theRepository at St. Cloud State
Culminating Projects in Education Administration and LeadershipDepartment of Educational Leadership and Higher Education
11-2015
The Impact of Parent Involvement Practices in
Special Education Programs
Bilal A. Dameh
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Recommended Citation
Dameh, Bilal A., "The Impact of Parent Involvement Practices in Special Education Programs" (2015). Culminating Projects in
Education Administration and Leadership. 11.
The Impact of Parent Involvement Practices in Special Education Programs
by
Bilal Abdelfattah Dameh
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
St. Cloud State University
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree
Doctor of Education in
Educational Administration and Leadership
November, 2015
Dissertation Committee: John Eller, Chairperson
Janine Dahms-Walker Kay Worner Roger Worner
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the Special Education coordinators’ and directors’ perceptions of current parent involvement practices in special education programs provided to Special Education students at select Minnesota online elementary schools. There
were seven Special Education directors and coordinators of Minnesota online elementary
schools interviewed for this study.
The literature review revealed a lack of published information related to parent
involvement framework in the area of special education in both traditional and online schools.
Several articles reviewed by the researcher referred to Epstein's Six Types of Involvement
Framework. Therefore, this comparative case study used Epstein's Six Types of Involvement
as a framework.
The findings revealed strong parent involvement practices related to decision-making,
learning at home, and communications. The findings also detailed that parent involvement in
parenting, volunteering, and collaborating with community were not viewed as strong
practices.
Epstein’s framework was designed with traditional schools in mind. It presented valuable suggestions that can be implemented in both general and special education programs
offered in brick and mortar schools. But, this framework needed to be revised to
accommodate the modality of online schools and how they offer services to students with
special needs.
The findings also divulged the following challenges: parents’ understanding of the content and nature of online education, the responsibility of the parent to serve as a learning
truancy issues, challenges in communication with select parents, challenges in obtaining
services provided by the student’s home district, time management problems related to students’ login and assignment completion, and parents’ feelings of intimidations by school staff.
This research study revealed the following challenges related to online education and
parent involvement: communication struggles between school and families, the availability of
required services for special needs students, and the understanding of what online education
truly is.
Finally, the findings highlighted advantages of customizing learning materials to fit
students’ needs, the ease with which enrollment occurs, the provision of informative orientation that included parents’ training, and teachers’ advocacy for students with special needs.
Acknowledgements
This was a journey with many ups and downs.
But thank God, it ended up being a remarkable experience.
Many thanks to:
My wonderful wife, who is so gentle, yet so strong.
Without your support, I won’t be who I am.
Alharith who I cannot wait for him to grow,
so I can teach you everything I know.
Shaheen who brought a purpose for my life.
I will fight your battles until you can.
Cohort four colleagues, professors, and committee,
who always made me feel I belong.
My parents and other mentors through the years,
I hope that I made you proud.
A Special Thanks to
Professors Kay and Roger Worner for their support, and critique, through this journey.
My co-researcher, William DeWitt for all his support, collaboration, and motivation.
My colleague Durwin Hermanson for introducing Epstein's Framework.
Inspiration for the Study
Five years ago, my youngest son was diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder
(ASD). Since then life has had a new meaning. Every member of my family has faced many
ups and downs with this journey, but together we managed to get through every challenge and
celebrated every progress. Inspired by my wife’s change of career to help kids with ASD, I got more involved in my son’s education in both private and public services providers. My involvement led to both satisfied and frustrated conversations with many service providers. I
was an involved dad who found an opportunity of using technology and online resources that
improved my son’s learning and behaviors.
This inspired me to learn more about students with ASD and services that improve
their education. I wanted to know how technology would improve those services. Likewise, I
needed to know my rights as a parent and how I could get involved.
Disclosure
The methodology and instruments for data collection in this study were written and
designed in conjunction with another researcher. Both researchers are examining components
of parental involvement and online schools, and the participants to be interviewed–as well as
documents to be collected for both researchers’ studies–are located at the same online schools. Thus, both researchers partnered to form a case study team to interview the
participants, collect data, and code participant responses. For further information about the
Table of Contents Chapter Page 1. Introduction ... 9 Problem Statement ... 12 Purpose ... 12 Research Questions ... 12 Conceptual Framework ... 13
Significance of the Study ... 13
Delimitations ... 14
Assumptions ... 14
Definition of Terms ... 15
Organization of the Study ... 18
2. Review of Related Literature ... 20
Introduction ... 20
Autism Spectrum Disorder ... 20
Special Education Laws ... 26
Parent Involvement ... 31
Online Schools and Autism ... 35
Summary ... 36
3. Methodology ... 37
Introduction ... 37
Chapter Page
Research Questions ... 37
Participants ... 38
Human Subject Approval–Institutional Review Board ... 39
Instruments for Data Collection and Analysis ... 40
Research Design ... 41
Procedures and Timeline ... 45
Summary ... 47
4. Findings ... 49
Summary of Research Methodology ... 49
Findings by Research Question ... 51
Research Question One ... 51
Research Question Two ... 64
Research Question Three ... 71
Summary ... 73
5. Discussion ... 75
Discussion and Conclusions ... 75
Research Question One ... 75
Research Question Two ... 79
Research Question Three ... 83
Limitations ... 84
Chapter Page
Recommendations for Future Research ... 87
Summary ... 89
References ... 90
Appendices A. Email Invitation to Participants ... 99
B. Case Study Protocol ... 100
C. Interview Protocol ... 106
D. Source of Data Chart ... 109
E. Select Minnesota Online Schools Achievement Statistics Analysis ... 110
F. Joint Interview Protocol to Research Question Alignment Chart ... 111
G. Institutional Review Board Approval ... 112
Chapter 1: Introduction
Autism is the fastest growing developmental disability in the United States (Autism
Speaks, 2013). About one in 68 children has been identified with autism spectrum disorder
(ASD) according to estimates from Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network. ASD is almost five times more
common among boys (1 in 42) than among girls (1 in 189) (CDC, 2014).
ASD is often used to describe a range of diagnoses that share characteristics of autism.
Public schools apply the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM V) definition which is published by the American Psychiatric Merriam,
Autism Spectrum Disorders are a range of complex developmental disorders that can cause problems with thinking, feeling, language, and the ability to relate to others. They are neurological disorders, which mean they affect the functioning of the brain. How autism disorders affect a person and the severity of symptoms are different in each person. (APA, 2014)
As noted by Yeargin-Allsopp (2003), with the increase in number of children with
ASD, the demand for services in public school classrooms is rising. Because of the associated
challenges with ASD, educators conclude that students with ASD are in need of specialized
services in the schools (Lord, 2001). Federal legislations such as Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) and No Child Left Behind law (NCLB) have been in place for
regulating those services.
In the year 1990, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) entitled
students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) to receive the needed educational benefits
such as a free and appropriate education, an individualized education plan which is developed
services; due process for the identification, evaluation, and placement decisions, and the least
restrictive environment for education (Special Education and Behavior Modification, 2014).
Similar to IDEA, the 2001 No Child Left Behind law (NCLB) provided for
substantive parent involvement at state and local levels as provided in the federal Title I
program. This legislation allowed parents and community members to intervene to help
improve their school.
Both IDEA and NCLB emphasized the important role of parent involvement. The
literature review also revealed that parent participation in education had been a topic of
considerable interest and concern over the past 25 years. Family-school partnerships were the
exception rather than the norm prior to the 1980s. Since that time, however, a growing body
of literature suggested that parent involvement fostered a positive impact on children’s
learning and success in school (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Koegel, Koegel, & Schreibman, 1991;
Newmann & Wehlage, 1995) as listed in Spann (2003).
The topic of parent involvement received focused attention in the field of special
education. Prior to the 1980s, many parents were dependent on professionals for their training
and emotional support (Turnbull & Turnbull, 2001, cited in Spann, 2003). However, due to
recent changes in the federal laws−including IDEA and NCLB− parents accredited equal
partnership with school personnel.
Unfortunately, the literature review revealed a lack of published information related to
parental involvement framework in the area of special education. Therefore, the literature
review was broadened to review other parental involvement frameworks that were used in
of Involvement Framework and her theory of overlapping spheres of influence. Epstein
concluded that student academic success is best achieved through cooperation between
school, family, and community (Willems, 2012). Epstien’s research has led to important
changes in the ways that schools view and interact with families as well as providing
recommendations for how schools can develop partnerships with families, including engaging
in quality communication, inviting parents to participate in school activities, soliciting
parents’ input on decisions about their child’s education, and empowering parents to take action that addresses their own needs interact with families (Spann, 2003).
Epstein’s framework contains six types of involvement in a comprehensive program of school, family, and community partnerships. Involvement types are as follows:
Type 1 Parenting: Helping all families establish home environments to support
children as students.
Type 2 Communicating: Designing effective forms of school-to-home and
home-to-school communication about home-to-school programs and children’s progress. Type 3 Volunteering: Recruiting and organizing parent help and support.
Type 4 Learning at home: Providing information and ideas to families about how to
help students at home with homework and other curriculum-related activities,
decisions, and planning.
Type 5 Decision making: Including parents in school decisions, developing parent
Type 6 Collaborating with the community: Identifying and integrating resources and
services from the community to strengthen school programs, family practices, and
student learning and development (Epstein, 1995).
Epstein’s framework was designed with traditional schools in mind. It presented valuable suggestions that can be implemented in both general and special education programs
offered in brick and mortar schools. But, this framework needed to be revised to
accommodate the modality of online schools and how they offer their services to students
with special needs.
Problem Statement
The literature review revealed a lack of published information related to a parent
involvement framework in the area of special education in both traditional and online schools.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the Special Education coordinators’ and
directors’ perceptions of current parent involvement practices in Special Education programs
provided to Special Education students enrolled in select Minnesota online elementary
schools.
Research Questions
1) What are the current parent involvement practices employed in select Minnesota
online schools which provide special education programs?
2) What are the challenges that select special education coordinators and directors of
Minnesota online schools experience when implementing parent involvement
3) What benefits are reported by select special education coordinators and directors
of Minnesota online schools due to the implementation of parent involvement
practices in special education programs?
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study was adopted from Epstein’s 1995 published
study. This framework contains six major types of involvement evolved from previous studies
and years of work by educators and families in elementary, middle, and high schools (Epstein,
1995). “The framework has assisted educators in developing more comprehensive programs
of school and family partnerships” (Epstein, 1992; Epstein & Connors, 1995; Epstein &
Sanders, 2002).
Each type of involvement includes several different partnerships between school,
family, and community practices. Each practice presents particular challenges that must be
met in order to involve all families and assist in redefining some basic principles of parent
involvement.
Finally, each type of involvement practice is likely to lead to different results for
students, parents, teaching practices, and school climates. Thus, schools have choices about
which practices will help achieve important goals related to parent involvement (Epstein &
Sanders, 2002).
Significance of the Study
This study examined parent involvement in Special Education programs at online
schools targeted to students with ASD. Because the literature review revealed a lack of
education in both traditional and online schools, this study gathered information about the
current practices of parent involvement in the area of special education in select elementary
online schools. Further, this study highlighted the benefits and challenges of parent
involvement programs.
Delimitations
According to Roberts (2010), delimitations identify the planned limits of a study
including factors the researcher is able to control, and the manner in which the researcher
focuses the study. The following delimitations are proposed to be used:
a) Only online schools that serve student populations from elementary school through
grade twelve were included in the study.
b) Only the perceptions of the special education director of each online school
studied were included.
c) The duration of the study was 2014-2015.
d) Online Schools included in the study were exclusively located in the state of
Minnesota.
Assumptions
Four study assumptions were identified. First, the majority of participants would
provide honest responses when participating in the study. Second, self-reported information,
while typically honest to a certain degree, would usually attempt to portray the participant in a
positive manner. Third, the parent involvement practices across elementary online schools in
Minnesota would vary widely. Finally, special education directors of select Minnesota Online
schools compete against each other in recruitment of students), and there have been two
recorded lawsuits questioning the validity of online schools from Education Minnesota (the
Minnesota Teacher’s Union) and the Minnesota Department of Education in the past 11 years (McClatchy-Tribune, 2011; Newswire, 2011a, b; Trotter, 2003). This fourth assumption most
likely had a greater effect on determining difficulties of parental involvement, than the other
study questions which is the reason for the confidentiality assurances presented in Chapter 3.
Definition of Terms
In his book Exceptional Children, Heward (2012) defined the following terms which
are used throughout this study. Many of the terms are related to Special Education services:
Acceleration: An educational approach that provides a child with learning
experiences usually given to older children; most often used with gifted and talented
children.
Accommodation: The adjustment of the eye for seeing at different distances;
accomplished by muscles that change the shape of the lens to bring an image into clear
focus on the retina.
Advocate: Someone who pleads the cause of a person with disabilities or group of
people with disabilities, especially in legal or administrative proceedings or public forums.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): "The science in which tactics derived from the
principles of behavior are applied systematically to improve socially significant behavior
and experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for behavior change"
Asperger syndrome: A developmental disorder characterized by normal cognitive
and language development with impairments in all social areas, repetitive and stereotypic
behaviors, preoccupation with atypical activities or items, pedantic speech patterns, and
motor clumsiness; included in autism spectrum disorders.
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): Group of five related developmental disorders
that share common core deficits or difficulties in social relationships, communication, and
ritualistic behaviors; differentiated from one another primarily by the age of onset and
severity of various symptoms.
Direct Instruction: Any systematic approach to teaching characterized by clear
specification of learning objectives, explicit presentation of curriculum content, and active
engagement by students, systematic feedback for student performance, and evaluation by
direct and frequent measures of student learning.
Disability: A condition characterized by functional limitations that impede typical
development as the result of a physical or sensory impairment or difficulty in learning or
social adjustment.
Due Process: A set of legal steps and proceedings carried out according to
established rules and principles; designed to protect an individual's constitutional and legal
rights.
Early Intervention: Any form of therapy, treatment, educational program,
nutritional intervention, or family support designed to reduce the effects of disabilities or
prevent the occurrence of learning and developmental problems later in life for children
Echolalia: The repetition of what other people have said as if echoing them;
characteristic of some children with delayed development, autism, and communication
disorders.
Free Appropriate P ublic Education (FAPE): As guaranteed by the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), schools must provide each qualifying child
with disabilities a program of education and related services individually designed to
meet that child's unique needs and from which the child receives educational benefit
including being prepared for further education, employment, and independent living;
this provision of education and related services is without cost to the child's parents or
guardians, except for fees equally imposed on the parents or guardians of children
without disabilities.
Hyperactive: Excessive motor activity or restlessness.
Individualized Education Program (IEP): The written document required by
Individual with Disabilities Education Act (PL 94-142) for every child with a disability;
includes statements of present performance, annual goals, short-term instructional
objectives, specific educational services needed, extent of participation in the general
education program, evaluation procedures, and relevant dates; and must be signed by
parents as well as educational personnel.
Joint Attention: A social communication skill in which two people interact
with their shared environment in the same frame of reference. Joint attention is
evident when a child looks where someone else is looking or turns head or eyes in
Language Disorder: Impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written,
and/or other symbol systems.
Learning Disorder: A general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of
disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening,
speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities.
Occupational Therapist (OT): A professional who programs and/or delivers
instructional activities and materials to help children and adults with disabilities learn to
participate in useful activities.
Related Services: Developmental, corrective, and other supportive services required for a child with disabilities to benefit from special education. Includes special
transportation services, speech and language pathology, audiology, psychological services,
physical and occupational therapy, school health services, counseling and medical services
for diagnostic and evaluation purposes, rehabilitation counseling, social work services,
and parent counseling and training.
Special Education: Individually planned, specialized, intensive, outcome-directed
instruction. When practiced most effectively and ethically, special education is also
characterized by the systematic use of research-based instructional methods, the
application of which is guided by direct and frequent measures of student performance.
Organization of the Study
The study is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 includes an introduction to the
study, the problem statement, purpose, research questions, conceptual framework,
includes a review of related literature that defines autism and the characteristics and needs of
students with ASD. It further examines the federal laws that regulate the specialized services
needed for those students as well as the critical role of parent involvement. Chapter 3
describes the research design and the methodology used in this study, including data
collection procedures, instrumentation, and data analysis procedures. Chapter 4 summarizes
the findings of the study. Chapter 5 outlines the conclusions, limitations, and
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature
Introduction
This review of literature covered four areas of parent involvement in educating
students with ASD; the first area provided information about Autism that includes a
definition, historical background, causes, characteristic, and finally treatments and
interventions used in educating students with ASD. The second area presented Special
Education laws that guide the education of students with ASD and the importance of parent
involvement. The third area shows existing connections and correlations confirmed through
research between parent involvement and various aspects of student achievement. Finally, the
fourth area shows a review of research related to online schooling. The lack of published
information related to a parent involvement framework in the area of special education for
students with ASD in both traditional and online schools was the basis for this study. A
summary of the literature review is included at the end of Chapter 2.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism is the fastest growing developmental disability in the United States (Autism
Speaks, 2013). About 1 in 68 children has been identified with autism spectrum disorder
(ASD) according to estimates from Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s Autism and
Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network. ASD is almost five times more
common among boys (1 in 42) than among girls (1 in 189) (CDC, 2014).
ASD is often used to describe a range of diagnoses that share characteristics of autism.
Public schools apply the DSM V definition which is published by the American Psychiatric
Autism Spectrum Disorders are a range of complex developmental disorders that can cause problems with thinking, feeling, language, and the ability to relate to others. These are neurological disorders, which mean they affect the functioning of the brain. How autism disorders affect a person and the severity of symptoms are different in each person. (APA, 2014)
Historical background: In his article Autism at 70 redrawing the Boundaries, Baker
(2013) talked about the psychiatrist Leo Kanner who in 1938, described autism in 11 children
as “extreme autistic aloneness, delayed echolalia, and an anxiously obsessive desire for the maintenance of sameness, and extraordinary memory skills” (Baker, 2013). Kenner also noted that the parents were almost as distinctive as the children, and related better to concepts than
to people (Kanner, 1938).
Unaware of Kanner’s work, in 1938, Hans Aspergers used the term Autistic
Personality Disorders in Childhood to describe a behavioral syndrome he discovered among a
group of children;
In addition to the marked difficulties in social interaction, Asperger also noted other features present in these cases, that is, impaired nonverbal skills, idiosyncratic
communication, egocentric preoccupations and special interests, intellectualization of affect, clumsiness and poor body awareness, and conduct problems. (Volkmar, 1998)
In his book Unstrange Minds: Remapping the World of Autism, Roy Grinker discusses
autism during the 1950s and 1960s when he referred to the term “the refrigerator mother”. Kanner introduced the term “refrigerator mother” when he explained that the parents of the first eleven autistic children he studied kept their children “neatly in a refrigerator that did not
defrost.” This came to define many psychoanalysts' views on the causes of autism, including
Bruno Bettelheim's (Grinker, 2007).
Bettelheim, an influential figure in promoting the “refrigerator mother” theory as
emotional disorder that developed in some children because of psychological harm brought
upon them by their mothers (Simpson, 2002).
In the early 1960s, the medical community began to challenge the “refrigerator
mother” theory. In his 1964 book, Infantile Autism: The Syndrome and Its Implications for a
Neural Theory of Behavior, Dr. Rimland did not accept that autism was the result of uncaring
parents but is a biological condition (Rimland, 1964). Later in 1965 with the help of parents
of children with autism, Dr. Rimland founded the National Society for Autistic Children, now
known as the Autism Society of America (Autism Society, 2013).
Based on the information provided through WebMD, individuals with Autism were
treated with medications such as LSD, electric shock, and behavioral change techniques. The
latter relied on pain and punishment during the 1960s through the 1970s (WebMD, 2013).
The site also listed behavioral therapy and controlled learning environments as the main
treatments during the 1980s and 1990s.
In 1987 DSM III Revision provided a more complex definition of autistic disorder that
required meeting eight of 16 criteria among the three domains of social interaction,
communication, and restricted interest while dropping the requirement for early onset in life
and providing new category of “Pervasive Developmental Disorder, not Otherwise Specified” for children who met some of diagnostic criteria for autistic disorder.
In 1994 DSM IV and 2000 DSM IV Text Revision refined the criteria for autistic
disorder and added Asperger’s disorder and Rett’s syndrome to the pervasive developmental
disorders. In 2013, a major revision of diagnosing criteria for autism in the new DSM V
and social interaction” plus “restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior”, present from early childhood. Other subcategories that were previously included in DSM IV including
Asperger’s disorder, Pervasive Developmental Disorders Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS), and Rett’s syndrome are eliminated (Baker, 2013).
Causes of Autism. In her 2014, “Ted Talks”, Wendy Chung indicated that an increase
labeling of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder occurred since the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) legislation was introduced in 1990.
This legislation provided individuals with autism with resources and access to educational materials that would help them. With that increased awareness, more parents, more pediatricians, more educators learn to recognize the feature of autism. As a result of that, more individuals were diagnosed and got access to the resources that they needed. (Ted Talks, 2014)
Dr. Chung relayed the increased prevalence of autism to the changes of the DSM
definition of Autism published by the American Psychiatric Association. She also addressed
concerns related to vaccines as a cause for autism; she discredited the original study and
ensured that there is no credible evidence to support such claims. She concluded by
examining the role of human genes as one of the causes of autism.
Characteristics of Autism. Individuals with ASD are divided into two categories:
low functioning that includes those who have impairments in most or all aspects of their daily
living, and high functioning which includes others who only have minimal to mild
impairments. Although many individuals with ASD behave in similar patterns, their
differences distinguish them from each other. “There is no single behavior that is always
typical of autism and no behavior that would automatically exclude an individual child from a
Some of the common characteristics of Autism include communication and language
deficits. In his book Exceptional Children, William Heward explored some of the reasons
beyond deficits associated with autism which included mute with no ability to speak in some
of the low functioning individuals, and delayed or no language development with others. The
lack of language development maybe illustrated by words with no meaning; gesture
communication; short attention span; echolalia (speech consisting of literally repeating
something heard); delayed echolalia or scripting; the act of repeating something heard at an
earlier time; confusion between the pronouns “I” and “you”; and difficulty with “wh”
questions (Heward, 2012).
The other deficit area includes social interaction such as lack of interaction with other
children, lack of eye contact, lack of response to people, treating other people as if they were
inanimate objects, laughing or crying inappropriately, struggling with transitions and
interruptions, demonstrating ritualistic behaviors (Heward, 2013).
In the area of sensory impairment, individuals with ASD may show sensitivity in
sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. About 70-80% of them exhibit sensitivity to sensory
stimulation (Harrison, 2004). They may also appear over-responsive (hypersensitive) and
under-responsiveness to sensory stimulation (Leekam, 2007). Over-responsiveness may
manifest itself in the inability to stand certain sounds, disliking being touched, and refusing to
eat food with certain texture, smell, or taste. Under-responsiveness may result in not feeling
the pain in a normal way, spinning continuously, rocking bodies, and rub or pushing things
Behavior problems also manifest in being overactive or passive, having tantrums and
lack of common sense, showing aggression, needing routine, lack of spontaneous or
imaginative play, rocking body in a sitting position, flicking fingers, twirling around, spinning
objects, staring at lights, sniffing at the air, and flapping hands at the wrists (Loftin, 2007).
Insistence on sameness and perseveration is another characteristic of individuals with
autism which presents itself in demanding to have the same routines, otherwise resulting in
explosive meltdowns, preoccupation with a certain subject or area of interest, talking
continuously about one subject, and asking the same question over and over (Lord, 2001).
Treatment and intervention options. The following is an overview of treatment and
intervention options available for individuals with autism. Some of the options below are
provided by Fraser and can be conducted in classroom setting while others need to be
performed by the appropriate therapist:
Auditory Integration to help individuals who are oversensitive or hypersensitive to sound.
Dietary modification that reduces or eliminates symptoms of autism, such as the gluten- free diet. Additionally vitamins and supplements have also been reported
to improve behavior such as longer attention span.
Medication to alleviate specific characteristics such as aggression, seizures, hyperactivity, obsessive/compulsive behavior or anxiety.
Music Therapy allows to incorporate music into the teaching of cognitive, motor, and daily living skills.
Occupational Therapy to help with fine-motor skills as well as increasing the ability to function independently.
Physical Therapy to help with large-motor skills and mobility.
Sensory Integration to treat sensitivity to sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste.
Social Skills and Behavioral Interventions that treat an inappropriate or
challenging behaviors as well as increasing that ability to understand social cues
and interactions.
Speech therapy provided by a speech language pathologist to address communication and language deficits as well as social interactions.
Vision Therapy to treat some difficulties, such as poor eye contact, difficulty attending visually, visual fixation, and hyper- or hypo-sensitivity to light or color
(Fraser, 2013).
As noted by Yeargin-Allsopp (2003), with the increase in number of children with
ASD, the demand for services in public school classrooms is rising. Because of the associated
challenges with ASD, educators conclude that students with ASD are in need of specialized
services in the schools (Lord, 2001). Federal legislations such as Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) have been in place for regulating
those services. It should be noted that the State of Minnesota is one of the pioneers for
offering special education preceding the federal laws.
Special Education Laws
Background. According to Algozzine (1984), literature research indicated that there
The first was in 1954, Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court unanimously
ruled that “separate but equal” education of black children was unconstitutional. “Education is
perhaps the most important function of state and local governments….in these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the
opportunity of an education” (Patterson, 2001, as cited in Powers, 2007).
As noted by Zettel (1982), the second was the class action case of Mills v. Board of
Education of the District of Columbia in 1972 declared that students with disabilities must be
given public education, due process safeguards, as well as periodic review for placement, to
all children, including those in special education. The procedural safeguards included the right
to appeal; the right to have access to records; and the requirement of written notice at all
stages of the process. These safeguards became the framework for the due process component
of the Education for all Handicapped Children Act.
Minnesota Law. Minnesota Governor's Council on Developmental Disabilities (2015)
repoted that in the “In the 1950s, a series of federal legislative provisions established grants for research and training of personnel in the education of children with disabilities. Some
states began to adopt special education provisions. For instance, in 1957, Minnesota required
public school districts to provide special instruction and services for children with certain
disabilities.”
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The 1975 Education for all
Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) set new mandates for the needs of children with
disabilities. It ensured children of certain basic educational rights which include a free and
due process for the identification, evaluation, and placement decisions, and the least
restrictive environment for education (Special Education and Behavior Modification, 2014).
It should be noted that all individualized education plan were required to be developed
in consultation with the parents of student with special needs.
In 1990, EAHCA was amended and renamed to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA). The new changes emphasized using a language that focus on the
individual not the disability, as well as, the requirement of including a transition plan in
Individualized Education Plans (IEP) for each student by the age of 16. Students with autism
spectrum disorders (ASD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI) were entitled to the benefits under
the new changes (Special Education and Behavior Modification, 2014).
Later in 1997, IDEA was reauthorized with changes that focused on improving the
educational achievement of students with disabilities in both the Special and General
Education. Including measurable goals with objectives and functional behavior assessment in
student’s Individualized Education Plan were some of the major changes (Special Education and Behavior Modification, 2014).
As noted by the Autism Society (2013), IDEA or the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act, was reauthorized in 2004. IDEA protects children's rights in
receiving education and parents’ rights to plan their children education.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB). According to Anne T. Henderson (2002), The No
Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is the latest amendment to the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) which was passed in 1965. ESEA was the first major federal aid
been endorsed by most presidents. President George W. Bush signed the law in January 2002.
NCLB is divided into nine titles with the most important being Title I, which contributes
about $12 billion a year in federal aid to local school districts for assisting low-income
students.
Henderson (2002) further added that Title I provided funds to schools with higher
numbers of low-income students. School districts had to justify the funds, so they created
“pull-out” programs, to provide remedial instructions for children by teachers who were paid out of Title I funds. By the mid-1980s, the program had unintentionally created a bottom track
for poor children, and was not improving student achievement. Henderson (2002) also noted
“Important changes were made to the law in 1994 to align the Title I program with the growing national movement to strengthen academic standards. Every state receiving Title I
funds (and all do) had to create new, higher standards for all children”. Title I funds had to
help low-income children reach the same standards as all children and states had to measure
how well the children were meeting the standards.
Henderson (2002) noted that NCLB also allows parents to be largely involved at every
level of the Title I program. This program identifies several key points in the process where
parents and community members can be part of the decision making process in improving
their school.
The new law (NCLB) is very clear about the importance of engaging families in the Title I program. The opening paragraph of Section 1118 lays out the major parent involvement provisions: A (school district) would receive (federal) funds under this provision only if such agency implemented programs, activities, and procedures for the involvement of parents in programs assisted under this part …. Such programs, activities, and procedures would be planned and implemented with meaningful consultation with parents of participating children (Henderson, 2002, p. 7)
Henderson (2002) also stated each school district must reserve a minimum of 1% of its total
Title I grant to support activities for parents. The school district must spend 95% or more of
these funds on the Title I schools and not at the district level. Both the district and the school
may decide to spend more of the title I fund to support training, communication, and
information dissemination for parents. Parents of students in the Title I program must be part
of the decision making on the use of these funds.
Some of the key points of the Title I program include:
1. Every Title I school must have a written parent involvement policy, developed
with and approved by parents. This policy must identify the parents’ involvement in the school and decision making about the program and updated periodically to
reflect the changing concerns of parents.
2. Every Title I school must have a school compact, developed with and approved by
parents describing the process of building partnership between parents and schools
to improve student achievement. This compact must explain how school officials
will meet the students’ needs to achieve high standards.
3. Every school district must have a written Title I parent involvement policy that is
developed with and approved by parents, and evaluated every year. This policy
must describe the methods the district will use to involve parents in developing its
Title I plan and help them gain the knowledge and skills to be effective decision
makers about the program.
Parent Involvement
Parents’ participation in education has been a topic of considerable interest and concern over the past 25 years. Family–school partnerships were the exception, rather than the norm, prior to the 1980s. Since that time, however, a growing body of
research has suggested that parent involvement has a positive impact on children’s learning and success in school” (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Koegel, Koegel, & Schreibman, 1991; Newmann & Wehlage, 1995) as listed in (Spann, 2003)
“The topic of parent involvement has received even more attention in the field of special education. Prior to the 1980s, many parents were dependent on professionals for
training and emotional support” (Turnbull & Turnbull, 2001) as listed in Spann (2003). Due
to the recent changes in the federal laws such as IDEA and NCLB, parents are now
considered equal partners with school personnel.
Research indicates that parent participation results in positive outcomes for children
with special needs, inc luding greater generalization and maintenance of treatment gains
(Koegel et al., 1991), greater continuity in intervention programs (Bailey & Wolery, 1989),
higher levels of parent satisfaction (Stancin, Reuter, Dunn, & Bickett, 1984), and more
effective strategies for resolving problems (Newmann & Wehlage, 1995).
In addition, the field has suggested how school officials can partner with families,
including communicating effectively, inviting parents to attend school activities, soliciting
parents’ input on decisions about their child’s education, and allowing them to address their own needs (Dunst, Trivette, & LaPointe, 1992; Epstein, Munk, Bursuck, Polloway, &
Jayanthi, 1999; Kroeger, Leibold, & Ryan, 1999; Turnbull & Turnbull, 2001; U.S.
Department of Education, 1994).
According to Goldstein, Strocland, Turnbull, and Curry (1980) and Yoshida, Fenton,
in their children’s educational planning process. Previous studies also suggest that although
the parents were present in their child’s IEP meetings, they did not fully participate in planning objectives, evaluations, and interventions.
For example, Lynch and Stein (1982) surveyed 400 parents about their involvement in
IEP meetings. Although 71% of the participants reported active involvement in the meeting,
only 14% provided specific recommendations or opinions.
Also Able-Boone, Goodwin, Sandall, Gordon, and Martin (1992) surveyed 290
parents about their involvement in early intervention services. Many parents noted that their
main concerns were not included in the Independent Family Service Plans.
Researchers have also examined parents’ perceptions or satisfaction with special education services. For example, McWilliam et al. (1995) surveyed 539 parents regarding
their roles in and satisfaction with early intervention services. Many families reported that
their choices and requests were not included in their received services. Covert (1995)
examined the satisfaction of 78 families receiving intervention services in New Hampshire.
Many families reported that professionals did not partner with parents and did not include
them when changing services. In a telephone interview of Kohler (1999) with 25 parents of
preschool- and school-age children with autism, more than half of those families reported that
their school-based services were either ineffective or did not consider their child’s specific
needs in mind. Furthermore, 60% noted significant communication problems with teachers
such as not being heard or not receiving updates in the changes in their child’s programs. Finally, Turnbull and Ruef (1997) interviewed 17 parents of children or youth with
communication skills and unwillingness to consider new ideas and perspectives. Despite
empirical support, theoretical justification, and legislative foundation, research has indicated
that family involvement in and satisfaction with school based services is often minimal. This
may be because families typically have traditional roles in services or because educators
sometimes hold negative perceptions about families. For example, some educators believe
that families are not credible sources of information (Gilliam & Coleman, 1981; McAfee &
Vergason, 1979).
According to Powell, Hecimovic, & Christenson, 1993; Rosin, 1996; Salisbury &
Dunst, 1997, school personnel considered families confrontational and even dysfunctional or
believed that involvement in educational services may be too demanding for those families
(Baker, 1989). As these negative perceptions and relationships between schools and families
of children in special education may result in adverse consequences, they need to be further
examined. The core elements of this relationship are communication, parent input in the IEP
process, and parent satisfaction with school services.
Frame work for parent involvement. The literature review revealed a lack of
published information related to parental involvement framework in the area of special
education. Therefore, the literature review was broadened to review other parent involvement
frameworks that are used in general education. Several articles reviewed by the researcher
referred to Epstein's Six Types of Involvement Framework. In her 2012 School-Community
Partnership Article, Willes stated that “A central principle to Epstein’s theory of overlapping spheres of influence is that goals for student academic success are best achieved through the
cooperation between school, family, and community (Willems, 2012, p. 10). In the 2003
article Examing Parent’s Invovment, Spann indacated that,
Epstien’s research has led to important changes in the ways that schools view and interact with families… providing recommendations for how schools can develop partnerships with families, including engaging in quality communication, inviting parents to participate in school activities, soliciting parents’ input on decisions about their child’s education, and empowering parents to take action that addresses their own needs interact with families. (Spann, 2003, p. 1)
In her 1995 article, “Caring for the Children we Share,” Epstein introduced the
Overlapping Spheres of Influence,
The external model of overlapping spheres of influence recognizes that the three major contexts in which students learn and grow–the family, the school, and the community– may be drawn together or pushed apart. In this model, there are some practices that schools, families, and communities conduct separately and some that they conduct jointly in order to influence children's learning and development. The internal model of the interaction of the three spheres of influence shows where and how complex and essential interpersonal relations and patterns of influence occur between individuals at home, at school, and in the community. (Epstein, 1995)
Her framework is based on six types of involvement in a comprehensive program of
school, family, and community partnerships. Involvement includes the following types:
Type 1 Parenting: Helping all families establish home environments to support
children as students.
Type 2 Communicating: Designing effective forms of school-to-home and
home-to-school communication about home-to-school programs and children’s progress. Type 3 Volunteering: Recruiting and organizing parent help and support.
Type 4 Learning at home: Providing information and ideas to families about how to
help students at home with homework and other curriculum-related activities,
Type 5 Decision making: Including parents in school decisions, developing parent
leaders and representatives.
Type 6 Collaborating with the community: Identifying and integrating resources and
services from the community to strengthen school programs, family practices, and
student learning and development (Epstein, 1995).
Online Schools and Autism
Most parents of a child with ASD are eager to adopt an online curriculum to improve
their children educational needs. In her article, Virtual ED. Targets rise of Autism, Davis
reported that “E-learning programs and learning applications have evolved to meet the needs
of a fast-growing population of children with autism” (Davis, 2011, p. 1). She explained that
for some students with Autism, online education is more desirable because it reduces
overwhelming sensory stimulus and unwanted social labeling that may lead to bullying.
Online education is also allowing students with ASD to study advanced topics that they are
interested in learning. One of the parents who Davis interviewed for her article, indicated that
“she had to work hard to keep her daughter on task online and felt she needed additional face-to-face support…There's a huge value to online education [for students with autism], but it
depends on how it's introduced and the nature of the person” (Davis, 2011, p. 1). The article
stated that for low functioning students who have difficulty with language and motor skills,
online education may not be an option. Being successful in an online education programs
depends on the severity of the student’s conditions and abilities.
A special education director who was cited in the same article reveled that:
Online education allows such students to control their environment. Those students are also often ‘hyper-focused’ in certain areas and may want to go above and beyond in
that academic area, which online instruction allows them to do. K12 does provide online methods of socialization, such as an internal social-networking site, that is monitored by adults to promote positive interaction. Students with autism may also be involved in teacher-moderated social skills groups using Web-based conferencing. (Davis, 2011, p. 1)
Davis also talked about “the growing number of applications on computers (and
particularly iPads) to help improve such functions as social skills and communication. In
addition, new technologies for early detection, speech therapy, and research into autism, a
complex developmental brain disorder, are being developed” (Davis, 2011, p. 1).
Summary
As the prevalence of ASD increases, more and more children with ASD require
services in public school classrooms. Due to the nature of ASD and its associated challenges,
educators agree that students with ASD require specialized services in the schools. To
regulate those specialized services, Federal legislation includes parent involvement rights. An
increasing body of research has suggested that parent involvement has a positive impact on
children’s learning and success in school. However, many parents have little or no involvement in children special education services.
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
This chapter presents a description of the proposed research study‘s purpose, research
questions, participants, instruments for data collection and analysis, research design
procedures and timeline, data analysis, validating the findings, and limitation of the study.
The methodology and instruments for data collection in this study were written and
designed in conjunction with another researcher. Both researchers were examining
components of parental involvement and online schools, and the participants to be
interviewed–as well as documents to be collected for both researchers’ studies–were located
at the same online schools. Thus, both researchers partnered to form a case study team to
interview the participants, collect data, and code participant responses. For further
information about the co-researcher’s study, please reference; DeWitt, 2015.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the special education coordinators’ and directors’ perceptions of current parent involvement practices in special education programs provided to special education students enrolled in select Minnesota online elementary schools.
Research Questions
1) What are the current parent involvement practices employed in select Minnesota
online schools which provide special education programs?
2) What are the challenges that select special education coordinators and directors of
Minnesota online schools experience when implementing parent involvement
3) What benefits are reported by select special education coordinators and directors
of Minnesota online schools due to the implementation of parent involvement
practices in special education programs?
Participants
The researcher included seven select Minnesota online schools in the study. In each of
the study’s online schools, the Special Education director or coordinator was interviewed. Selection of either the coordinator or director was based on the main director’s
recommendation of which position had the most knowledge about the online school’s special
education and parent involvement practices. As an example, the special education director at
some of the public online schools oversaw the entire district–which included brick and mortar
schools. In some of these cases, the online school’s coordinator provided more detail. In other instances, such as in an online charter school, the special education director worked directly
with the school. Each school was unique in its relationship, thus the main director was
consulted in each case. The Special Education directors or coordinators were chosen to be
interviewed since they provided unique insights on the parental involvement practices in
online schools from a leadership perspective which had not been collected in previous studies.
In the only two studies found on the topic of parental involvement in online schooling, data
were not secured from any of the schools’ administrators (Ahn, 2011; Liu et al., 2010).
Purposive sampling was used to determine the participants in this study. The seven
schools included in this study were selected from among an original set of 29 online schools
a) The Minnesota Online Schools served students in elementary grades.
b) The Minnesota Online Schools’ Special Education directors or coordinators were
willing to participate in the study.
c) The Minnesota Online Schools’ are accredited to operate by the Minnesota
Department of Education.
d) Minnesota Online Schools that serve a special education population including
students with Autism Spectrum Disorder.
The study population of online schools was selected from the state of Minnesota, due to
the researcher’s geographical location in Minnesota, familiarity with Minnesota’s system of public education, and the intent to contribute knowledge to educational leaders in the state of
Minnesota. Also, the selection of schools serving students at elementary grade levels was
established as a criterion because of the fact that measurable parental involvement practices
occur more frequently in elementary grades (Epstein & Becker, 1982, Sheldon, 2003).
Human Subject Approval–Institutional Review Board
Training wason November 23, 2014. Following approval from the researcher’s
doctoral committee, submission to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for approval of this
study was completed in December of 2014, with final approval gained in January of 2015.
Data collection measures, analysis and instruments included proper controls to ensure
confidentiality for all participants and ensured that no damage will occur to the school or
personnel involved in this study. The approval document from the board is included as
informed consent form required to be signed by the participants based upon the board’s
review of the study. This is also included as Appendix H.
Instruments for Data Collection and Analysis
Two instruments were used in collecting the study’s data. The first was a case study protocol (Appendix B) developed jointly by the two researchers–the case study team, as
recommended by Yin (2009). This protocol provided guidance to the researchers on the
frameworks and the objective of the study, the selected Minnesota online school locations and
contact information, the preparation conducted by the case study team prior to each site visit,
and sources and approaches for data collection at each site. It ensured reliability in the
conduct of the study and internal study validity as suggested by Yin.
The second instrument used in this study was the interview protocol (Appendix C).
The interview protocol was developed by the two researchers on the case study team. The
interview protocol consisted of eight open ended questions designed to allow the on-line
directors to share their perspectives on each type of parental involvement. Additional follow
up questions were used to clarify or draw out specific information from the on-line school
directors related to procedures and reactions on success or difficulties.
The interview protocol was reviewed with and field tested by a group of 12 doctoral
students in May, 2014 to ascertain instrument readability, clarity and focus of questions, and
correlation between the interview questions and the case study’s research questions–ensuring reliability in the study conduct and supporting the internal validity of the study. The protocol
instrument, including time required to complete administration of the instrument, clarity of
the questions to the participants, and ease of conduct of the interview.
Research Design
The study utilized a qualitative research methodology. The study was designed as a
comparative case study, employing a methodology in which multiple case studies were
examined with comparisons drawn between the sites (Common Wealth Association for Public
Administration and Management, 2010).
The case study design was used as a result of the small number of select Minnesota
online schools that served students in elementary grades and the fact that little information
(research) was available on these schools’ parent involvement practices. According to Blatter (2008), “A case study is a research approach in which one or a few instances of a
phenomenon are studied in depth” (p. 69). Blatter further stated that some researchers believe
individual perceptions–a major focus area in this study–are important in social research, and
the use of a case study is better than “large N-Surveys” for this purpose (Blatter, 2008, p. 70). Yin (2009) also recommended that when determining a study’s methodology, three areas should be examined: (a) the type of research question, (b) whether the researcher needs
to control parts of the phenomenon or question to be studied, and (c) if the researcher is
interested in a phenomenon that has occurred recently or in the past (Yin, 2009). The study
was not dependent on controlling any of the events currently present in the programs under
study. The types of research questions aligned readily to a case study, and the study was
focused on events that were actually occurring during the timeframe of 2014-2015 in
determining a study’s methodology were met in selecting the case study as the most appropriate methodology for the study.
Further, the study searched for areas of difference and likeness in parental
involvement practices between online schools by comparing the research results of the seven
cases (select Minnesota online schools), hence the selection of a comparative case study
design. Mills (2008) states, “The underlying goal of comparative research is to search for
similarity and variation between the entities that are the object of comparison” (p. 101). Additionally, examining multiple cases–using the comparative case study design–allowed the
researcher to apply common themes among the selected online schools. The comparative
aspect lent weight to the external validity of the findings (Yin, 2009).
Yin (2009) stated that it is important to have at least two sources of evidence in case
study research. This comparative case study’s design adheres to Yin’s recommendation, collecting data from two different sources at each case site (select Minnesota online schools),
which is important to ensure validity. The first data source was inclusion of documents
relating to practices of parental involvement at the select Minnesota online schools. These
documents included parent and student handbooks, parent involvement or support policies,
parent compacts, school website information related to parental involvement and other
documents the online school directors provided. On the matter of documentation, Yin (2009)
stated, “documents play an explicit role in any data collection in doing case studies.
Systematic searches for relevant documents are important in any data collection plan” (p. 87). The second source of evidence in the case study’s research is the conduct of interviews with the directors of the select on-line schools.
The design of the study relied on the use of a case study team. Yin states that,
…it often happens that a case study investigation must rely on a case study team… for any of three reasons: 1. a single case calls for intensive data collection at the same site, requiring a ‘team’ of investigators… 2. a case study involves multiple cases, with different persons being needed to cover each site or to rotate among the sites (Stake, 2006, p. 21); or 3. a combination of the first two conditions.
In this study, Yin’s third condition was met. Multiple interviews at seven select Minnesota online schools were conducted; furthermore multiple sources of data had to be collected to
secure answers to separate sets of research questions–one set for each researcher on the case
study team. Due to these requirements and the high total number of schools–seven–a team
approach between the two researchers was selected.
The validity and reliability of any case study, including the findings, are important in
four areas according to Yin (2009). These areas include the internal, construct of the findings,
external, and reliability of the study (Yin, 2009). The internal reliability and validity of the
study are assured because of the collection of two types of data at each case site, and the use
of interview and case study protocols.
The validation of the construct of the findings was accomplished by having all online
school directors who responded to the interview questions review the draft of the transcripts
as Yin (2009) suggests. Additions, clarifications and deletions to the transcripts were noted,
and the report was then adjusted based on the directors’ review.
The external validity of the study is assured through the study’s use of multiple on-line school directors and school documents. Application of the results of each online schools
director interview and document collections to the conceptual framework of the study,
among the multiple on-line schools. Replication logic refers to drawing the conclusion that if
a finding is replicated across multiple sites that were studied, it can be logically assumed it
would continue to be replicated at other sites not studied. Yin suggests that if the
generalizations found at each site continue to apply across multiple cases using this
replication logic, then this lends weight to the findings and validity of the case study
externally (Yin, 2009).
Finally, because of the creation and application of the case study protocol, reliability
was further ensured. Thus, the study can be replicated again at any time using the same
methodology. Also, placement of all data in the source of data chart will allow the researcher
or future researchers to consistently replicate the study and achieve the same results. This
proves the reliability of the case study (Yin, 2009).
While validity and reliability were assured, the following limitations were forecasted
prior to the conduct of this study:
1. This study would be limited to select Minnesota online school Special Education
directors’ or coordinators’ self-reported perceptions of their schools’ parent involvement programs and methods.
2. Depending upon the results and the replication of results among the multiple case
studies, the findings may not be generalizable to other online schools in Minnesota
or in other states.
3. Because one of the major sources of data was secured through interviews,
interviewer bias might occur. The chances of this occurring were reduced because
