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Electronic Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Major Papers
1-1-1987
Jesus and the recipients of the kingdom in the child saying.
Jesus and the recipients of the kingdom in the child saying.
Mary-Catherine J. B. McKenna University of Windsor
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McKenna, Mary-Catherine J. B., "Jesus and the recipients of the kingdom in the child saying." (1987). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 6824.
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U M I
fay
M a ry-C a th e rin e J.B. McKenna
A Thesis
subm itted to the F a c u lty o f G raduate Studies th ro u g h th e Departm ent o f
Relgious Studies in P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t o f th e Requirements f o r th e Degree
o f M aster o f A r ts a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f Windsor
Windsor, O n ta rio , Canada
1987
UMI Number: EC 54813
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A B S T R A C T
JEST7S AND T H E R E C IP IE N T S O F T H E K IN G D O M IN T H E C H IL D S A Y IN G
b y M a r y - C a t h e r i n e J.B. M c K e n n a
W ith in e a r ly C h r is t ia n it y th e re a re h in t s o f view s w h ic h s ta n d in s t a r k c o n tra s t
to b o th H ebrew and Graeco-Roman views o f c h ild re n . Since such views permeate th e gospel t r a d i t i o n and a p p e a r to d e riv e fro m i t s e a r lie s t s tr a ta , i t is reasonable to suppose th a t the se an om a lie s can be tr a c e d b a c k in some fo rm to th e h is t o r ic a l Jesus. T h is th e s is
a tte m p ts to a c c o u n t f o r th e e a r lie s t tra n s m is s io n o f a r a d ic a l c h ild s a y in g o f Jesus, p r io r to it s dom estication and eventual tra n s fo rm a tio n in to less ra d ic a l sayings. The search f o r th e o r ig in a l fo rm o f th e s a y in g is p re fa c e d by th e r e c o g n itio n o f biases in h e re n t in in te rp r e ta tio n s o f contem porary and tr a d itio n a l scho larsh ip , and o f those biases in h e re n t
in th e communities m a in ta in in g and tr a n s m ittin g those sayings. The ta s k o f re c o n s tru c tin g th e o r ig in a l c h ild s a y in g f i r s t n e c e s s ita te s d e fin in g th e place o f th e c h ild in th e milieu o f th e f i r s t c e n tu r y C. E. The e le va tio n o f c h ild re n in th e c h ild sayings o f M ark, M atthew,
L u ke and Thomas do n o t coh ere w it h th e g e n e r a lly n e g a tiv e and demeaning perceptions o f c h ild r e n in t h is tim e p e rio d . The th e s is th e n in v o lv e s a d e s c r ip tio n and a n alysis o f
th e w ays in w h ic h each o f th e se f o u r w r it e r s u tiliz e s th e s a y in g . The sayings are then s itu a te d w it h in th e b ro a d e r r e d a c tio n a l o r e d it o r ia l p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e a u th o r , d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g betw een th e o r ig in a l in t e n t o f Jesus and th e su b sequ ent in te n t o f the
a u t h o r / c o m p ile r. F in a lly , a f t e r s i f t i n g th r o u g h v a rio u s la y e rs o f tr a d itio n , th e thesis moves on t o th e r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e c h ild s a y in g . S tu d ie s in o r a l i t y s u g g e s t t h a t a
lin e a r vie w o f develop m en t is n o n -a p p lic a b le to th e dynamics o f o ra l tra nsm ission as o ra l memory is p r im a r ily a m e m o riz a tio n o f s t r u c tu r e . S u b s e q u e n tly , re c o n s tru c tio n involves n o t th e an id e n t if ic a t io n o f th e o r ig in a l w o rd s o f Jesus, b u t th e id e n t if ic a t io n o f the
o r ig in a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e s a y in g . P ro p o s in g a recovered sa yin g o f Jesus n a tu r a lly raises th e q u e s tio n o f a u t h e n t ic it y . And so th e re c o n s tru c te d sayin g is tested a g a in s t h is to ric a l c r i t i c a l c r i t e r ia . The a p h o ris m s ta n d s a g a in s t these te sts, and is judged to be a u th e n tic . The th e s is co n clu d e s w it h a b r ie f a n a ly s is o f th e m e anin g o f t h is ra d ic a l c h ild saying,
now recovered, f o r Jesus’ contem poraries and f o r tw e n tie th c e n tu ry N o rth America.
ha s been k in d and p a t ie n t , and has ta u g h t me th e a r t and th e science o f acedemia. T h a n k
you , J o h n . To D r. J . N o rm a n K in g f o r h is s in c e re concern f o r c h ild re n and h is c la r if y in g
in s ig h t s , I o f f e r my g r a t it u d e . A n d t h a n k 'y o u to P r o f. Donna F o le y f o r h e r b o u n d le s s
enthusiasm , h e r encouragem ent, and h e r a b ilit y to make an a n c ie n t w o rld come alive.
A nd I o f f e r my e te r n a l th a n k s to J o a n D onnelly-M cKenna, who as a k in d re d s p i r i t -
fr ie n d - m o t h e r , has w a lk e d th e lo n g m ile s w it h me; and to M a d e lin e M cKenna, c o n s ta n t
so u rc e o f s w ift- k in d n e s s e s an d g e n tle presence, who has encouraged me u n fa ilin g ly over
b r e a k f a s t , lu n c h and d in n e r ta b le s; and to Maggie K illo ra n , whose la u g h te r and loveliness
have k e p t me sane.
To Denise Z a k o o r, C la ire R oy-W eber and Susan B e a irsto who encouraged me to know
how wide was th e w o rld and how deep were th e co lo u rs o f life , th a n k you.
A n d to my fa m ily , who, b o th n e a r a n d f a r , h a ve been s u p p o rts , t h a n k you. A nd
e s p e c ia lly , I am v e r y g r a t e f u l to G a v in , P a t r ic k , P a t r ic ia , K a id a n (and s ib .!) who were
lis t e n in g , g e n tle a n d lo v in g d u r in g th e la s t f r a n t i c moments. A n d la s tly , I am g r a te fu l
to H ild a , my g ra n d m o th e r, a n d to a l l o f my fo re m o th e rs , f o r b e in g women o f c o u ra g e ,
perseverence, s tre n g th , and women o f God.
v
F o r Jo a n , M a d e lin e , M aggie and me
v i
APPENDIX II: Secondary V a ria n ts ... 183
APPENDIX III: S tru c tu re o f th e A p h o r is m ... 184
APPENDIX IV: R e c o n s tru c tio n o f A phorism ... 186
APPENDIX V: Stemma Diagram ... 187
\
v i i
T A BLE OF CONTENTS
A B S T R A C T ...i v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... v
DEDICATIO N... v i LIST OF APPENDICES ... .... LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS... ix
INTRODUCTION... i
CHAPTER ONE: C hild in A n t i q u i t y ... 5
A. The Empire in Its D iv e rs ity ... 5
B. C hild W ith in A n tiq u ity ... 7
C. Conclusions ... 21
CHAPTER TWO: M ark 9:33-37; 10:13-16 ... 29
A. D u a lity in M a r k ... . 29
B. Disciple, Discipleship and C hildren ... 32
C. Redactional Analysis: M a rk 9:33-37 ... 3B D. Redactional Analysis: M ark 10:13-16... 45
E. Conclusions: M ark 9:33-37 and M a rk 10:13-16 ... 51
CHAPTER THREE: Matthew 18:1-4, 5; 19:13-15... 63
A. Disciples ... 63
B. H u m ilit y ... 65
C. Redactional Analysis: M a tt 18:1-4, 5 ... 68
D. Redactional Analysis: M a tt 19:13-15 ... 80
E. Conclusions: Matthew, C hildren and H u m ility ... 84
CHAPTER FOUR: Luke 9:46-48; 18:15-17 ... 93
A. Wealth, H u m ility and the N ature o f D is c ip le s h ip ... 93
B. Redactional Analysis: Luke 9:46-48 ... 97
C. Redactional Analysis: Luke 18:15-17... 102
D. Conclusions: Luke 9:46-48; 18:15-17 ... 107
CHAPTER FIVE: Thomas Logia 22, 37, 46 ... 113
A. The L ite ra r y N ature o f Thomas ... 113
5. Discipleship, Asceticism, A sexuality, and the K ingd om ... 114
C. Redactional Analysis: Logion 2 2 ...116
D. Redactional Analysis: Logion 3 7 ... 120
E. Redactional Analysis: Logion 46 . ... 126
F. Conclusions: Logia 22, 37, 46 ... 130
CHAPTER SIX: T ra cin g the T ra je c to rie s o f the Child Saying and the Question o f A u t h e n t ic it y ... 139
A. Post B ib lic a l Developments o f the Saying ... 139
B. S tatu s Q u a e s tio n is ... 143
C. Id e n tific a tio n o f th e Aphorism ... 145
D. The Reconstructed Aphorism ... 154
E. Conclusions ... 161
CHAPTER SEVEN: Some Conclusions R egarding the Meaning o f the Aphorism ... 173
A. Summary o f F indings ... 172
B. Jesus and the Child Saying ... 173
C. The Tw entieth C entury and the C hild S a y in g ...176
D. F u rth e r Questions ... 178
APPENDIX ...182
BIBLIQGRPAHY... 190
VITA AUCTORIS ... 199
In tro d u c tio n
W ith in e a rly C h r is t ia n it y th e re a re h in ts o f view s w h ic h s ta n d in s ta r k c o n tra s t
to b o th Hebrew and Graeco-Roman views o f children. Since such views permeate the gospel
t r a d it io n and appear to d e riv e fro m i t s e a r lie s t s tra ta , i t is reasonable to suppose th a t
these anom alies can be tra c e d b a c k in some fo rm to th e h is t o r ic a l Jesus. However, in
th e la s t few decades b ib lic a l s c h o la rs h ip has made a c o n c e rte d m ethodological attem pt
to delve b e h in d th e t e x t to re c o n s tr u c t th e in te n tio n s o f Jesus as th e y are re fle c te d
in h is s a y in g s and deeds. T h is thesis w ill approach th e h is to ric a l Jesus th ro u g h the o p tic
o f the “c h ild ” sayings.
The p u r s u it o f t h is to p ic is w o rth w h ile f o r tw o reasons. F ir s t , as an e xe rcise in
h is to r y o f t r a d it io n , i t seeks to tra c e th e development and changing use o f the metaphor
o f “ c h ild ” w ith in p rim itiv e C h ris tia n ity , and its d istin ctivene ss when viewed in the co n te xt
o f th e H e lle n is tic w o rld . Second, i t is im p o rta n t as a hermeneutical experiment, analogous
to re c e n t fe m in is t re c o n s tr u c tio n s o f p rim itiv e C h ris tia n ity . These studies have indicated
how a n d ro c e n tric C h ris tia n t r a d it io n and a n d ro c e n tric scholarship have co n trib u te d to
th e o b s c u rin g o f th e ro le o f women in e a rly C h r is t ia n it y . In th e fa c e o f p e rv a s iv e
a n d ro c e n tris m fe m in is t s c h o la rs h ip a tte m p ts to id e n t if y h e rm e n e u tic a l and e d ito r ia l
agendas, sh o w in g how such agendas obscure th e re p o rts o f h is to ry . S im ila rly, the exte nt
to w h ic h modern values and agendas in flu e n c e d th e in v e s tig a tio n and in te rp re ta tio n o f
h is to ric a l data is also evident in the studies o f ancient slavery. Moses I. Finley says,
... o th e r contem porary ideological considerations are a ctive in th a t seemingly remote f ie ld o f h is t o r ic a l s tu d y — a c tiv e in the sense th a t they underlie, and even d ire c t, w hat o fte n appears to be a pu rely 'fa c tu a l’ , 'o b je c tiv e ’ presentation. For th a t reason, th e disagreem ents in t h is f ie ld a re also p ro fo u n d , th e c o n tro v e rs ie s con ducted p o le m ic a lly . I believe t h a t a f u l l , open a c c o u n t o f how modern in te re s t in ancient s la v e ry has manifested its e lf is a necessary prere quisite to the substantive analysis o f th e in s titu tio n its e lf .- I
- 1
I t is co n ceivab le and, I believe a rg u a b le , t h a t an o rig in a lly ra d ic a l or re v o lu tio n a ry use
o f th e metaphor o f “c h ild ” existed a t e a rly levels o f the tra d itio n , b u t th a t the progressive
in s t it u t io n a lis a t io n , R om a nisatio n, and h ie ra rc h a liz a tio n o f the church on the one hand,
and modern c u lt u r a l and s o c ia l values, on th e o th e r, have tended to obscure o r render
in v is ib le such views. Redress o f t h is s itu a tio n is possible, a t le a s t in p a rt, by showing
th e e x te n t to w h ic h Jesus* s a y in g s a b o u t c h ild r e n cohere f u l l y w ith and re fle c t o th e r
aspects o f his preaching o f the kingdom, and are n o t merely h is to ric a l oddities o r footnotes
to the th is preaching.
A ny a tte m p t to a s c e rta in Jesus* o r ig in a l use o f th e “ c h ild ” s a yin g s necessitates
d e fin in g more f u lly th e place o f th e c h ild in th e m ilieu in which the sayings orig inated.
T h is ta s k in clu d e s b o th a c tu a l ro le s w h ic h c h ild re n occupied in re lig io n and society and
the re lig io u s fu n c tio n o f “c h ild ” as a metaphor w ith in various s a lv ific schemas.
The fo cu s o f t h is th e s is w ill be, th e n , th e d iv e rs ity o f uses o f the metaphor “c h ild ”
p re s e n t w ith in th e e a rlie s t C h r is tia n t r a d it io n : th e S y n o p tic Gospels and Thomas, and,
to th e e x te n t t h a t th e y can be recovered, the teachings o f Jesus. The scope o f the thesis
is b o th l i t e r a r y o r re d a c tio n c r i t i c a l and t r a d it io n - h is t o r ic a l. T h is the sis involves (a)
a d e s c rip tio n and analysis o f the way(s) in which each o f the fo u r w rite rs , Mark, Matthew,
Luke and Thomas, u tiliz e s “ c h ild ” in th e c o n te x t o f s a y in g s o f Jesus; (b) an accounting
o f th e v a r ie ty o f usages o f th e m e taph or by s it u a t in g each usage w ith in th e b ro a d e r
re d a ctio n a l o r e d ito ria l perspective o f the a u th o r d is tin g u is h in g between the o rig in a l in te n t
o f Jesus, th e subsequent in t e n t o f th e a u th o r and th e la t e r in te n t o f the e a rly church;
and (c) the re co n stru ctio n o f the o rig in a l c h ild saying “m a trix.”
The v a rie ty and d iv e rs ity o f the “c h ild ” sayings in e a rly C h ris tia n lite ra tu r e suggests
t h a t a tte m p ts to de term ine one o r ig in a l c h ild “ saying” o f Jesus may be u n re a lis tic . John
Dom inic C rossan a tte m p ts to c o n s tr u c t n o t an o r ig in a l saying b u t an o rig in a l s tru c tu re
The C hild Saying - 3 - In tro d u c tio n
o r m a trix . In h is c r itiq u e o f Norm an P e r r in ’ s a tte m p ts to d e te rm in e an o rig in a l saying
o f Jesus Crossan distinguishes between ipsissima verba and ipsissima s tru c tu ra . He concludes
t h a t o r a l memory is “ a m e m o riza tio n p r im a r ily o f s t r u c t u r e ” and t h a t th e “ b a s ic u n it
o f tra n s m is s io n is... a t b e s t and a t most, the ipsissima s tru c tu ra ” 2 Thus, one cannot fin d
th e “ o r ig in a l w o rd in g ” o f a s a y in g , since a che irog rap hic, lin e a r view o f th e development
o f t r a d it io n is n o n -a p p lic a b le to th e dynam ics o f o r a lit y . I t is in th e d e te rm in in g o f
th e o r ig in a l s tr u c tu r e t h a t one becomes capable o f e x p la in in g th e d iv e r s ity o f
in te r p r e ta t io n s . I w ill make use o f Crassan’ s in s ig h t th a t the s tru c tu re o rig in a tin g these
v a rie d t r a d it io n s w ill be t h a t “ w h ic h b e s t e x p la in s th e m u lt ip lic it y engendered in the
tra d itio n .” 2
To propose a re co ve re d aphorism o f Jesus n a tu ra lly raises the issue o f a u th e n tic ity ,
i.e., w h e th e r th e c h ild s a y in g co u ld go b a c k to Jesus, and i f so, in w h a t sense d id he
in te n d th e te rm “ c h ild ” and how does th is re la te to “kingdom.” I w ill employ the standard
c r i t e r i a f o r a u th e n t ic it y (th e c r it e r io n o f m u ltip le a tte s ta t io n , o f coherence, and th a t
o f lin g u is t ic and e n v iro n m e n ta l te s ts , and w ill make use o f fiv e more c r ite r ia added by
re c e n t h is t o r ic a l c r it ic s (i.e., m u ltip le fo rm s , te n d e n cie s o f th e d e ve lo p in g t r a d it io n ,
m o d ifica tio n , plausible tra d itio n g e s c h ic h te , and herm eneutical p o te n tia l).*
I am in te re s te d , th e n , in a c c o u n tin g f o r th e e a r lie s t tra n s m is s io n o f th e ra d ic a l
c h ild - s a y in g , p r io r t o i t s d o m e s tic a tio n and e v e n tu a l tr a n s fo r m a tio n in t o less ra d ic a l
s a y in g s . As such, t h is p r o je c t w ill c o n tr ib u te to co n te m p o ra ry scholarship’ s “ new quest
f o r th e h is to r ic a l Jesus,” and w ill s itu a te th e c h ild aphorism w ith in Jesus’ o th e r dom inical
s a y in g s . In th e l i g h t o f fe m in is t s c h o la rs h ip th e se a rc h f o r th e e a r lie s t fo rm o f th e
s a y in g w ill be p re fa c e d by th e r e c o g n itio n o f biases in h e r e n t in th e in te rp re ta tio n s o f
c o n te m p o ra ry and tr a d itio n a l scholarship, and o f those biases in h e re n t in the communities
m a in ta in in g and engendering the Jesus tra d itio n . Moreover, th is study provide y e t another
means o f determ ining th e message o f th e c h ild saying f o r ou r time. The question o f w hether
o r n o t th e s a y in g is indeed e ith e r r e le v a n t o r a p p lic a b le to tw e n tie th c e n tu ry N o rth
America can the n be addressed.
^Moses I. F in le y , A n c ie n t Slavery and Modern Ideology (New York: V ik in g Books, 1980) 9-10.
2 jo h n Dominic Crossan, In Fragments (San Francisco: H arper and Row, 1983) 37, 40.
3T h is p h ra se is ta k e n fro m J o h n D om inic Crossan, "D iv in e Immediacy and Human Im m ediacy,” an u n p u b lish e d p a p e r d e liv e re d a t th e F a ll o f 1985 meeting on the N a tio n a l Seminar on the Sayings o f Jesus, St. Meinrad’s, IN.
*See Norm an P e r r in ’ s The New Testam ent: An In tro d u c tio n (Chicago: H a rc o u rt Brace J o v a n o v ic h , 1974) 281, 282. The c r it e r io n o f d is s im ila r ity is inapplicable to th e recovered m a trix. The environm ental te s t is coupled w ith t h a t o f coherence. For th e rem aining c r ite r ia see M. Eugene B o rin g , "The H is t o r ic a l- C r it ic a l M ethod’ s " C r it e r ia f o r A u t h e n t ic it y ’ ,” Foundations and Facets: Forum i (1985) 7-20.
C h a p t e r One: C h ild in A n t i q u i t y
The s y n o p tic gospels and th e Gos. Thom, c o n ta in view s o f c h ild re n which stand in
s t a r k c o n tr a s t to those im p lic it in Graeco-Roman and Hebrew tra d itio n s o f la te a n tiq u ity .
To u n d e rs ta n d more f u l l y th e r a d ic a l n a tu re o f th e c h ild s a yin g s in these gospels i t
is necessary to s itu a te t h is e a rly t r a d it io n in th e m ilie u x in w h ic h i t orig in a te d . Such
a ta s k w ill in c lu d e v ie w in g b o th th e a c tu a l ro le s w h ic h c h ild r e n occupied in r e lig io n
and society as well as th e re lig io u s fu n c tio n o f “ c h ild ” w ith in various s a lv ific schemas.
A. The Em pire in its D iv e r s ity
The M editerranean w orld o f la te a n tiq u ity was one o f c u ltu ra l and re lig io u s d iv e rs ity ,
m a in ta in in g p lu r a lit y u n d e r th e guise o f p o lit ic a l u n ity . De ju r e Rome ru le d th e n e st
in th e “ sup e rim p o sin g ... Cofl ... Roman g o ve rn m e n t on to p o f n a tiv e g o ve rn m e n t in the
p ro v in c e s o r by re c o g n iz in g a c lie n t k in g .” i in t h is m anner Rome u n ite d th e whole o f
th e M e d ite rra n e a n s e a -b o a rd , th e West (w h ich was it s e lf p rim a rily Roman), and the East
(w h ich in c lu d e d th e G ra e c o -O rie n ta l c iv ilis a tio n s ).? Taxation and the s itu a tin g o f armed
g a rris o n s th r o u g h o u t the Empire e ffected Rome's co n sta n t presence in the lives and minds
o f i t s s u b je c ts . P o litic a l a lle g ia n c e to Rome was reciprocated by the assurance o f Rome's
p ro te c tio n o f the provinces from fo re ig n i n v a s io n .^
De fa c to , how ever, th e d is t in c t iv e fa c e ts o f Roman c iv ilis a tio n were dimmed in the
l i g h t o f th e s o c ia l and re lig io u s elements o f those non-Roman cu ltu re s w ith in the Empire.
I t is notable th a t the d iv e rs ity o f th is e a rly M editerranean w orld is the lo g ic a l consequence
o f the in te ra c tio n o f various cu ltu re s and ideologies upon each other. For
Cwlhen c iv ilis a tio n s a re th u s th r o w n in t o a s in g le ca u ld ro n , the re s u lt o f th e process o f fu s io n is in e v ita b ly d if f e r e n t fro m a ll o r any one o f th e c o n s titu e n t elements, th o u g h i t is probable th a t one, in v irtu e o f its special
5
circum stance o r q u a lity w ill predominate in the composite produ ct.*
G reek c u ltu r e was p re p o n d e ra n t in t h is p lu r a lis t ic w o rld . K oine G reek d o m in a te d , fa r
example, th e fie ld s o f commerce, lit e r a t u r e and in t e r n a t io n a l a f f a i r s . ^ The p o lit ic a lly
conquered became the c u ltu ra l v ic to rs as Greek c u ltu re permeated the Empire.
B u t even given the prom inent Greek influence, d iv e rs ity s t i l l ch a racte rized th e n a tu re
o f th e E m pire. Each p ro v in c e re ta in e d i t s n a tiv e language, and the Roman s ta te re lig io n
fu n ctio n e d alongside n a tiv e cults.&
R e c o g n itio n , a t le a s t in some fo rm , o f th e E m p ire ’ s s ta te re lig io n was fundam ental
to th e e x is te n c e and e ffic a c io u s n e s s o f Roman ru le .^ Roman s ta te r e lig io n d e ifie d it s
“ la w g iv e r.” A c k n o w le d g in g th e v a lid it y o f Rome’ s re lig io u s tr a d itio n in e v ita b ly g ra n te d
the Roman emperor a u th o rity in b o th the social and the p o litic a l spheres.
F lo u r is h in g a lo n g s id e th e Roman s ta te r e lig io n was a m u ltitu d e o f r e lig io n s and
in s t it u t io n s h a v in g ro o ts in c u ltu re s as diverse as those o f Ita ly , Greece, E g y p t and Asia
Minor.B The b e lie fs and p r a c tic e s c u r r e n t in th e H e lle n is tic period, and re le va n t to th is
s tu d y in c lu d e p r iv a te r e lig io n s , th e afo rem entio ned s ta te c u lt, the m ystery re lig io n s and
(enigm atic to the Roman eye) the tr a d itio n o f the Jews.
P r iv a te r e lig io n s were v e ry much c o m p a tib le w it h th e imposed Roman r e lig io n . In
th e G raeco-R om an w o rld such in d iv id u a liz e d b e lie fs g e n e ra lly centered in the home and
“ c o n s is te d in th e w o rs h ip o f household d e itie s , who were expected to p ro te c t the fa m ily
fro m d is a s te r and each member o f th e fa m ily fro m illn e s s .” ? A s tro lo g y , s im ila r ly , was
p r a c tic e d as a p r iv a tiz e d r e li g i o n . ^ Hero w o rs h ip , the d e ific a tio n o f those humans born
w it h in th e d iv in e s ta te (i.e., as a r e s u lt o f an in d is c r e tio n o f the gods), also fu n ctio n e d
in as a p r iv a te r e lig io n , and w ou ld n o t in t e r f e r e w ith a lle g ia n c e to th e Roman s ta te
g o d .il
The C hild Saying - 7 - C hild in A n tiq u ity
M y s te ry r e lig io n s were less re a d ily accepted by Roman a u th o ritie s , as th e ir secretive
p ra c tic e s , and t h e ir a cco m p a n yin g d is h a rm o n y w ith Roman social rules, posed something
o f a t h r e a t . i2 On a g e n e ra l le v e l m y s te ry r e lig io n s are im p o rta n t to th is stud y as they
fu n c tio n e d w it h in th e d iv e rs e r e a lit y o f th e M e d ite rra n e a n w o rld and, a t lea st su b tly,
may have in flu e n c e d th e m ind o f H e lle n is tic in d iv id u a ls . More s p e c ific a lly , however, such
re lig io n s in e vita b le y challenged Roman presuppositions re g a rd in g the place o f "ch ild .”
U nique to th e r e lig io n s o f t h is p e rio d was th e Je w ish in s is te n c e on m onotheism .
Because o f it s unique perception re g a rd in g the d ivin e de stiny o f Israel, Judaism’ s re te n tio n
o f i t s n a tio n a l id e n t it y and r e lig io u s p r a c tic e s p re v e n te d a f u l l assim ila tion o f Roman,
G reek and o th e r N e a r-E a s te rn custom s. 13 Such an in tra c ta b le stance did l i t t l e to endear
th e Je w ish peoples to t h e ir n e ig h b o u rs a m id s t th e r e lig io u s p lu ra lis m o f the Hellenized
w o rld . More im p o r ta n tly f o r th e Romans, th e c o v e n a n t o f th e Jew ish peoples w ith th e ir
God (i.e., Ex 20:20) excluded f u l l p a r t ic ip a t io n in th e re lig io u s -p o litic a l-e c o n o m ic system
o f th e Em pire. A lth o u g h th e Jews were a t tim es th e re c ip ie n ts o f s p e c ia l fa v o u rs , an
uneasy peace existed between th e Empire and th e Jewish peoples. 14
B. Child w ith in A n tiq u ity
I t is v e ry c le a r a t th e b e g in n in g t h a t an y a n a ly s is o f “ c h ild ” in a n t iq u it y m ust
a ckn o w le d g e th e d iv e r s it y o f c u ltu re s and id e o lo g ie s. There were, how ever, common
p e rc e p tio n s w h ic h d ir e c t ly im p in g e d upon th e view o f ch ild re n . Especially s ig n ific a n t to
th is stud y are the concepts o f h o n o r/ shame, p ro g e n itu re , c h a s tity , and the unique v a lu a tio n
o f c h ild r e n fo u n d w it h in Judaism . And th e em phasis on h o n o r / shame and p ro g e n itu re
co u ld v e ry w e ll be a p p lic a b le to in f a n t s , a d o le sce n ts, and a d u lt " c h ild r e n ” w ith in la te
a n tiq u ity ,15
A n h o n o r / shame system and a co n ce rn w ith the b e g e ttin g o f c h ild re n were common
to th e G raeco-R om an and Hebrew c u ltu re s . In the Greek perception o f c h ild c h a s tity was
a p ro m in e n t c o n s id e ra tio n . The h ig h va lu a tio n o f c h ild re n in the Jewish tr a d itio n stands
in s t a r k c o n tr a s t to o th e r tra d itio n s . Each o f these fo u r perceptions c o n trib u te d s tro n g ly
to a vie w o f c h ild re n t h a t accompanied, sometimes complementing and sometimes in c o n tra s t
i
to , th e c o n n o ta tio n s o f weakness, ir r a t io n a lit y , defencelessness and s im p lic ity associated
w ith c h ild re n in a n tiq u ity . ^
i. Honor and Shame
A tte m p tin g to u n d e rs ta n d th e ro le and fu n c tio n o f c h ild r e n w ith in la te a n tiq u ity n e c e s s ita te s f i r s t g le a n in g a v is io n o f fa m ily and social life . Bruce J. Malina in h is study o f th e New Te stam e nt w o rld observes t h a t t h is p e rio d o f la te a n t iq u it y was shaped by th e c u lt u r a l p a tte r n o f h o n o r/ sham e.^ This p a tte rn norm ally exists in a system o f dyadic e r s o n a lity fo rm a tio n wherein th e in d iv id u a l is always seen as p a r t o f a group. P e rso nality, th e n , is d e fin e d in te rm s o f g ro u p e s tim a tio n (honor) and influence in th e group (status). The fu n d a m e n ta l co n ce rn w ith h o n o r lin k s to g e th e r w h a t M a lin a c a lls th e “ b o u n d a ry m a rk e rs " o f power, se xu a l s ta tu s and r e lig io n . Power, e x is tin g in a sym b o lic fo rm , is embodied in “ the a b ility to exercise c o n tro l over the behavior o f o t h e r s . ” ^ Likewise, Malina d e fin e s r e lig io n in te rm s o f power, b u t in c lu d e s in t h is c a te g o ry s o c ia lly a p p ro p ria te “ re s p e c t and homage” due tho se who have v i r t u a l c o n tr o l o ve r one’ s existence. F in a lly , sexual s ta tu s in v o lv e s th e com portm ent and fu n c tio n s demanded o f each gender. A ll three components o f the h o n o r/ shame system were operative in a n tiq u ity ’ s view o f ch ild re n .
A. “Power” and “R eligion”
The emphasis on “ p o w e r-o v e r” was s ig n if ic a n t f o r th e c h ild o f la te a n t iq u it y . D e m a rca tio n s were im p o rta n t f o r the whole o f society, and tra n sgression o f societal order was co n sid e re d a se rio u s crim e. P la to ’ s (428 B.C.E.-347 B.C.E) A th e n ia n s tr a n g e r speaks e lo q u e n tly a g a in s t th e c o n ce p t o f com plete lib e r t y by c it in g th e c a ta s tr o p h ic eve nts
The C h ild S aying - 9 - C hild in A n tiq u ity
generated in a disordered w orld.
CB3ase e f f r o n t e r y ... is b ro u g h t about by a lib e r ty t h a t is audacious to excess ... N ext a ft e r th is fo rm o f lib e r ty would come t h a t w h ich refuses to be s u b je c t to th e r u le r s ; and fo llo w in g on t h a t , th e s h ir k in g o f sub m issio n to one’ s p a re n ts and e ld e rs a n d t h e i r a d m o n itio n s ; th e n , as th e pe n u ltim a te stage, comes th e e f f o r t to d is r e g a r d th e la w s; w h ile th e la s t s ta g e o f a ll is to lose respect f o r oaths and p riv ile g e s o r d iv in itie s .1-9
D is r u p tio n o f o r d e r on one le v e l w o u ld in e v it a b ly th r e a te n th e e x is tin g o rd e r o f o th e r
s o c ia l s t r a t a s , in an a n c ie n t c o r o lla r y o f th e " d o m in o - e ffe c t.” S u bm issio n o f one level
to th e n e x t was p a ra m o u n t f o r th e m a in te n a n c e o f th e econom ic, p o lit ic a l an d s o c ia l
s tru c tu re o f la te a n tiq u ity .
F o c u s s in g more s p e c if ic a lly on fa m ilia l life , David L. Balch re fle c ts t h a t w ith in th is
e ra th e r e e x is te d th r e e fu n d a m e n ta l r e la t io n a l h o u se h o ld p a ir s , th o s e o f m aster-slave,
h u s b a n d -w ife and p a r e n t - c h i l d . 2 0 in th e p a re n t-c h ild dyad th e place o f th e c h ild ra n ke d
lo w e s t. “ P o w e r-o v e r” was th u s g r a n te d to th e p a r e n t, w h ile th e r e lig io u s d u ty o f th e
c h ild in c lu d e d such a ttitu d e s and behaviours as submission, obeisence, ho nou r and respect,
e tc . E a ch p a r t y o f th e re s p e c tiv e h o u se h o ld p a ir s was e n jo in e d to rem em ber h is / h e r
a p p r o p r ia te pla ce. The in te rd e p e n d e n t n a tu r e o f the se va rio u s dyads is e x h ib ite d in the
fo llo w in g c ita tio n o f Stobaeus, who opines,
We have s u m m a rily show n how we o u g h t to c o n d u c t o u rs e lv e s to w a rd o u r k in d r e d , h a v in g b e fo re t a u g h t how we sh o u ld a c t to w a rd s o u rs e lv e s , ou r p a ren ts, and b ro th e rs , and besides those, tow a rds o u r w ife and c h ild re n
.21-In t h is l i g h t , th e num erous e x h o r ta tio n s o f t h is p e rio d , addressed to b o th c h ild re n and
p a ren ts, emphasizing th e im portance each p a r ty ’ s respective place, come n o t as a s u r p r i s e . 2 2
I t is n o ta b le t h a t in a n t iq u it y th e degree to w hich p a re n ts had “ p o w er-o ver” th e ir
c h ild r e n was o fte n a p o in t o f debate. On one extrem e c h ild r e n were e x h o rte d “ to obey
p a re n ts even i f the p a re n t ... Cwerel... insane.” 22 H ierocles lin k s p a re n ts w ith th e gods.
A ll c h ild r e n , even a d u lt c h ild r e n , a re to h o n o r t h e ir p a re n ts as gods, p r o v id in g food,
a bed, s le e p in g q u a rte rs , u n c tio n s , a b a th and a g a r m e n t .2 4 Dionysius o f Halicarnassus,
w r it in g in th e A u g u s ta n p e rio d , observes t h a t even the Roman ju d ic ia l system could n o t
in t e r f e r e in th e r ig h t s o f pow er o f a f a t h e r o v e r his son. Describing the death sentence
o f a f a t h e r upon h is “ r e c a lc it r a n t ” p ro g e n y , D io n ysiu s re la te s t h a t “ none p re s e n t Cin
th e F o rum l, n e ith e r co n su l, tr ib u n e , n o r th e v e ry populace, w hich was fla tte re d by them
and th o u g h t a ll pow er in f e r i o r to i t s own, co u ld rescue them .” 25 a p a re n t, in a c tu a l
f a c t th e f a t h e r , had f u l l r ig h t s o v e r th e d e s tin y o f th e c h ild . Such pow er existed n o t
only d u rin g childhood b u t extended in to adulthood.
B u t th e la w g iv e r o f th e Romans g iv e v i r t u a l l y f u l l pow er to th e f a t h e r o v e r h is son, even d u r in g h is whole lif e , w h e th e r he th o u g h t p ro p e r to im p ris o n him a t w o rk in th e fie ld s , o r to p u t him to d e a th , and th is even though th e son were already engaged in pu b lic affairs.2 6
N o t unexpected, th e n , is th e ro le o f th e fa th e r - v e n d o r . Dionysius o f H alicarnuss relates
c e r ta in c irc u m s ta n c e s w h ic h o b v ia te th e r i g h t o f the fa th e r to use h is c h ild re n as legal
te n d e r, n o tin g t h a t , “ ( i) f a f a t h e r g ive s h is son leave to m a rry a woman who by th e
la w is to be s h a re r o f h is sa cre d r ig h t s and possessions, he s h a ll no lo n g e r have th e
pow er o f s e llin g h is son.” 27 Thus th e e x te n t o f th e f a t h e r ’ s pow er o v e r h is c h ild r e n
s tre tc h e d beyond c h ild h o o d , and in c lu d e d d e te rm in in g th e r i g h t o f his d a ugh ter o r son
to live.28
In th e e s ta b lis h e d s o c ia l la d d e r o f la te a n t iq u it y c h ild r e n were re le g a te d to the
lo w e s t ru n g s . I t is in t h is re s p e c t t h a t th e syno ptic pericopae w ith w hich we are dealing
seem most a t odds w ith t h e ir e n v iro n m e n t. M ost s t r i k i n g l y d if f e r e n t is M ark 9:33-37 in
w h ic h c h ild r e n ’ s s ta tu s is a p p a r e n tly e le va te d s ig n if ic a n t ly over adults. This elevation
sta n d s in im m ediate c o n tr a s t to th e “ p o w e r-o v e r” system d e scribe d as p e rv a s iv e o f
antiquity.29
The C hild S aying - 11 - C hild in A n tiq u ity
B. “Sexual S ta tu s ”
The f i n a l c a te g o ry proposed by M alina, t h a t o f sexual s ta tu s is im p lic itly applicable
to th e p la ce o f th e c h ild in la t e - a n t iq u it y . I t is a p p a re n t t h a t th r o u g h th e o p tic o f
a p a t r ia r c h a l c u ltu r e , th e v a lu in g o f males o v e r fem ales has s tr o n g r a m ific a tio n s f o r
im p o rta n c e o f a c h ild ’ s gender, and h is / h e r subsequent r ig h ts to education, to in h e rita n c e ,
e tc. F u rth e rm o re , th e g e n d e r o f th e c h ild was o f co n sid e ra tio n in regards to the absolute
r ig h t o f the p a re n t to decide w he ther o r n o t a c h ild would live.
L in e a g e w it h in p a t r ia r c h a l system s is c a r r ie d th r o u g h th e male. The th re e m a jo r
t r a d it io n s r e le v a n t to t h is s tu d y o f c h ild r e n , Roman, Greek and Jewish, fu n c tio n w ith in
th is s tru c tu re . The tr a d itio n a l view o f Judaism, however, is n o t p a tria rc h a l, b u t m a trilin e a l.
In la te a n t iq u it y th e lin e s o f fa m ily h e rita g e , (i.e., land, name) were c a rrie d th ro u g h male
p ro g e n y . Indeed such in h e r ita n c e p ro c e e d in g s would re s u lt in a s tro n g e r v a lu in g o f male
c h ild r e n w it h in an econom ic, s o c ia l and p o litic a l realm. The p ra c tic e o f in fa n tic id e makes
most a p p a re n t the d e valua tion o f female c h ild re n .
The p r a c tic e o f “ c a s tin g o u t” one’ s c h ild in v o lv e d le a v in g a n e w b o rn to i t s own
devices, a b a n d o n in g i t in th e w ild w here s h e / ha w ou ld die o f s t a r v a t io n , exposure, o r
as th e p re y o f same w ild animal. This custom was so widespread th a t an E g y p tia n la b o u re r
H ila r ia n ( c ir c a i B. C. E.) w r i t i n g to h is p r e g n a n t w ife e x h o rts , “I beg and e n tre a t you,
ta k e c a re o f th e l i t t l e one ... I f by chance you b e a r a c h ild , i f i t is a boy, le t i t be;
i f i t is a g ir l, ca st i t ou t ... ” 30
H a n s-R e u d i Weber co n clude s t h a t a lth o u g h c u ltic motives may have been in flu e n tia l
upon c h ild exposure, i t was p o v e rty t h a t w o u ld have d ic ta te d such a p r a c tic e .^ * Many
liv e d on a s u b siste n ce le v e l. I t is even p o ssib le t h a t the devaluing o f progeny, re s u ltin g
in low p o p u la tio n g r o w th , may a lso have c o n tr ib u te d to th e p ra c tic e . A lth o u g h some o f
th e Caesars e n courage d fa m ilie s to b e a r c h ild re n , exposure o f c h ild re n , especially female
children, was nonetheless p r a c tic e d .^
A t a v e ry e a r ly age g e n d e r c o u ld be th e d e te rm in a n t in one’ s r i g h t to existence,
and a t th e v e ry le a s t, to the q u a lity o f lif e lead w ith in a fa m ilia l s e ttin g . The phenomenon
o f v a lu in g sons o v e r d a u g h te rs is common to a ll th r e e m a jo r r e lig io u s a n d c u lt u r a l
t r a d it io n s a fo r e m e n tio n e d .^ i t is n o ta b le t h a t in th e c h ild passages w h ic h we w ill be
c o n s id e rin g th e issue o f g e n d e r is n o t a c o n c e rn . The c h ild re n o f th e syn o p tics and the
c h ild o f Thomas are n o t named as e ith e r male o r female. In a m ilieu which atta ch e s value
to gender the pericopae in question again present an element o f c o n tra s t.
2. Progeniture
The presence o f th e system o f h o n o r/ shame, marked by the vario us aspects o f power,
r e lig io n , and se xu a l s ta tu s , is a x io m a tic to th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f c h ild w ith in a n tiq u ity .
L in k e d w it h t h is m e n ta lity was th e c o n c e rn w it h re p ro d u c tio n , an issue w h ic h a ffe c ts
each and e v e ry cu ltu re . The h a rs h re a litie s o f a h ig h ra te o f in fa n t m o rta lity , innum erable
w a rs, an u n p re d ic ta b le e n v iro n m e n t and lik e f a c t o r s threatene d n o t only th e q u a lity o f
lif e , b u t th e c o n tin u a n c e o f l i f e it s e lf . A nd lin k e d to th e p r o d u c tio n o f c h ild r e n was
th e in t e r - g e n e r a t io n a l m a in te n a n c e o f a socio-economic and p o litic a l system. P ro g e n itu re
was th e r e fo r e c u lt u r a lly im p o r ta n t in re g a rd s to id e o lo g ic a l (i.e., econom ic, p o lit ic a l,
re lig io u s) p e rp e tu ity .
The issue o f p r o g e n itu r e in a n t iq u it y is one o f c o n tr a s ts . P o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e
a t t it u d e s to w a rd th e b e g e ttin g o f c h ild r e n s ta n d side by side. Furtherm ore, an analysis
o f t h is issue n e c e s s ita te s view ing the to p ic on b o th fa m ilia l, social, economic and p o litic a l
levels.
F ir s t , cn a communal and fa m ilia l level the c h ild re n o f an a g ra ria n community would
o b v io u s ly c o n tr ib u te tc the economic p ro s p e rity o f th e ir k in d re d th ro u g h such d a ily ta sks
The C hild Saying - 13 - C hild in A n tiq u ity
as f ie ld la b o u r. Second, w it h in th e fa m ilia l sphere, re p ro d u c tio n was s ig n ific a n t as an
in s u ra n c e p o lic y f o r p a re n ts , who w ould eve ntu ally reach a p o in t o f economic in ca p a city.
C h ild re n e x is te d , th e n , as th e H e lle n is tic e q u iv a le n t to a c o n te m p o ra ry pe nsion p la n
in s ta llm e n t. A nd f i n a l ly as previou sly implied male progeny were im p o rta n t as descendence
was tra ce d th ro u g h the sons.
V a rio u s w o rk s o f t h is p e rio d a llu d e to th e p o litic a l n a tu re o f progeny. W ith r a th e r
r e lig io u s o v e rto n e s , and im p lic it ly p o lit ic a l, is a p e titio n in Hymns o f Horace (65 B.C.E.-B
C.E.). The s u p p lic a n ts a n tic ip a te th e gods’ g ra n tin g o f fe c u n d ity , and "p ra y to be p r o lific
in new o f f s p r in g . ” 34 E x e m p lify in g th e p o lit ic a l fu n c tio n o f progeny was the phenomenon
o f Roman le a d e rs g r a n t in g p ro v is io n s to th o se p r o l i f i c in th e b e a rin g o f c h ild r e n . A t
th e b e g in n n in g o f th e Im p e ria l p e rio d (a p p ro x im a te ly 3 i B.C.E.) S u e to n iu s (70-130 C.E.)
observes t h a t in th e Im p e ria l p e rio d “ ... to th o se o f th e commons who co u ld la y cla im
to le g itim a te sons o r d a u g h te rs when he [A u g u s tu s ] made h is ro u n d s he d is tr ib u te d a
th o u s a n d se ste rce s f o r each c h ild .” 35 L a te r, u n d e r H a d ria n (76-138 C. E.), c h ild re n were
a g a in th e cause o f a d d itio n a l a p p r o p r ia tio n s made to fam ilies.36 S im ila rly , various te x ts
t e s t if y to th e p r a c tic e o f g r a n t in g sums o f monies to ne w ly fou nd ed in s t it u t io n s f o r
o rp h a n e d boys and g ir ls who liv e d on th e stre e ts.3 7 T h e success o f the Empire, in bo th
a c u lt u r a l and an econom ic sense, depended on it s c o n tin u a tio n fro m one g e neration to
the next,
O f course, n o t a ll re g a rd e d c h ild r e n as a blessing. From a somewhat e a rlie r period,
th e im p o rta n c e o f p ro g e n y is c o n te s te d by P ro p e rtiu s , who su g g e sts t h a t c h ild re n are
the lea st desirable consequence o f love.
How sh o u ld I f u r n is h c h ild r e n to swell our c o u n try ’ s trium phs? ... Thou only ple a se st me; le t me in lik e m anner, C y n th ia , be th y only pleasure: love such as th is w ill be w o rth more to me th a n the name o f fa th e r.” 38
In a s im ila r v e in , H esiod (c. 700 B. C. E.) o p in e s t h a t “ (t)h e re sh o u ld o n ly be one son,
to feed h is fa th e r ’ s house ... ” f o r “ more hands mean more w o rk and more increase.” 39
P e rh a p s m ost t e llin g o f th e a t t it u d e s c o n c e rn in g p ro g e n y , s p e c ific a lly w ith in th e
e lite o f Roman s o c ie ty , are th e statem ents o f Suetonius con ce rn in g A ugustus’ p ro h ib itio n s
o f c e lib a c y . Because o f th e dangerous decline in b ir t h - r a te s amongst the S e n a to ria l class
A u g u s tu s e n fo rc e d la w s e x p e llin g in d iv id u a ls fro m th e Roman a ris to c ra c y on the grounds
o f n o t p ro d u cin g children.40
C o n ce rn w it h p ro g e n y a p p e a rs t o have been, a t le a s t on one le v e l, o f a p o lit ic a l
n a tu re . I t is as e q u a lly o b v io u s t h a t c h ild r e n w ere n o t c o n s is te n tly perceived as assets,
e ith e r p o lit ic a l, in d iv id u a l, s o c ia l o r economic, to th e developing Empire. The general la c k
o f
in te r e s t
in th e b e g e ttin g o f c h ild r e n , c e r t a in ly a p p a re n t w ith in th e Roman n o b ility ,is in d ic a te d by th e low b ir t h ra te in the S e n a to ria l class. And irre s p e c tiv e o f th e motives,
th e phenom enon o f in f a n t ic id e (v ia c h ild exposure) leads to th e conclusion t h a t c h ild re n
as progeny were n o t an absolute value.
In c o n c lu s io n , c o n c e rn w it h p r o g e n itu r e m a rke d a n tiq u ity ’ s view o f c h ild re n . Many
p e rc e p tio n s r e g a r d in g th e n e c e s s ity o f c h ild p r o d u c tio n r e fle c t va rio u s p o litic a l, social
and econom ic sta n c e s . I t is s ig n if ic a n t t h a t in re g a rd s to th e issue o f progeny c h ild re n
a re va lu e d (o r n o n -v a lu e d , as th e case may be) n o t in and o f them selves, b u t f o r th e ir
c o n t r ib u t io n to th e m a in te n a n c e o f a predeterm ined system. And again th e s yn o p tics and
Thomas a re a t v a r ia n c e w it h th e emphases o f la te a n t iq u it y . N ow here w ith in th e te x ts
is th e re evid ence t h a t th e c h ild r e n are valued merely as progeny. In fa c t, th e re are h in ts
t h a t even b e h in d th e te x t s lie s a h ig h re g a r d f o r c h ild r e n t h a t c a n n o t be dism issed
as o f mere e d ito ria l na ture .
C o - e x is tin g w it h th e common c u ltu r a l concern w ith progeny are v a ry in g perceptions
The Child Saying - 15 - Child in A n tiq u ity
o f c h ild r e n o r ig in a t in g fro m th e d is p a ra te re lig io n s o f th e H ellenized world. Two such
p o in ts o f d ive rge nce are pre e m in e n t in la te a n tiq u ity . F ir s t, from Greek cu ltu re can be
fo u n d an emphasis on c h a s tity w h ic h pervades th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f c h ild sp e cifica lly
w ith in a s a lv ific schema. And second, from w ith in Hebrew tra d itio n is a fundamental valuing
o f ch ild re n which were signs o f the Covenant, and were in tr in s ic a lly o f worth.
3. C h a stity and the Greeks
R eferences to c h a s tity pervade re p o rts o f the religious schemas o f the early Greeks.
C u ltic p ra c tic e s in v o lv e d f a c ilit a t io n o f r it e s perform ed only by those who were chaste.
A r th u r Darby Nock o ffe rs the explanation th a t “the ancients believed th a t numerous sacred
fu n c tio n s cou ld o n ly be pe rform ed by one who was q u a lifie d f o r them by p e rfe c t
c o n tin e n ce .” 4 i s uch s tr in g e n t requirem ents fo r c u ltic m in is try led to the appointment o f
v e s ta l v ir g in s , to th e s e lf- m u tila t io n o f eunuchs, to th e te m p o ra ry vows o f abstinence
made by husbands or wives, and fin a lly , to the employment o f pre-puberts in the m in is te ria l
realm.42
----I t is s ig n if ic a n t t h a t t h is emphasis on c h a s tity does n o t d e riv e fro m a s c r ip tio n
o f g o d ly powers to p u r ity . R a th e r, th e G reek view o f c h a s tity was founded in an
a n th ro p o lo g y th a t regarded sexual intercourse as im p u re.43 Qn e res u lt o f such a perception
was the p ra ctice o f tem porary continence o f m arried persons d u rin g specific sacred seasons,
d u rin g w a r and d u rin g sacred a cts. And perhaps most s ig n if ic a n t in th is m entality fo r
an a p p re c ia tio n o f i t s r a m ific a tio n s upon c h ild re n is th e p e rc e p tio n th a t “(a)bstinence
helps people to approach the deity.” 44
What N ock observes as th e “ n e g a tiv e c h a s tity o f th e eunuch,” fin d s c o n tr a s t in
th e more p o s itiv e p u r it y fo u n d in b o th th e c h ild and th e virg in .^® The v ir g in and the
pure c h ild are n o t considered as sexual abstainers, b u t e xist in a p rim o rd ia lly uncorrupted
s e x u a l s ta te . The eunuch, on th e o th e r h a n d , has had to tr a n s fo r m h im s e lf to a t t a in
such p u r ity .4^ I t is notable, however, t h a t n e ith e r th e c h ild n o r th e eunuch received respect
c o m p a ra b le w it h t h a t g iv e n to a v i r g i n p rie s te s s . On one h a n d th e le g itim a c y o f th e
s ta te o f th e v i r g i n was c o n s is te n t w it h more a n c ie n t G re e k p r a c tic e s . The c h a s tity o f
th e p r e - p u b e r t an d th e s e lf-m a d e eu nuch , on th e o th e r , was p ro b a b ly seen by a number
o f G re e ks as an a lie n im p o r ta tio n in t o p ro p e r r e lig io u s custom s, as i t d id n o t h a rk s n
ba ck to a n c ie n t Greek tr a d itio n .4^
The m in is t e r ia l fu n c tio n s o f c h ild r e n w ith in the c u lt v a rie d from re lig io u s begging
to p e rfo rm a n c e o f s a c r a l r it e s in c lu d in g s e r v ile d u tie s , in te rc e s s o ry processions, r it u a l
c le a n s in g and s u p p lic a tio n s to th e gods.48 An example o f c h ild re n ’ s p a rtic ip a tio n is found
in T a c itu s ’ H is to rie s in w hich he lim ns one fa c e t o f th e ceremony in vo lve d in th e re s to ra tio n
o f th e C a p ito l. “ (T)hen th e V e s ta ls , acco m pa nied b y boys and g i r l s whose f a t h e r s and
m o th e rs w ere liv in g , s p r in k le d th e area w ith w a te r draw n fro m fo u n ta in s and streams.” 4®
Iam blichus notes t h a t
... boys w ere m ost d e a r to th e d iv in ity , and hence in times o f g re a t d ra u g h t
th e y were s e n t to c itie s to im p lo re r a in fro m th e Gods, in consequence o f th e p e rs u a s io n t h a t th e d i v i n i t y is e s p e c ia lly a tte n tiv e to c h ild re n ... From
t h is cause a lso , th e m ost p h ila n t h r o p ic o f th e Gods, A p o llo and Love, are u n iv e rs a lly represented as h a v in g th e age o f boys.” 5D
I t is n o te w o rth y and somewhat p e rp le xin g t h a t in these a n c ie n t c u lts one p re re q u is ite
to a c h ild ’ s p a r t ic ip a t io n was th e s t ip u la t io n t h a t h is /h e r p a re n ts be liv in g . This fin d s
ample a tte s ta tio n th ro u g h o u t a n c ie n t lite ra tu re .^ *
In y e t o th e r c u ltic m in is trie s c h ild re n fu n c tio n e d as priestesses and p rie sts. Fausanias
w r ite s t h a t “ <t)he p rie s te s s is a m aiden, who h o ld s o f f ic e u n t i l she re a ch e s th e age to
m a r r y . ” 5 2 The f a c t o r o f m a rria g e was an im p o r ta n t r e lig io u s a n d s o c ia l b o u n d a ry fo r
the Greeks o f th e c u ltu s, and th u s received special emphasis. C atu llu s scribes,
The C hild Saying - 17 - C hild in A n tiq u ity
Under Diana’s care are we, g ir ls and boys unm arried. Of Diana le t us sing
unm arried g ir ls and boys,55
M u ltip le a tt e s ta t io n s p o in t to th e d e m a rc a tio n betw een th e p re p u b e s c e n t c u lt ic
m in is te r an d th e fo rm e r, m a rria g e a b le m in is te r. P ausa nias (c ir c a second c e n tu r y C.E.)
observes t h a t “ (t)h e p r ie s t o f A th e n a is a boy: I do n o t kn o w how lo n g h is p rie s th o o d
la s ts , b u t i t m ust be b e fo re , n o t a f t e r , p u b e r ty .” 5* The male c h ild could be p rie s t u n til
h is e n tra n c e in t o p u b e rty , o r c o llo q u ia lly , u n t i l “ th e b e a rd began t o g ro w .” 55 H is
c o u n te r p a r t, th e fem ale c h ild is as w e ll n o t e lig ib le f o r p rie s te s s h o o d upon re a ch in g a
m a rria g e a b le age. P resum ably t h is w ould be m a rked by h e r e n tra n c e in to pu b e rty, most
p ro b a b ly s ig n a lle d by m enarche. In th e eye o f th e a n c ie n t Greeks the im portance o f the
d is t in c t io n between prepubescence and a d u lth o o d m ust n o t be u n d e re s tim a te d . T h is
dem arcation has ra m ific a tio n s w ith in bo th a re lig io u s and a social realm.
C o n s id e rin g th e em phasis on sexu al p u r it y , i t is som ewhat p a ra d o x ic a l t h a t “ the
pu re c h ild o r maiden a p pea rs in cerem onies in te n d e d to prom o te f e r t i l i t y . ” 56
N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e im p o rta n c e o f c h a s tity to the Greeks, i t is apparent t h a t fe c u n d ity
o ffe re d a ttra c tio n s th a t were, i f n o t sim ila r, a t le a st as p o te n t as a lif e o f sexual “ p u r ity .”
P erhaps th e c o n t r a s t . between a p re p u b e sce n t s ta te and a p o t e n t ia lly f e r t i l e one,
e n co u n te re d in th e concern w ith prepubescent priests/esses, p o in ts to the two in s titu tio n s
o f r e lig io n and fa m ily lif e . The demands o f both in s titu tio n s are served by the pervasive
emphasis on sexuality.
As has been d e m o n s tra te d th e m e ta p h o r o f c h a s tity f o r c h ild re n fu n c tio n e d w ith in
-he a n c ie n t G re e k’ s s a lv if ic schema, as c h ild re n m e taph orica lly and lit e r a lly embodied the
s e x u a lly u n s u llie d . C h ild re n as th e em bodim ent o f c h a s t it y were co n sid e re d to be more
o u ltic a lly e ffica cio u s in th e ir su p p lica tio n o f the gods th a n were those who were sexually
im pure. On a v e ry obvious le v e l, because o f t h e ir prepubescent state, c h ild re n were most
d if f e r e n t ia t e d fro m tho se able to f u l l y p a r ta k e in c o itu s . S exual p u r it y was c u ltic a lly
im p o r ta n t f o r g ir ls and boys, r a t h e r th a n f o r babes o r to d d le rs . No d o u b t th is was a t
lea st due p a r tia lly , and p ra g m a tic a lly , to the demands o f ritu a ls .
I t is n o ta b le th a t the mainstream C h ris tia n tr a d itio n did n o t absorb the Greek c u ltic
e le v a tio n o f c h ild r e n v ia c h a s tity . Y et in th e Gos. Thom, is re ve a le d a s im ila r in te re s t
in c h a s t it y and c h ild r e n . L ik e th e r e lig io u s t r a d it io n s o f th e e a rly G reeks we can see
in Thomas th e te n d e n cy to a s s o c ia te c h ild r e n w ith p u r it y . In f a c t , i t is in t h is gospel
t h a t c h ild r e n are lin k e d w ith a s e x u a lity . Thomas uses th is association w ith in a s a lv ific
schema and Thomas f u r t h e r s th e s ig n if ic a t io n o f c h ild from those sexually pure to those
who are asexual.
4. The Hebrew V a lu in g o f C hildren
The second re le v a n t elem ent e n co u n te re d in the w ritin g s o f a n tiq u ity which stands
alone can be tra c e d to th e Hebrew t r a d it io n o f th e v a lu in g o f c h ild r e n , w h ic h may be
lin k e d to th e problem s o f s u r v iv a l o f a small nomadic trib e . A ris in g o u t o f th is v a lu a tio n
o f l i f e was th e p e rc e p tio n o f c h ild r e n as g i f t o f God.57 This moral stance most probably
has a s tr o n g b a sis in th e c o v e n a n t b in d in g God to Is ra e l, where c h ild r e n were to be
a s ig n o f th e f a ith fu ln e s s o f God.58 The v a rio u s haggadic tra d itio n s re g a rd in g c h ild re n
a re in d ic a tiv e o f th e s tr o n g l i n k between th e presence o f c h ild re n and the commitment
o f God. For example, R. Judah w rite s
The S a n h e d rin were e x ile d b u t th e S h e ch in a h [ S p i r i t o f God] d id n o t go in t o e x ile w ith them. The p r ie s t ly w a tch e s were e x ile d b u t th e Shechinah d id n o t go in t o e x ile w it h them . When, how ever, th e l i t t l e c h ild r e n were exiled, the Shechinah went in to exile w ith th em .5 9
I t is n o t improbable th a t th e ap o ca lyp tic metaphor o f reversal is h in te d a t in th is midrash,
n o r t h a t th e m id ra s h i t s e l f is de void o f r h e t o r ic a l purpose. B u t germ ane to th is study
The C hild Saying - 19 - Child in A n tiq u ity
is th e v e ry f a c t t h a t “ th e l i t t l e c h ild r e n ” a re c lo s e ly lin k e d w ith th e S h e ch in a h . The
God o f Isra el and c h ild re n are fo re v e r bound in the Covenant.
These v a lu a tio n s o f c h ild r e n have s o c ia l m a n ife s ta tio n s . I t is n o t s u p ris in g th a t
in th e eyes o f f i r s t c e n tu r y C.E. Jews, a b o rtio n , in fa n tic id e and b ir t h c o n tro l were seen
as m o rally a b h a rre n t.6^ The social im p lica tio n s o f th is sta n d p o in t, are, however, in s tr in k in g
c o n tr a s t to th e p r a c tic e s o f th e m a jo r it y o f th e Hellenized world. A lth o u g h the “c a s tin g
o u t” o f c h ild r e n was by no means uncommon in a n t iq u it y , th e Hebrew peoples’ assertion
o f th e v a lu in g o f c h ild r e n p ro h ib ite d such measures. T acitus w rite s th a t the Jews “re g a rd
i t as a crime to k i l l any la te -b o rn c h ild .” 6 i
I t is s ig n if ic a n t t h a t Jews d id n o t p r a c tic e in fa n tic id e even upon th e ir daughters,
as t h e ir c o n te m p o ra rie s were w o n t. T h is f a c t does n o t im p ly t h a t fem ale c h ilr e n were
o f equal o r g r e a te r va lu e th a n t h e ir male c o u n te rp a rts . P h ilo o f A le x a n d ria (30 B.C.E.-
40 C.E.), a H e lle n ize d Jew whom B a lc h d e scrib e s as “ th e Je w ish s ta tu s quo,” was more
th a n w illin g , f o r example, to a s s e rt th e im p o rta n c e o f th e male c h ild o v e r h is fem ale
c o u n t e r p a r t . ^ A lth o u g h d e n ig r a tio n o f fem ale c h ild r e n d id o c c u r, t h a t the y were even
g r a n te d th e p o s s ib ility o f l i f e is s ig n if ic a n t . This g u a rd in g and va lu in g o f lif e was also
fo u n d w it h in th e realm o f p re g n a n c y . The p o s s ib lity o f m is c a rria g e was recognized and
women were admonished to ta k e measures g u a rd in g a g a in s t such an o c c u r e n c e .6^
The Jewish tr a d itio n o f the v a lu in g c h ild re n is s ig n ific a n t f o r th is study. The unusual
sta n c e o f th e H e lle n ize d Jews speaks f o r th e m a in te n a n ce o f t h e ir t r a d it io n when the
p r a c tic e o f in f a n t ic id e may have been expedient.64 Of course, c h ild re n were tr a d itio n a lly
im p o r ta n t w it h in Je w ish h is to r y . The r o o ts o f th e Jews were s tr o n g ly lin k e d to t h a t
s m a ll band o f C a n a a n ite s s t r u g g lin g to s u rv iv e , and to th e la te r Tribes o f Isra e l w hich
eked o u t t h e ir e x is te n c e in a s im ila rly harsh w orld. C hildren h is to ric a lly ensured s u rv iv a l
o f th e ra ce. Nonetheless, th e re is ample testim ony to the tem pta tions to in fa n tic id e o ffe re d
th e Jews o f a n tiq u ity .
5. C hildren as D e ficien t
I t was, o f course, common in a ll th re e t r a d it io n s f o r c h ild r e n to be d e s c rib e d in
te rm s o f in t e lle c t u a l d e fic ie n c y . No d o u b t t h is was a t le a s t p a r t ia lly due to th e h ig h
premium pla ced on r a t io n a lit y . C h ild re n were co n sid e re d as m entally la c k in g . S a tiriz in g
th e s u p e r s titio u s n a tu re o f some c u lt ic r itu a ls , P rudentius (c. 348- c. 405 C. E.) symbolizes
the u n th in k in g n a tu re o f s u p e rs titio n v is a vis a child. He begins his argum ent thus:
The l i t t l e one had looked a t a fig u re in the shape o f Fortune ... and watched h is m other pale-faced in p ra y e r before i t . Then, raised on h is nurses’ shoulder, he to o pressed h is lip s to th e f l i n t , and ru b b e d i t , a skin g f o r riches from a sig h tle ss stone, and convinced t h a t a ll wishes must be sought from th e n c e .6 5
I t is p e rh a p s in th e P a u lin e w o rk s t h a t are most re a d ily found d e ro g a to ry allusions
to th e assumed s im p lic ity o f ch ild re n . Ephesians 4:14 notes how easily swayed are ch ild re n .
P aul a lso e x h o rts th e C o r in th ia n c h u rc h to “ n o t be c h ild r e n (iratSCa) in yo u r th in k in g ;
be babes (vnfftdcCebv) in e v il b u t in t h in k in g be m a tu re ” (l C or 14:20a, RSV).66 P a u l’ s
d e n e g ra tio n o f c h ild r e n fin d s im m ediate c o n tr a s t in th e Q t e x t 10:21-22 in w hich babes
(here vqTiCous) a re tho se to whom w ill be re ve a le d th e s e c re ts o f the kingdom. The place
o f h o n o r g iv e n to c h ild r e n in th e e a rly s a y in g s m a te ria l has disappeared in the Pauline
corpus. R ather, Paul’ s view is lik e t h a t o f h is contemporaries.
A c h ild ’ s d e fic ie n c ie s extend beyond the realm o f the ra tio n a l. C hildren were th o u g h t
to have no sense o f jo y o r s u ff e r in g , and even w ha t a t f i r s t blush appears to be p o sitive
p e rc e p tio n s o f c h ild re n in Jewish c u ltu re re fle c ts , upon fu r th e r exposure, views o f c h ild re n
a k in to th e m a jo r it y o f th o se o f la te a n t i q u i t y . 6 7 s u c h view s e ffe c te d c h ild r e n b e in g
viewed as im m a tu re a d u lts , as e x e m p lifie d in th e a r t o f t h is p e r io d .6 8 p i a t o (c, 429-347
B.C.E.) w r ite s " o f a ll w ild yo u n g th in g s a boy is th e m ost d i f f i c u l t to h a n d le ... (H)e is
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