, role models to look up to, and the need for aggressive play.
Gangs are a problem in our schools and our communities. Gangs in schools became an epidemic problem in the 1980’s and 1990’s, and continue today to be a huge concern for school systems throughout the United States (Griffin & Meacham, 2002). Griffin and Meacham continue on to discuss this problem by stating:
Small gangs, unattached to larger organizations, have proven to be a deadly problem as evidenced by school shootings and violent levels unheard of a generation ago. Larger, more organized gangs may become violent threats as well, but also may be behind much of the illegal drugs, thefts, intimidation, extortion and increases in armament in schools today. (¶1)
gang prone students as students who receive bad grades, that teachers have low
expectations of these students, and that perhaps many of these students have undiagnosed learning disabilities or simply had not received the needed academic interventions to keep them performing successfully in school. Juarez (1996) states, “these youngsters have repeatedly been labeled by schools as failures” (¶11). Juarez goes on to say that these students who perform so poorly in school take on a valueless existence in their school, their home, and their community. How terrible that must be for these students, and no wonder so many turn towards gangs that willingly and openly grant them acceptance and opportunities to feel successful.
Many of the students that live in the low socioeconomic and difficult
Problem Statement
Youth gangs continue to persist and expand throughout the United States. We need to know more about who the most influential people are in these youth’s lives, and whether they have anything to do with them becoming gang involved, or if they may have been able to prevent them from becoming gang involved. We also need to hear from the youth about what is really going on in their neighborhoods, and if this plays any part in their becoming gang involved. Finally, we need to find out how can we facilitate more youth to become involved in intervention programs by discovering what they think is really working for them in a current program, and what it is about them that is different from their other gang involved peers who have not sought out intervention programs.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the lived experiences of youth who become gang involved in an area where gangs are an emerging issue through the discovery of who has most influenced them, positively or negatively; whether or not where they live played any part in them becoming gang involved; and how some youth decide to seek intervention while others do not. It was an exploratory study, hoping to discover some new revelations about what youth look like in an area where gangs are an emerging issue. Hopefully, the study allowed a better understanding of the lived
experiences of these youth, and from this knowledge, perhaps prevention and
conducted with a phenomenological perspective, which hopefully allowed the reduction of personal bias of the researcher and instead allowed the voices and perspectives of the participants to emerge. Due to the use of a phenomenological research perspective, no research hypothesis was formulated ahead of time. The goal of phenomenological research is to discover themes that emerge from the participants in order to gain a better understanding of the phenomena being investigated. The use of a qualitative study was essential for this research study, due to the fact that in an area where gangs are an emerging problem, many stakeholders in the community were extremely hesitant to get quantitative style data, as this may have given awareness of just how serious and large the community gang problem may be. This study sought to assist the community in
becoming more aware and more open to the idea of researching further the emerging issue of youth gangs.
Research Questions
The five question method (McCaslin & Scott, 2003) allowed the research design thus far to develop a method approach, a problem and a purpose statement, and now encompassed these aspects altogether to develop the research questions for this study. The following questions informed this research study:
2. What is the deep, rich, lived experience of youth who become gang involved in an area where gangs are an emerging issue, and how do the places they live in contribute to their gang involvement?
3. What is the deep, rich, lived experience of youth currently involved in a gang intervention program, and from their perspective what is helping them the most in the program and what do they see most helping other gang involved youth in the future?
4. What is the deep, rich lived experience of gang involved youth currently involved in an intervention program in regards to how they see themselves as different from their other gang involved peers who are not choosing to get into intervention programs? What makes them seek help towards a more positive future, while others choose not to do so?
All of these questions will hopefully further the current research on youth gangs, with the specific attempt to target an area where gangs are emerging as a growing problem.
Need for the Study
area, and suddenly become a growing problem, how does this happen? What should a community do about these signs? While there are some ideas for helping communities with an emerging gang issue, it is also an essential step in the research on youth gangs to hear from the youth about what is really allowing them access to more and more
organized gangs. One must begin to wonder if the most significant and influential people in the lives of these youth are a part of this growing problem of gangs, or if perhaps these significant people could have assisted in swaying these youth away from becoming gang involved had they been more informed or involved in the youth’s daily life. Another interesting aspect to look into in an area where gangs are just beginning to emerge as a problem is does gang involvement have anything to do with where a youth is living? Are they being forced to become involved for safety reasons, for acceptance, or is it a
Definition of Terms
Following is a list of terms essential to understand in the development of this research project and paper. They are defined here by the author or as noted in the citations.
1. Youth Gangs: “a self-formed association of peers having the following
characteristics: three or more members, generally ages 12 to 24; a name and some sense of identity, generally indicated by such symbols as style of clothing, graffiti, and hand signs; some degree of permanence and organization; and an elevated level of involvement in delinquent or criminal activity” (National Youth Gang Center, 2006).
2. Gang Prevention: Refers to activities directed at youth who are not current gang members.
3. Gang Intervention: Refers to activities directed at youths who are gang members.
4. Gang Suppression: Refers to a law enforcement and court system perspective, in regards to enforcing laws, making arrests, and putting delinquent youth in juvenile detention or other forms of adult prison systems.
5. Phenomenology: “…the study of the shared meaning of experience of a phenomenon for several individuals”, creates ‘a central meaning’ or ‘essence’ of the experiences” (McCaslin & Scott, 2003, p. 449).
interpretive philosophies called hermeneutics, knowledge is socially constructed by all involved in the research process, and research is a product of the values of the researcher (personal communication, Dr. P. Martin, 2006).
7. Hermeneutics: Beyond a general descriptive look at core concepts and essences in data, to discover meanings within everyday life practices. Focus could be considered to be on what humans actually experience rather than what they are aware of consciously (Lopez & Willis, 2004).
8. Epistemology: Concerned with the nature of knowledge and the relationship between the knower and the would-be knower (Racher & Robinson, 2003). 9. Codes: Tags or labels given to units of meaning to descriptive or inferential information gathered in qualitative research, attached to chunks of words, phrases, whole sentences or paragraphs (Basit, 2003).
10. Emic Codes: Codes that emerge from the data as a result of the reviewing of the data for inherent concepts and patterns (personal communication, Dr. P. Martin, 2006).
13. Validity: In qualitative research, validity occurs with the procedures a
researcher would use to give the study credibility, and refers not to the actual data itself but instead to the inferences drawn from the data (Creswell & Miller, 2000). 14. Reliability: Again, in qualitative research, reliability is determined by procedures used to help establish how reliable one could consider the inferences made from the analysis of the raw data.
15. Triangulation: A strategy for improving validity in research, and hopefully aids in the elimination of bias to allow a truthful proposition to be made about the phenomenon being studied (Mathison, 1988).
16. Researcher Reflexivity: Validity procedure in qualitative research whereby researchers self disclose personal beliefs, assumptions, and biases (Creswell & Miller, 2000).
17. Thick, Rich Description: Validity procedure in qualitative research;
describes the setting, participants, and themes in rich detail, allows researcher to be transported into the particular setting or situation being researched (Creswell & Miller, 2000).
Organization of Chapters
The dissertation has five chapters. Chapter One consists of an introduction to the topic of interest, the rationale for doing the study, a problem statement, a purpose
the organization of the chapters concludes chapter one. Chapter Two is a literature review and critique of that literature and includes: a history of gangs in the United States, demographic characteristics of gang members, gang proliferation, contemporary youth gangs, public stereotypes versus the real scientific data, criminal aspects of gangs, and a discussion on prevention, intervention and suppression of youth gangs. Following the background information on gangs there is a review and critique of two chosen theories and one related model. The theories discussed are ecological systems theory
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and social disorganization theory (Shaw & McKay, 1969). The related model is the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s Gang
Prevention and Intervention Model (Institute for Governmental Research, 2002). Chapter Three includes the qualitative procedures that were utilized in the study. The process of data analysis, which included code and theme development, as well as validity issues, is also addressed in Chapter Three. The results of the study are presented in Chapter Four. Themes are presented, and examples are given directly from the data obtained from the youth gang members. Chapter Five discusses the results and gives a summary of all discovered in the data. An evaluation of the study and the author’s own interpretation is given in relation to the original research questions and hopes of discovery, and is
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND THEORIES
The problem of the continual growth and spread of youth gangs across the United States is just now becoming an issue people are willing to talk about. Unfortunately, one of the biggest issues against figuring out what to do about gangs has to do with the fact that the definition of youth gangs has not, as of yet, been figured out. This is evident in the actual stating of this fact in many articles throughout the past decade or so (see Howell, 1994; OJJDP, 1997; Huff, 1998; Howell, 2000; Miller, 2001). While all of the previously listed articles discuss the continuous issue with the unclear definition of youth gangs, the National Youth Gang Center website in 2006 says it best with:
If we cannot come together as a nation and develop a standard definition for youth gangs, we will continue to see the same issues and problems regarding research on youth gangs for another decade.
For the purpose of this research paper, the term “youth gangs” will coincide with the accepted definition given by the National Youth Gang Center, a part of the Institute for Governmental Research, and be considered to be:
A self-formed association of peers having the following characteristics: three or more members, generally ages 12 to 24; a name and some sense of identity, generally indicated by such symbols as style of clothing, graffiti, and hand signs; some degree of permanence and organization; and an elevated level of involvement in delinquent or criminal activity
(National Youth Gang Center, 2006).
Most of the literature in this review was derived from the most reputable collection of information and publications on youth gangs, the publications available through the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). The search for this comprehensive literature review comprised of searches on the interlibrary
what a contemporary gang looks like in comparison to the past, public stereotypes versus current scientific findings, criminal behavior in youth gangs, and prevention, intervention and suppression of gangs. All of this will give the reader the background on youth gangs so as to comprehend the extensive problem youth gangs have become in the past decade or so, as well as to gain an understanding of how the problem of youth gangs has taken a different pathway from the past, traditional style of gangs to new, contemporary youth gangs. This literature review will also help the reader see the need for this proposed research study, the need for continued research on prevention, intervention and suppression, as well as evaluations of these, along with many other needs for future research on youth gangs. To end the comprehensive literature review, two theories and one related model are discussed and critiqued, again lending an understanding of the youth gang issue and the theoretical background involved in many of the leading empirical research that has been done on youth gangs.
History of Youth Gangs in the United States
encountering extremely harsh living and economic conditions in the southwest (Moore, 1978; Vigil, 1988; Howell, 1998). European ethnic background gangs formed as early as the 1800’s in cities like New York, Boston and Philadelphia, just after the Industrial Revolution was beginning (Finestone, 1976; Sante, 1991; Spergel, 1995; Howell, 1998). During the Industrial Revolution, cities such as Chicago, and other largely populated cities, had a large increase in youth gang activity (Finestone, 1976; Howell, 1998). These gangs were mostly from Irish, Jewish or Italian backgrounds (Howell, 1997).
modern day youth gangs are viewed, as public perception is not always reality, and this discrepancy will be covered later in this literature review.
Demographic Characteristics
At this point, demographic characteristics discussed will be of a traditional school of thought. A typical gang member is a male, living in an inner city area, and who is of a racial or ethnic minority group (Esbensen, 2000). In an OJJDP article in 1997, entitled Youth Gangs in America, statistics available on the ethnicity of gangs in the year 1996 were as follows: 48% African Americans, 43% Hispanic, 5% Caucasian, and 4% Asian. Youth who are of minority backgrounds that live in single parent families are at a much greater risk of becoming a gang member than those who are Caucasian and have a two parent family (Esbensen, 2000). The typical youth gang member is around 17-18 years of age, but youth gangs can range from the ages of 12-24 years (Howell, 1998). A
youth gangs. This is a great strength of the literature available on youth gangs, and it will come together in the modern day gang explanation section.
While youth gang members are predominantly male, it is imperative to note the rising growth of the female gang member (Howell, 1994; 1997; 1998; Esbensen, 2000). While female youth gang members are a rising topic in the area of youth gang research, and much more research is needed on this topic, this particular research study did not focus on females in gangs, and will therefore only be briefly mentioned.
Youth Gang Proliferation
The term gang proliferation is the word used to describe the increase in the
number of communities that are reporting the presence of gangs and gang problems in the United States (Knox, Houston, Tromanhauser, McCurrie, & Laskey, 1996; Maxson, 1998). Howell (2000) states the reasoning behind why the issue of gang proliferation is such a huge problem for this area of research best with, “Gangs emerge, grow, dissolve, and disappear, for reasons that are poorly understood. This lack of understanding
is low, the attention brought on to the issue of gangs is also low, which leads to the inaccurate underestimates of gangs at that time period. Miller also gives us the flip side of the argument, the significant relationship, as being when the increased amount of gang numbers increases to a particular amount, the issue of gangs gets so much attention that it outpaces the actual increase in number, which in turn stirs up even more attention to gangs, which increases the number of areas counting gangs, which can lead to
exaggerated numbers of gangs at that period in time. Thus, keeping this debate in mind, here are some of the statistics over the last two decades: 4,881 gangs with 249,324 members (Howell, 1994), which stated no number of law enforcement districts sampled, to a sample of 286 jurisdictions with around 2,000 gangs and close to 100,000 members in 1980 (Miller, 1992; Howell, 1997), to around 2,000 jurisdictions with more than 23,000 gangs and more than 650,000 members in 1995 (Howell, 1997), to 4,800 jurisdictions with more than 31,000 gangs and around 846,000 members in 1996
clear or even remotely accurate picture of what may really be out there as far as accurate numbers of gangs and their membership totals.
What might be the reasoning behind why more jurisdictions are reporting? Maxson (1998) suggests the increased amounts may be due to more awareness of the gang problems in the nation, more attention brought about by law enforcement, more gang awareness trainings, and some national education based campaigns directed at the gang problem. Miller (2001) discusses a multitude of reasons behind why he thinks the reasons for such a dramatic increase in reporting has occurred as “drugs, immigration, gang names and alliances, migration, government policies, female-headed households, and gang sub-culture and the media” (p. 9). Certainly, the reason for more reporting must be a combination of more than one of these per area to cause their need to report as higher than in years previous.
many more states, cities, suburbs, and even rural areas that had never before seen the presence of gangs.
Contemporary Youth Gangs
Youth gangs of today are very different from the traditional style gang of the past. This is a continual issue brought up in the available literature on youth gangs, and this section attempts to show the reader the more contemporary style of gang, as well as what challenges lie ahead for research in this field of study.
Modern Day Gang Characteristics
Youth gangs of today are spreading out into many previously uncharted areas. They are moving into large cities that have never faced gang problems before, as well as smaller cities. They are no longer just in cities like Los Angeles and Chicago, which have had gang problems for many decades. They are also moving into the suburbs and even into some very rural areas. This is very different from the traditional gang, thought to exist only in large, urban cities. Howell, Egley and Gleason (2002) also mention the recently developing gangs are more likely to be in less populated areas. Besides modern day youth gangs spreading outward, they are also much more multicultural than ever before (Howell et al., 2002). It’s interesting to note that the more multicultural a gang is, the more apt they are to be located in either a suburban area, a small town, or a rural area (Starbuck, Howell, & Lindquist, 2001).
mixed racial composition, with white, black, and multi-racial members. Some modern gangs are still centered around racial or ethnic barriers, such as many of the Latino, (like Sureno 13 and Mara Salvatrucha 13, or MS13), Asian, Philippine, Vietnamese, or other Asian gangs. Youth gangs of today still see a disproportionate number of male minorities from African American and Latino backgrounds, but also have many more white
members than the traditional style gangs that are stereotyped so often.
Modern day youth gangs are much less territorial than the traditional gang from the past. Many modern gangs may be considered autonomous, and exist in smaller areas like housing projects, schools, shopping malls, and small neighborhoods (Starbuck et al., 2001). Modern day gangs also seem to have popped up out of nowhere in the last ten years, have many more younger members, slightly more numbers of females, more Caucasians, and again, more racial and ethnic mixtures (Starbuck et al., 2001). Finally, these later onset modern day youth gangs also appear to be less involved in serious violent crimes and property crimes than the earlier onset, traditional style of gang (Starbuck et al., 2001). This brings to attention one of the biggest challenges for law enforcement, as well as public perception, in that modern gangs cannot be assumed to be the old, traditional style of gang, and cannot be enforced with strategies that worked on those traditional styles of gangs.
Public Stereotypes and Scientific Findings
Criminal Behavior in Youth Gangs
Youth gangs participate in criminal activity. This is one of the main differences between what constitutes a clique of youth just “hanging out” together, and is essentially what metamorphasizes them into a youth gang. This is clear in the definition of youth gangs, where it clarifies the youth are engaged in “an elevated level of involvement in delinquent or criminal activity” (National Youth Gang Center, 2006). Youth gangs portray patterns in their criminal behaviors, and these patterns reflect chronic social issues that can be connected to social class position, racial composition, and whether the youth has immigrated to the United States (Howell, 1994). Howell also points out that these reflective patterns can also be attributed to modern conditions in the economy, the easy accessibility of weapons, drugs and trafficking, as well as the places where gangs seem to develop.
The progression of criminal activity by intensity as well as by offense is a question that has been previously researched and is available in the current literature. Huff (1998) takes the reader through a process of how long it takes on average for a newly involved gang member to have their first criminal offense. The process begins as a wannabe, at around age 12-13, becoming a gang member at about age 13-14, and
anywhere from 6 months to a year of becoming a gang member the youth has their first arrest at approximately age 14. Huff adds that data from a study done in Ohio allows us to see the progression of actual criminal offenses. The first offenses are usually property crimes, and then progress to drug related crimes and then violent crimes within a 1.5-2 year span.
Combative Strategies Against Youth Gangs
In the article entitled Youth Gangs in America (OJJDP, 1997) the historical efforts put forth to deal with the problems of youth gangs are detailed. It begins with the
strategies the number one choice in dealing with the challenge of youth gangs (OJJDP, 1997).
In order for any type of gang reduction program to be remotely effective, the OJJDP (1997) stresses the necessity for the following to be present in a community: recognition and admittance of a gang problem, an understanding of the local gang
problem-not a fictional problem stereotyped in the media, common definitions among the principal leaders on gangs, targets specific to each agency and inter-agencies, and an assessment of the local problem needs to be done. These are all important issues in any research related to youth gangs, as everything we learn about youth gangs will eventually be utilized as information to assist the nation in how to prevent youth from joining gangs, how to better intervene in the lives of those who have become members, and how to suppress the most dangerous members.
Youth Gang Prevention
Youth gang prevention incorporates any activities or strategies done in a community to help youth stay out of gangs. Huff (1998) goes over what he calls
windows of opportunity that can make all the difference in helping youth who are either already gang involved or who are on the fringes of becoming gang involved to make better future life choices for themselves. These windows of opportunity and intervention occur at specific intervals in time, according to the empirical findings in the Huff (1998) study, and occur first in the approximate year between the “wannabe” stage and
gang prevention strategies are said to be the most cost effective in the long run
(Coolbaugh & Hansel, 2000). There are many ways to combat youth gang activity, but if prevention of gang membership is the most cost effective, then this is the strategy that should be getting the most attention.
Youth Gang Intervention
Youth gang intervention programs have a focus on youth who have already become gang involved. To follow up from the Huff (1998) study on the windows of opportunity that can make a difference in a youth who actually becomes gang involved and is no longer in the preventative stage, the second significant opportunity to intervene occurs when the youth becomes initiated to when the youth has his or her first arrest. This second window of opportunity appears to have a time period of 1.5 to 2 years, and if the intervention is effective, can provide the youth with a future free of criminal offenses. This is a huge issue for gang involved youth because once a youth has a criminal record; many opportunities are closed to them. Opportunities such as financial aid for college are no longer available to students who have a criminal record, and the ability to apply for and be accepted to jobs becomes much more difficult with a criminal record. Certain careers would also be closed to any youth who have criminal records, like law
Youth Gang Suppression
Youth gang suppression is directed at reducing criminal activities associated with gangs, and its goal is to make arrests, prosecute in court, and completely remove
troublesome gang members from the public to the jails, with long prison sentences (Howell, 2000; OJJDP, 1997). It’s important to note that suppression strategies are an important part of all community programs dealing with youth gangs, but are known not to be entirely successful as a single component against gangs (Howell, 2000). Instead, suppression strategies appear to work best when used as part of a comprehensive program to deal with youth gang problems.
Related Theories and Model
The two related theories covered are ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and social disorganization theory (Shaw & McKay, 1969). The related model is the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s (OJJDP) gang prevention and intervention model (Institute for Governmental Research, 2002).
Ecological Systems Theory
involving progressive and mutual accommodation that takes place between an active, constantly growing person and the always changing properties of the settings in which the developing person lives. This developing process is also affected by the relationships between these different settings, and also by any larger contexts in which any or all of the settings are encompassed (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). An ecological environment is
“conceived topologically as a nested arrangement of concentric structures, each contained within the next” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 22). This environment consists of different components, the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem.
lower-order systems (micro-, meso-, and exo-) that exist, or could exist, at the level of the subculture or the culture as a whole, along with any belief systems or ideology
underlying such consistencies” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 26). An example of a macrosystem would be how different states may have different sets of expectations for high school graduates, but all states have basically the same idea as to what really encompasses a high school graduate level student.
While this theory includes over a dozen definitions, there are a couple words one must become familiar with to fully comprehend this theory. These words are ecological transitions, and roles. An ecological transition occurs in a person’s life whenever their position in their ecological setting changes due to a change in roles, setting or both (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). An example would be getting married, having a child, or changing a job. A role is a set of activities and relations that would be expected of a person in a particular position in society, and of others in regards to that person
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). An example of roles would be the basic standards of honesty and integrity we may expect from a public official serving our local county, and how county residents would react to an encounter with a public official that is living up to those expected standards by shaking their hand and making a positive comment on how they were respected in the local community.
View of Human Nature and Development
they grow and live in. He also believes that public policy has power to effect the development and well-being of humans and the environments they live in
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
According to Miller (1989), in order for a theory to be considered well developed, it must consider three tasks in regards to the developments of humans. First, it should describe changes that occur within one or more areas of behavior (Miller, 1989). Ecological systems theory does this, as it describes the many behavior changes that take place within a particular setting, and how that setting influences these behavior changes and psychological growth of the developing person. Second, a theory must describe changes in relationships among several areas of behavior (Miller, 1989). Again, ecological systems theory also does this, as it has thorough explanations of dyads of people developing, and many of its theoretical hypotheses deal with people developing because one person’s behaviors change and how this directly influences the other person in the dyad to also make those same behavior changes. The third task a well rounded theory should handle is whether or not the theory actually describes the course of development and how one moves from one point of development towards another point of development (Miller, 1989). The hypotheses are stated clearly and build upon each other in ecological systems theory. An example is hypothesis 2 states: “Once two persons begin to pay attention to one another’s activities, they are more likely to become jointly engaged in those activities. Hence observational dyads tend to become
directly upon hypothesis 2 and states: “Once two persons participate in a joint activity, they are likely to develop more differentiated and enduring feelings toward one another. Hence joint activity dyads tend to become transformed into primary dyads”
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 59). The course of development is therefore made clearer from hypothesis to hypothesis.
Postulates, Assumptions and Hypothetical Constructs
The theory of ecological systems has 50 hypotheses. The hypotheses become more developed and exact as they gain numbers. Hypothetical constructs, assumptions and postulates are all part of a well developed theory (Miller, 1989). Not only does the theory encompass 50 hypotheses, it also incorporates 14 definitions, and 7 postulates. The postulates begin with stating that in ecological research, the properties of a person and the environment, the structure of the environment, and the processes that take place within and between the settings must be viewed from systems terms, meaning they are interdependent (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The postulates end with the thought that if different settings have different developmental effects upon the person, then these effects should somehow reflect the major ecological differences between the settings, as they would be revealed by different patterns of activities, roles and relations (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
new ideas in science when it first came about. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998) did a study related to youth gangs. This study was discussed in the Bronfenbrenner and Evans (2000) article and summarized the study’s findings with one word: chaos. The idea that our modern society continues to have growing chaos, for example, many more single parent families, schools are seeing more violence, and less direct parent participation in child care and rearing, is an idea that definitely seems worth investigating more in the future, especially in relation to youth gangs (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000).
A well developed theory must also cover the mode of interaction between theory and fact (Miller, 1989). This theory’s interactive mode can be considered both deductive and functional (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner states that while some of the many hypotheses are deductive in nature, many of the ideas in the original theory derive from the application of the theoretical work in empirical studies. Deductive theory is said to be a logical and organized set of propositions, which are stated formally (Miller, 1989). Much of Bronfenbrenner’s theory consists of formally stated hypothesis,
then continually tested (Miller, 1989). The bioecological model would encompass this idea, as it is much more concise and open than the previous theory. The new
bioecological model opens many new doors for research, and again shows this theory and model to be strong and open to changes of the modern world.
Relevancy to Youth Gangs
Bronfenbrenner discusses an issue that would directly effect the proliferation of youth gangs in our society in his chapter on the mesosystem. He calls the modern public school “…the most potent breeding grounds of alienation in American society”
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 231). Bronfenbrenner goes into detail about how he sees kids being moved from neighborhood schools to communities they are unfamiliar with, with peers whom they may not relate to due to cultural, economic, and other essential
Critique of Ecological Systems Theory
There are many strengths in the ecological systems theory, especially in regards to the topic of youth gangs. According to Miller (1989), the ecological systems theory incorporates many of the ideal considerations a theory should encompass. It describes changes that occur within one or even more areas of behavior (Miller, 1989). The theory believes behaviors are taken on by a developing person because of who they come into contact with, how the encounter occurs, and even how the encounter’s setting effects the developing person. Regarding gang youth, behaviors, attitudes, and actions are all developed by the “wannabe” gang youth because of their involvement and close contact with gang members. The theory also describes changes in relationships within several areas of behavior (Miller, 1989), as in how others continually effect the growth and development of a person, effect areas of growth such as language development, health and physical well-being, and even educational growth. Gang youth may turn towards gangs because of the lack of a supportive ecological system surrounding them at home or at school.
A sound theory would also describe the course of development, or how one would move from one point of development to another more advanced point of
“wannabe” and eventually go thru initiation and the process involved in becoming a full gang member.
Another strength in regards to utilizing this theory in relation to gangs is the topic of chaos. Youth gangs can certainly be considered to be chaotic with all the violence, crime, drugs, and firearms that are often a part of the gang life.
While ecological systems theory has many strengths, especially when relating it to the topic of youth gangs, it also has a weaknesses that need to be mentioned. In order for the ecological systems theory to truly be applicable to researchable populations, one must focus on certain aspects of the theory; because if one attempted to utilize the theory as a whole, with its 50 hypothesis, 14 definitions and 7 postulates, it may be nearly impossible to create research projects utilizing the entire theory. The theory can almost be
considered exhaustive. Therefore, while particular parts of the theory can be considered extremely applicable and useful in empirically researching particular topics, it may not be applicable as a whole.
be done so with a more open and certainly more multi-culturally sensitive frame of reference.
Related Empirical Research on Ecological Systems Theory
The first study to be examined will be by Dalla (2000) and was chosen because of the related issues of sexual violence and prostitution involved in youth gang culture, as well as because it is a well developed qualitative study. The second study to be examined is by Spencer, Fegley, and Harpalani (2003). This article was chosen because it focused on research on comprehending and improving developmental outcomes for African American adolescents, who represent a disproportionate percentage of youth involved in gangs. These studies are examined to gather and inform this study’s research
methodology, as well as to increase the awareness of sexual violence involved in youth gang culture, and the need for more research on how to continually improve life
outcomes for minority and at-risk youth.
Dalla (2000). The main topic of this article was prostitution, and the author defines this term as “one who exchanges sex or sexual favors for money, [drugs], or other desirable commodities” (Dalla, 2000, ¶2). The article discusses stereotypes and
The research goals were clearly stated and intended to “examine, in depth, ‘the game’ known as streetwalking prostitution’ (Dalla, 2000, ¶4). In this goal, the researcher desired to expand upon previous research by incorporating the very personal and unique developmental experiences had by women who eventually became streetwalking
prostitutes, and from these very personal histories to discover similar themes between the many different stories of the participants. The primary goal of this research project was to see these women as real individuals, with real lives and histories, not as just figments of what the media has made them out to be.
The study was informed by two theories, Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory and family systems theory. The theories helped the researcher guide her direction on development and perhaps give reason towards understanding how these women eventually became involved in prostitution.
The selection and description of participants is important in qualitative research, and was clearly discussed. The participants mostly came from an intervention program designed to keep women from prostituting on the streets. All participants in the research study were voluntary, and ethical issues were also addressed, including informed consent.
article. The research method certainly seems replicable, and applicable to other population groups with similar issues and problems.
The data analysis process used was the Phenomenological Descriptive
Methodology created by Colaizzi in 1978. The methodology is presented and participant checks followed the procedure. This shows strength in the researcher’s plan, as more than one person checked the thematic overtures before the final manuscript was written. Strength also lies in the fact that the participants were again asked about the final analysis and were given the right to discuss their thoughts on the data, as well as give further input that was added to the final manuscript.
The presentation of the findings is logical and clear, beginning with the five brief biographies from the subgroup which capture the reader’s interest, and delve into the developmental aspects common among the women. All 43 interviews delved into the following three areas: historical events that led the woman into prostitution, life as a prostitute, and life in the future for these women. The presentation of the findings moves onto the common themes found in the 43 participant interviews. The thematic
of the streets, and those who left voluntarily. Their dreams, which had many similarities despite their differences, were also included as a theme.
The implications section discussed the gaps in the existing literature in regards to streetwalking prostitutes. The author indicates that more research needs to focus on the internal, rather than the external forces, and events that cause a woman to become involved in prostitution. Future research suggested a focus on activism for these women involved in prostitution. Limitations pointed out were that the sample was nonrandom, the women in the study were no longer prostituting, and each participant was also only interviewed one time; therefore their true beliefs and attitudes may not have been fully captured.
Future research suggestions were clear about the fact that “activism is necessary, particularly with regard to developing policy changes in women’s employment and the feminization of poverty…” (Dalla, 2000, ¶53). However, a weakness to point out is that never once is critical race theory mentioned, which appears to be another theoretical approach of this article.
methods were taken to help deter her own biases, like journaling or going over her thoughts and writings with another colleague.
Gang members have many issues to deal with, each separate, yet each a huge influence that seriously impacts the outlook for their future. If prostitution effects lives this seriously, and it is only one small part of being gang involved, it is no wonder that intervention and prevention are such important contemporary issues.
Spencer, Fegley, and Harpalani (2003). The article utilizes Spencer’s (1995) phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST), which is a theory that stems from Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1979). The PVEST integrates the various issues of context, coping skills and mechanisms, and identity in human development (Spencer et al., 2003). Cultural socialization and spirituality are the coping mechanisms included, and are related to the adolescent’s psychological well-being in the study’s sample of African American youth who have low access to resources. Both coping mechanisms mentioned were discovered to be significant in the healthy
development of self and in relating to others for African American adolescent males. The article states clearly that exploratory common factor analysis was utilized, and this seems appropriate for the intended research goals. The goals were to discover ways to integrate the attending processes of identity pursuits with coping responses, and these would be linked to varying levels of the ecosystem from Bronfenbrenner’s
The detailed sample was taken from a longitudinal study of 562 African American adolescents, 70% were male, from a southeastern part of the United States. The schools in the study were involved in the Promotion of Academic Competence Project, which was a study conducted during the years of 1991-1994, as the students sampled progressed through grades 8-12. The ages of the sample ranged from 14-17 years, and 498
adolescents were reported in this study’s data. This sample appears to be large enough to make some preliminary assumptions from any data obtained for the males, yet may be considered too small for the females. The steps of the analysis process are clearly described as utilizing an “exploratory common factor analysis using squared multiple correlations as initial communality estimates and using varimax and promax rotations” (Spencer et al., 2003, p. 185). The analysis description continues, making it even more replicable.
The different derived factors, which they call variables, were described
thoroughly. The following variables were presented: self variables including perceived emotional well-being, perceived unpopularity with peers, feeling valued by others, and good feelings about the future; coping variables including the importance of religion and spirituality, and the importance of teaching black pride. All of these variables were discussed as to how males versus females had reported.
There was no mention as to whether ethical principles such as evaluation
Explanations of the data were reported only in narrative form, yet tables are clearly the easiest and most accepted format for readers to see the actual data presentation. Other considerations included that data was obtained only by self report, and only particular coping methods were surveyed. There may be other coping mechanisms the youth utilize, and consider helpful, but these were not investigated.
This article was interesting in regards to what one can learn about how African American boys utilize coping mechanisms, and will assist the author in the preparation of research with youth gangs.
Ecological Systems Theory: Synthesis in Regards to Youth Gangs
Utilizing ecological systems theory in a research study involving youth gangs seems appropriate when considering the deep, rich, lived experiences of gang involved youth that led to their gang involvement, and the ideas of prevention and intervention. Ecological systems theory incorporates how outside influences, whether they be human or circumstantial influences, effect a growing and developing person. A qualitative study, focusing on gathering information to discover the ecological systems each participant develops in, while considering how perhaps different interventions may prevent future gang involvement, appears to be greatly needed in the area of research on youth gangs.
prostitutes, but also on how future research needs to focus on coping methods for youth, in so that they may be able to make better life affecting choices in dealing with peer pressure and intrinsic motivations that may be constant invitations in some minority and at-risk youth’s lives.
Social Disorganization Theory
Social disorganization is the inability of a community or a neighborhood to understand and realize common goals and from there to solve continuing problems or issues occurring in the area (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003). The main issue the theory discusses is delinquency, which is defined as an adaptive behavior where adolescents usually act as members of adolescent peer groups in an effort to find the way toward meaningful and respected adult roles, essentially unaided by an older generation, yet under the influence of many criminal models, usually in an inner city area (Shaw & McKay, 1969). While social disorganization theory is about development, this theory focuses more on the ways in which a place, specifically a neighborhood, would develop. Due to the unique interactive functions and layout of a particular neighborhood, the theory’s base leads towards the discussion of how people in the neighborhood may develop and change in ways they may not if they were living somewhere else (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003).
View of Human Nature and Development
“physical deterioration and proximity to industrial land usage-and with other human problems, e.g., adult crime, poverty, disease, suicide, and family instability” (Shaw & McKay, 1969, p. xxvii). In fact, the entire Area Project program, which was the program where most of the data was received for the foundation of social disorganization theory, was based upon an optimistic view of human nature, and that the concern of the
prevention of delinquency and the rehabilitation of the delinquent was possible (Shaw & McKay, 1969).
as the research involved in the development of the theory sought to gain an understanding of whether delinquency is a cause or the result of social disorganization.
An understanding of Clifford Shaw’s background helps one comprehend why social disorganization theory came about, as well as Shaw’s conception of human nature. Shaw had been a probation and parole officer, and then moved on to become a research sociologist at the Institute for Juvenile Research. Shaw was interested in helping young offenders, and became increasingly concerned as to why many inner city males began to join gangs (Shaw & McKay, 1969). Because of the background of Clifford Shaw and his desire to help young people and their communities, social disorganization theory could be labeled as a functional theory, according to Miller (1989). A functional theory is more modest than deductive theory, and its propositions are related to the data and are often restricted to a particular experimental problem (Miller, 1989). Social disorganization’s experimental problem would be the two issues of social disorganization and delinquency, and how they inter-relate to effect the development of the neighborhood as well as its people.
Another interesting point on human nature to consider with social disorganization theory is its opposing views of human nature. Social disorganization theory utilizes a mechanistic view of human nature. The mechanistic view, according to Miller (1989), encompasses the idea that the world is seen like a machine composed of many parts, and that development is caused by external forces and events in life; or in social
development. The whole idea behind social disorganization theory is that the people in a particular community are without choice, especially in the lowest of economic areas, and especially in regards to how their young develop due to the outside forces of crime and delinquency in their neighborhood. There is almost an acceptance of delinquency as a means to getting ahead. People are unable to control their development because the outside influence all around them is too strong. Their path in life is almost pre-set towards criminal behavior. This idea leads into the second, opposing view, of human nature. Capitalistic views of human nature incorporate competitiveness, strive for success, and survival of the fittest notions (Miller, 1989). Delinquency in the work developing social disorganization theory is described as an alternate pathway for lower income society to gain the material wealth and respect that the media and current
American world seem to focus on, and lead youth to believe that no matter how you gain the wealth and status, you will be successful (Sham & McKay, 1969).
Postulates, Assumptions and Hypothetical Constructs
To understand more about social disorganization theory, one must first see what questions were sparked before beginning the research that led to the development of the theory. Questions pondered in this theory can be said to be its postulates and
assumptions and are necessary, according to Miller (1989), in a well rounded theory. The theory asks what exactly in modern day city life seems to create delinquency. Even today, regardless of the city’s continually changing population by areas, the business cycle or any other social or economic changes, why are so many young males from inner city areas continually getting into trouble with the law? Why are so many joining gangs? (Shaw & McKay, 1969).
Relevancy to Youth Gangs
The theory of social disorganization is extremely relevant to youth gangs. Shaw and McKay (1969) continually discuss youth gangs and their criminal intentions
throughout their book. Because social disorganization theory was the theory utilized in the development of the federal government’s Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s (OJJDP) gang prevention and intervention plan (Institute for Governmental Research, 2002), it shows just how valuable this theory has become.
Critique of Social Disorganization Theory
