Virtue_Ethics.ppt

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Aristotle

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Virtue

Ethics

Utilitarian and Kantian

views focus on actions,

and claim the primary

purpose of moral

philosophy is to

produce a theory and

method that will enable

us to distinguish the

morally obligatory or

permissible actions

from impermissible

actions. They look for

something like

algorithms

Aristotle’s focus is not

so much upon what we

do, but who we are. He

would point out that

both Kant and Mill

admit

that successful use

of their methods or

algorithms hinges upon the

existence of people who

have certain

character

traits

,

which

will

help

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Virtue

Ethics

.

In order to recognize the

correct course of action,

Utilitarians argue one

needs sympathy, as well

as an ability to temper

the sympathy with

impartiality. Why are

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Virtue

Ethics

In order to recognize

duty, Kant realizes we

will need fortitude to

look past immediate

costs and benefits,

and more toward laws

that allow us all to

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Virtue

Ethics

Both views admit that honest and conscientious efforts must be

made not only in applying the methods, but also acting upon

their ‘recommendations.’

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Virtue

Ethics

And he’s a bit self-interested when it comes to

motivation:

Fred offers superior malts to his customers because

he fears audits and inspections from higher-ups.

What will Fred do if audits and inspections are

indefinitely halted?

Fred gives to the needy because he craves praise.

What will Fred do if nobody notices or cares that he

gives?

Fred tells the truth out of fear of divine retribution

for failing to do so, and in hope of divine reward for

doing so.

What will Fred do if he loses faith in God?

Fred owns a

Dairy Queen..

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Virtue

Ethics

This raises an obvious two-part question:

•

What is character?

and

•

How can we ensure that there are people of

character who can, for example, overcome

their natural self-interest when it is needed?

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Character?

Character is the exercise of human

virtue. What? That’s

it? Not exactly informative.

What is human virtue?

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

Human virtue is a disposition to choose acts

or have feelings that follow a mean relative to

our situation. All right, a bit more content. An

improvement: Virtue is a disposition to choose correctly from a range of acts and have appropriate emotions,

and it is situationally dependent.

I still don’t know if he’s

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

•A

disposition

is a set behavior pattern

. To some extent

we are born with natural variations in these.

•

We can exercise control over our dispositions

.

•

We

can

form or modify dispositions

by conscious

efforts to

control reactions over extended periods of

time

. This is done by exercising those efforts in

numerous

instances

of similar circumstances. Eventually, habits or

dispositions will crystallize.

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The Mean

• In general, a

mean state is one that avoids the

extremes

found within the range of naturally

occurring actions or emotions that are

found in

a given sort of situation

.

•

• It is not

necessarily a typical or a median

response

. Sometimes the mean is more similar

to one extreme than it is to another. (Example:

Courage is more like rashness than

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A simple example: Someone steals your phone. The range of

emotional responses varies from

frothing rage,

to acquiescence.

The mean is somewhere between these, and is appropriate to the

circumstance.

•What counts as “appropriate”?

Aristotle says, ‘Choosing acts or having feelings directed

toward the

right

person or persons, at the

right

time, to the

right

extent, with the

right

object in mind, and in the

right

way.’

Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

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What does he mean by “right” here?

How determine right person, right extent, right time, right way, and

right object?

Application of reason to the situation will reliably determine these

things.

Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

Why this emphasis on reason?

The answer has to do with the notion of human

excellence.

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The Human Good

• The

Nicomachean Ethics

is an attempt

to describe what it takes for a human

being to live a good (i.e., happy) life.

• The key concept in the NE is the idea of

eudaimonia

, usually translated into

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The Goal-Directed

(Teleological) Nature of

Human Conduct

• All distinctively human (i.e., conscious,

rational, & voluntary) actions aim at some

good.

• Some goods are ends, and others are

means to an end.

• Ends are more valuable than means.

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The idea of the Highest

(or Ultimate) Good

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Eudaimonia

: The Ultimate

Good

• Verbal agreement that the ultimate human

good is

eudaimonia

(“happiness”). Human

beings naturally pursue happiness.

• Substantive disagreement as to the nature

of happiness.



Will the pursuit of pleasure & the avoidance of

pain make us happy?

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Aristotle’s View of Happiness

-- General Characteristics

• Finality & completeness

• A pure end (not a means, not an end that is

also a means). Desired entirely for its own

sake & not for the sake of anything else.

• Sufficient in itself. If you are happy, you

don’t need any other good.

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Aristotle’s View of Happiness

-- Specific Nature

• What is the distinctive & characteristic

function (ergon) of a human being?

• It is not life (vitality) (both plants & animals

are alive).

• It is not sentience (animals are sentient).

• The distinctive function of a human being

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Excellent Functioning

• Aristotle adds the idea of excellence (arete)

to the idea of distinctive function (ergon).

• The function of a guitar player is to play the

guitar; the function of an accomplished

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Human Excellence

• If the function of a human being is to live in

accordance with reason, then the function

of a self-actualized (truly happy,

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Thus,

• happiness (

eudaimonia

) results from

excellent reasoning & from living in

accordance with excellent reasoning.

• Another formulation: Happiness

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Two Types of Human

Excellence

Intellectual Excellence

= the excellent

functioning of the intellect (correct thinking &

reasoning) -- corresponds to the rational

dimension of the self

Moral Excellence

= desiring and acting in

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So, the exercise of reason is reliable in finding the mean reaction, or

otherwise put, the reaction that nails it with regard to

the right person,

extent, time, mode and object of response

.

The project of character formation has as its end, the formation of a

disposition to behave in this way, even in circumstances where rational

deliberation is not possible.

One must be able to rationally justify the reactions if called upon to do

so, but one need not be reasoning as one reacts, if one has the requisite

character traits. Does Aristotle give us some examples of such

appropriate-to-circumstance rationally justifiable reactions?

Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

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+ Mean State -______________________________________________________________________________________

Emotional Responses

Feelings inspired by Danger (fear or confidence)

Excess of Fear Appropriate amount of Fear Deficiency of Fear Deficiency of Confidence Appropriate amount of Confidence Excess of Confidence

Cowardly Cowardly Courageous Courageous

Rash/Foolhardy

Feelings caused by slights, injustices, or wrongs (anger or indignation)

Excess of anger Appropriate anger Deficiency of anger or indignation or indignation or indignation

I irascability (?) (?)

Pushover, Wimpiness

Pushover, Wimpiness

Actions

The giving of money

Excess of givin Appropriate Giving Deficiency of Giving

(??) (?) ?

(?)?

(?)? = can we find a better label here?

Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

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+ Mean State -______________________________________________________________________________________

Emotional Responses

Feelings inspired by Danger (fear or confidence)

Excess of Fear Appropriate amount of Fear Deficiency of Fear Deficiency of Confidence Appropriate amount of Confidence Excess of Confidence

Cowardly Cowardly Courageous Courageous Rash/Foolhardy

Rash/Foolhardy

Feelings caused by slights, injustices, or wrongs (anger or indignation)

Excess of anger Appropriate anger Deficiency of anger or indignation or indignation or indignation

Irascibility Irascibility Gentleness (?) Gentleness (?) Pushover, Wimpiness

Pushover, Wimpiness

Actions

The giving of money

Excess of giving Appropriate Giving Deficiency of Giving

Vulgarity Magnificence (?) Shabbiness( ?)

Miserly, Scrooge-likeMiserly, Scrooge-like

Prodigality Liberality Illiberality (?)

StinginessStinginess

(?) = can we find better labels here??

Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

Human virtue is a disposition to choose correctly from a

range of acts and have appropriate emotions, and it

is situationally dependent.

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Virtue

Ethics

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Virtue

Ethics

What is the emotional reaction here?

Anger wells up.

Is it appropriate?

Yes. Plato endangered Ari and his son.

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Virtue

Ethics

Aristotle asks:

The ‘Right’ Questions

To whom should the anger be

directed? Who is the right person?

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Virtue

Ethics

Aristotle asks:

The ‘Right’ Questions

When is the right time to deal with

this?

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Virtue

Ethics

Aristotle asks:

What is the right level of anger

here?

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Virtue

Ethics

Aristotle asks:

What is the right way to show the

anger?

Firm speech, with fixed gaze, and

clear indication of purpose.

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Virtue

Ethics

Aristotle asks:

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Virtue

Ethics

In short, this is what Aristotle means by “seeking the mean”. It does not

entail mediocrity, but mastery of self and careful thought (when you

have that luxury) about appropriate responses and goals even in

stressful situations. It asks us to consider our social roles and the

impact our actions and reactions will have upon that social matrix, as

we navigate through life and respond to what life presents.

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Virtue

Ethics

Aristotle asks:

Notice, that answering these

questions involves concepts

introduced by the two ethical

theories we have already examined.

Aristotle is looking out after the public

welfare (thinking like a utilitarian) and

treating the moment as a “teachable

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

But,

if the person of character

is a

person who

has a disposition to act or

emotionally respond as the rational

person

would, by

finding the mean

, then

aren’t you simply claiming that we

should teach people to use their

reason and apply some method or

algorithm?

If so, then you really are no

different than Kant or Mill. Right?

Well, yes

and no..

Philosophers!

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

range of acts and have appropriate emotions, and it is

situationally dependent.

Why Yes? Ultimately, we want people to use reason in their

day-to-day life as much as possible.

Why No? A disposition is like a habit. It’s a trait relatively impervious to change. We do characterize the mean with reference to the judgment of fully rational agents (‘men of σωφροσύνη or moral wisdom.’) However, virtuous character because it is a disposition, is to a substantial extent, something that should be

formed by extra-rational means, even if the ultimate goal of those means is to eventually put adult individuals in position to recognize the rationality of the mean states. The most crucial period requisite for successful formation of dispositions is early in life, when people are not fully capable of the sophisticated

reasoning necessary to find the mean. Dispositions to act according to mean states must be formed by various non-rational means, familiar to parents and teachers. Adults typically can find the mean. That is why

they can be trusted with this responsibility. We cannot expect people to reason on every occasion, nor can we expect reason alone to be a strong motivator on every occasion. Habits take care of both of these

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

Ultimately, we do want people to recognize the wisdom behind the practices. First, though, we need to habituate good behavior. It is a fact of life that circumstances sometimes do not allow for careful application of reason. If dispositions to act as a rational person would already exist in a person, then

even when pressed by circumstances or necessity, that person will act virtuously in those circumstances. For, habituation to similar circumstances encountered in the past will trigger the

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

So, how do we go about

inculcating these good

habits? How do we

create the character

traits, if not by directly

reasoning with kids?

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

At young ages, we have to rely

on external inducements to

virtuous behavior. These will

habituate children to behave in

line with virtue. Rewards and

punishments of various forms

should be used.

Society must inculcate virtuous behavior and appropriate emotional expression by example and

education. •We use each of the following, adding succeeding

methods as we go, and never entirely abandoning

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

any one of these approaches.

As children age, we supplement,

providing examples of moral

achievement and failure.

Biography and fiction can be

used to this effect, presenting

virtuous models (people that

find the mean, or act in accord

with it) and models that have

departed from the mean

(tragedy).

Both sorts of examples help

teach and inculcate virtue.

This is why I had so much trouble

with traditional Greek myth. It too

often provides poor examples. I

mean, Achilles. Really! He was definitely dialed high on the rage

o’ meter. Led to his best friend’s death. Not such a great example for

the kiddies.

Stodgy and

Censorious old Plato

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

As youth mature, we should

present them with opportunity

to experience the ‘inner

workings’ of the virtuous way,

the reasoned approach to moral

matters. We present or allow

situations to which they must

respond. We do not interfere.

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

They will begin to see

why

the right courses of action and emotional

responses are right. They will see the wisdom behind efforts to create

the set of dispositions Aristotle describes. This recognition will

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Virtue

Ethics

What is Human

Virtue?

We must encourage conscious applications of reason by young

adults. As with all other skills, only practice will habituate people to

virtuous ways. Practice also makes for an often-effortless expertise

in moral matters. This serves us well when circumstances do not

allow for lengthy reflection. Society should make use of all of these

sources of character development. The family is vital in this

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Virtue

Ethics

How does this relate to other ethical views, like Mill’s

Utilitarianism or Kant’s Deontological theory?

In a straightforward way: The virtuous

person, when asking if he is responding to

the right person, at the right time, to the right

extent, and in the right way, with the right

object in mind, will most likely find himself

asking the sorts of questions the Mill and

Kant ask us to consider.

So, we can see Aristotle’s view not so much

as a competitor for these theories, but as

complement to them, a way to unify them

into one account of what morality deals with.

Morality deals not only with action, but with

our very being, and the two are closely

connected.

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Virtue

Ethics

Remember, that there are aspects of human nature (our emotions and appetites) that are not

easily plied by our reason, but which should be governed by that reason even if only

indirectly. We can form them responsibly, (and thus our character) with concerted effort

over time. Each of us has personal idiosyncrasies or tendencies with regard to emotional

reactions and actions. These often impede or mislead us, even when we rationally recognize

the correct course. What can we do about these stubborn forces? Are we doomed to be

limited by them? No. We need to be aware of these, and can use a rationally backed

program of conditioning and other inducements to eventually control them or cause their

expressions to fall within the ‘mean’.

Some Last Words: Aristotle’s advice

to individuals:

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Virtue

Ethics

• If a personal emotional tendency is toward one of the extremes, an intentional move toward

the other extreme will eventually habituate to reactions in the range of the mean.

• For example: a person that tends toward irascibility can walk his fire down the ‘anger

range’ toward gentleness by going out of his way to be kind to others. But, he needs to do

this only for a while, until he has successfully moved the slider toward the mean!

• A rash person can correct by choosing to hold back from engaging when dangers present

themselves. A coward can become courageous by behaving rashly for a while.

Some Last Words: Aristotle’s advice

to individuals: