268 European Advances in Consumer Research Volume 7, © 2006
A Comparison of Four Online Shops with Different Degrees of Interactivity and
Consequences for Affective, Cognitive and Intentional Customer Reactions
Sandra Diehl, Saarland University, Germany
Ralf Terlutter, Saarland University, Germany
Peter Weinberg, Saarland University, Germany
ABSTRACT
This paper seeks to contribute to the existing knowledge of the importance of interactivity in an Internet shop. Based on the knowledge of the Human-computer-interaction-research (HCI re-search), the emotional approach to environmental psychology, the research on constructivist learning and the flow research, the influence of interactivity in Internet shops will be analyzed in terms of affective, cognitive and intentional reactions of customers. In an empirical study, four versions of 3-dimensional Internet stores that offer different degrees of interactivity will be compared. Results suggest that the interactive online shop is superior to the less interactive stores for most of the variables analyzed in this study. However, some evaluations did not differ significantly. With re-gard to the variable “evaluation of the product as being high-quality”, the interactive online shop was inferior to the filmed walk-through of the real store.
PURPOSE OF THE PAPER
The analysis of interactivity features in online shops and their influence on customers is of critical importance for researchers and professionals engaged in online marketing. Interactive features that offer self-determined exploration and information gathering with regard to the product or the supplier can be considered as one important advantage of online shops in comparison to real stores. Some interactive features are solely available in online shops (compared to real stores) such as the choice of a personal avatar or the projection of new furniture into a picture of a customer’s own living room to mention a few.
Whereas interactivity in online shops seems to offer several advantages to the customer, some risks may occur as well. For instance, interactivity may require more cognitive efforts from the customer and he/she may become disoriented when clicking through the online shop. Conklin (1987) refers to this in the context of the Internet as the problem of “getting lost in hyperspace”.
There exist some (ambiguous) results on the consequences of interactivity on the consumer that stem mainly from research into interactive web advertising (e.g., Bezjian-Avery, Calder, and Iacobucci 1998; Gerpott and Wanke 2004; Ghose and Dou 1998; Jee and Lee 2002; Liu and Shrum 2002; Macias 2003; Pavlou and Stewart 2000). However, besides the fact that these results are far from consistent, little is known regarding the influence of interactivity on customer variables in online shops. To our knowledge, no empirical study has been carried out that put the focus on different degrees of interactivity in online shops. Therefore, we compare four online shops that differ in their degree of interactivity. We analyze the influence of the online shops on different affective, cognitive and intentional customer variables. We differentiate (a) arousal and (b) pleasure as affective variables. (c) Control, (d) information gain, (e) idea of how products look in reality and (f) evaluation of products as being high-quality are the cognitive variables. (g) Flow
is considered as being a variable with both affective and cognitive components. Finally, we designate (h) approach intention to the online shop and (i) intention to visit the real store as intentional variables. The choice of variables is based on a behavioral model for virtual stores by Diehl (2001). The measurement of the variables is
printed in the appendix. Our study focuses on innovative 3-dimen-sional online shops.
INTERACTIVITY IN ONLINE SHOPS
Interactivity has been defined in many ways (see McMillan and Hwang 2002 for an overview of different definitions of interactivity). These different definitions can be classified by whether they focus on user-machine interaction, user-user interaction, or user-message interaction (Liu and Shrum 2001). Our study focuses on user-machine and user-message interaction.In terms of a visit to an online shop, interactivity can be defined as the characteristics of the software that allow the customers a number of engagement and navigation possibilities. Interactivity is a gradual process and can vary from the simple interactivity form of a passive walk-through through an environment to the actual modification of this environment. Ideally, interactivity would be real time, with the computer calculations being so fast that no subjective impairing delays would be noticeable (Kiousis 2002).
Many contributions to the effects of interactivity stem from the Human-Computer-Interaction-Research (HCI-research). “Human-computer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them” (Definition of SIGCHI [Special Interest Group of Computer Human Interaction], see Preece 1994, 7). A central goal of human-computer interaction is that the users obtain their desired informa-tion or that the computer carries out the desired acinforma-tions with as little effort as possible. The HCI-research stresses the importance of the consideration of ergonomic-software standards such as consis-tence, clarity, ease of learning and remembrance of the system functions, the resistance of the system to errors, direct feedback on the user and the amount of control the user has over the system (Hewitt and Gilbert 1993; Shneiderman and Plaisant 2005). With regard to interactivity in online shops, the HCI-research provides us primarily with knowledge on how to design interactivity features in a system.
SELECTED RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF
INTERACTIVITY
From the management perspective, sellers expect positive effects from interactivity possibilities in their online shops, such as, for example, a higher frequency of customers, a longer duration of visit or a more individualized use of the offered information by the customers. Usually, sellers aim at influencing the affective and cognitive processes of their customers in the desired manner in order to increase the profitability of online shops.
The existing studies about the effects of interactivity on the processes of customers and on profitability are not very consistent. The majority of these studies stem from research on interactive web advertising. Their results suggest that there are mostly positive effects of interactivity in web advertising on psychological cus-tomer variables and on cuscus-tomer behavior. Macias (2003), for example, has shown that interactivity exercises a positive influence on the perception and evaluation of products and brands. Ghose and Dou (1998) showed that a higher degree of interactivity leads to a
higher likelihood for a web site to be considered as a top site. Jee and Lee (2002) analyzed web sites and found that there exists a strong connection between perceived interactivity and attitude toward the web site. However, they also found non-uniform results regarding the connection between perceived interactivity and purchase inten-tion. According to a study of press-title web sites by Gerpott and Wanke (2004), interactivity in web sites of newspapers is signifi-cantly related, but interactivity in web sites of magazines is not significantly related to site-usage frequency and intensity metrics. In summary, most results suggest positive effects of higher interactivity on affective, cognitive and intentional processes of customers, however, the results are not totally clear.
THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE EFFECTS
OF INTERACTIVITY IN ONLINE SHOPS
In the following, different theoretical approaches are used to analyze the effects of interactivity in online shops on affective, cognitive and intentional customer variables. Theoretical bases for the analysis of the effects of interactivity on the customer variables are research on emotional environmental psychology (Mehrabian and Russell 1974), research on the construct of flow (Csikszentmihalyi 1975, 1997, 2000) and research on constructivist learning.Emotional Approach to Environmental Psychology
The emotional approach to environmental psychology as-sumes that the first reaction towards an environment is an affective form of reaction (Mehrabian and Russell 1974). Already, this affective reaction decides if the individual will further approach or avoid the environment (Mehrabian and Russell 1974). Emotional environmental psychology differentiates between three basic affec-tive dimensions: pleasure, arousal and dominance.
According to emotional environmental psychology, the num-ber of stimuli which exist in an environment determines the so-called information rate of the environment. A high information rate leads to high activation. In particular, new and complex stimuli increase the information rate and foster activation. Possibilities of interactivity offer the customer additional interference and naviga-tion possibilities and demand activity from the customer. Because of this, they increase the information rate of an environment. Emotional environmental psychology therefore suggests the con-clusion that an increase in the interactivity leads to an increase in the arousal of the customer.
Pleasure is closely linked to arousal. This connection is displayed, for example, by research regarding “sensation seeking,” in which individuals seek new stimulation (arousals) in their environment because it is in their benefit to do so (Zuckerman 1979). It can therefore be assumed that the offering of interaction possibilities which offer new stimulation will be judged positively. Interactivity may therefore exercise a positive influence on plea-sure.
Dominance describes a subjective sensation of independence and freedom, which an individual in a given situation feels. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) consider dominance an emotional variable, however, we agree with Russell and Pratt (1980) who see dominance as a variable that contains strong cognitive components as well.Dominance in an online shop implies that the user feels control over the store, that he/she controls the situation. It can be assumed that interactivity possibilities raise the level of perceived control as they allow the customers to interact with the system in a desired manner. They offer for example, the possibility to obtain, at will, more information about a displayed object, or to change the amount and speed of the information given to the customer.
The existing knowledge of emotional environmental psychol-ogy shows, in summary, that interactivity possibilities tend to have a positive influence on arousal, pleasure and dominance.
According to emotional environmental psychology, positive evaluations of an environment on the dimensions arousal, pleasure and dominance lead to approach behavior toward the environment. Therefore we assume that interactivity possibilities exert a positive influence on approach behavior toward the online shop. We differ-entiate between approach intention to the online shop (i.e., longer anticipated duration of a visit, higher purchase intentions, explora-tion and search behavior) and intention to visit the real store on the basis of which the virtual online shops were construed.
Flow
The construct of flow stems from motivation psychology and has been researched by Csikszentmihalyi (e.g., 1975, 1997, 2000). Flow is a state in which a person is totally concentrated on a task, immersed in the handling of the task and is barely affected by distractions. The metaphor of the “flow” describes a very pleasant feeling of “effortless action” (Csikszentmihalyi 1997, 29). This is the emotional component of the flow construct. Furthermore, in the flow experience, time flies by and the person has a sure feeling of control over the situation (Csikszentmihalyi 1997). This is the cognitive component of the flow construct. Flow is a continuum, which can contain activities ranging from simple, repetitive, almost automatic actions (such as thoughtless scribbling) to complex activities that require the full physical and cognitive potential of a person (for example chess, mountain climbing or dancing).
With regard to online shops, it can be assumed that especially online shops that allow immersion of the user would be able to increase the feeling of flow. Due to the immersion, the individual would be surrounded by the VR-medium, so that the boundaries between the virtual world and the user are lifted. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1997), the interaction with computers (without immersion) already has a high potential for flow feelings. Flow can occur as well during communication via computer in the form of e-mails and during work with a computer (Trevino and Webster 1992; Webster, Trevino, and Ryan 1993). A study by Novak, Hoffman, and Yung (2000) has shown that three quarters of the respondents said that they have had a flow feeling while using the Internet.
The restricted stimulus field due to the computer screen allows the user to focus their attention without distractions. Therefore, it can be assumed that while visiting an online shop, a flow feeling can also occur.
The flow feeling sets in primarily during active rather than passive activities (Csikszentmihalyi 1997). Increasing possibilities of interactivity should therefore have the tendency to cause the setting-in of a flow feeling. Further on, possibilities of interactivity increase the degree of immersion and the user is more and more captivated by an online shop.
On the basis of the knowledge of the flow theory, we assume that the possibilities of interactivity with a larger number of active tasks for the customer will lead to an increase in flow.
Constructivist Learning
Following the fundamental view of constructivism, the envi-ronment perceived by the individual is construed on personal, subjective environmental impressions. There is no objective real-ity. “…each individual man formulates in his own way constructs through which he views the world of events” (Kelly 1963, 12). Therefore, knowledge cannot be easily transferred; rather it is personally constructed by each individual. Constructivist learning theories are based on the assumption that learning is an active construction process.
During a visit to an online shop, the seller seeks to inform the customer about the products offered (quality, price, availability, etc.). The seller wants the customer to learn this information, and thus, wants to initiate a learning process. Online shops offer the possibility to organize the information hierarchically, according to their importance, and according to the individual desires of the customer. Information does not have to be arranged linearly; rather it can be arranged through hypertext or hypermedia (Holley and Hunton 1996; Nelson 1987; Strain and Berry 1996). Hypertext- or hypermedia-systems are especially suitable to realize constructivist learning strategies (Driscoll 2000). The reason for this is seen in the fact that hypertext- or hypermedia-applications facilitate informa-tion processing because the network of informainforma-tion corresponds to the organization of the human memory as a semantic network (Jonassen 1989, 1991; Jonassen and Wang 1993; Nelson and Palumbo 1992).
In summary, the knowledge from research on constructivist learning suggests that hypertext- or hypermedia-based applications facilitate learning. However, it should be noted that the quality of the hypertext or hypermedia systems plays an important role (Chen and Rada 1996).
When an individual uses hypertext or hypermedia systems, he/ she interacts with the computer system, so the usage of hypertext or hypermedia is interactivity. Consequently, an online shop that offers a hypermedia system should generally support constructivist learning. Therefore we assume that interactivity in onlineshops tendentially has a positive influence on the cognitive customer variables information gain and control. An important requirement in online shops is that the products are presented in a manner in which the customer is able to imagine how the products look in reality and see that the products are of high quality. Today, in a virtual store, the customer can mainly experience the products visually, but he is not able to touch or smell them. Therefore, we analyzed the two variables idea of how products look in reality and
evaluation of products as being high-quality.
METHOD
In order to empirically test the possibilities of interactivity on the affective, cognitive and intentional evaluations of online shops, four versions of an online shop were created. The four versions varied in the extent of their possibilities for interactivity. In the following, the four versions will be shortly described. The online shop was designed with the 3D-CAD program Pytha version 15.0 from the firm PYTHA Lab, located in Aschaffenburg, Germany. Version 1: Interactive Online Shop (IOS)
The interactive online shop is an innovative three-dimensional furniture store, through which customers can move in real time. The IOS offers the testers a large array of interactivity possibilities. The testers were given the following interactivity possibilities: They were able to
- walk through the store on their own
- change their overall viewing perspective, for instance, bird’s eye view, centralised view, worm´s eye view, etc. - view the products from all sides
- move objects
- open drawers and cupboards doors
- change the colors and materials of the products (e.g., design of dishes), the walls (e.g., different wallpapers), the floor (e.g., parquet or tiles) and the carpets.
- obtain information about the products in written form as well as audibly
- select background music
- be verbally welcomed by a saleswoman integrated into the shop
- alter the decorations (e.g., exchange pictures on the wall) - alter the store location. A park landscape was pre-selected.
The users were able to choose the scenery of Lisbon, a Caribbean or Alpine landscape or the New York skyline. This way participants had the option of shopping in their favorite location.
- change the lighting
Figure 1 displays screenshots of the interactive online shop. Version 2: Virtual Online Shop (VOS):
In this version, the participants could independently walk through the store illustrated in Figure 1, however, without the additional interactivity possibilities of version 1. Interactivity ex-ists only in the form of allowing the customer to move through the store.
Version 3: Film of Virtual Online Shop (VF)
Here, the customer was shown a film tour of the virtual store. The Pytha program has a camera function, which makes it possible to create filmed walk-throughs through the store. In version 3, there were no other interactivity possibilities. The tour corresponds to the tour in the real store (Version 4) as well as to the tour in the introduction of the interactive online shop to the participants (see procedure in this paper).
Version 4: Film of the Real Store (RF)
In this version, the respondents were shown a film of the real store, which was used as the basis for the construction of the virtual one. The real film was made with a video-camera in a furniture store. In order to ensure comparability between the versions, the filmed tour through the real store corresponds to the tour through the online shop. With version 4, the test person can only watch the tour and has no other possibility for interactivity. Figure 2 shows pictures of the real store.
PROCEDURE
Altogether, 378 respondents evaluated the interactive online shop (version 1). Of the 378 participants, 124 additionally evalu-ated one of the other three versions (versions 2 to 4). Each version from 2 to 4 had between 40 to 42 test persons. The subjects that evaluated a second version and the order of the evaluations of the four versions were randomly selected.
At first, all respondents were shown an identical introductory tour of the virtual store. The interactivity possibilities available to them were explained. The interviewer was instructed to always show the same tour with the same store features to every respon-dent. After the characteristics of the store had been changed by the participants, the store was set back into its original form, so that every participant had the same initial view of the store.
RESULTS
Affective VariablesAs the results in Table 1 show, the interactive online shop
activates at a much higher rate than every other version of the online shop. All differences are highly significant. The second most activating version is the film of the real store. The difference between real film and virtual film is significant, while the other differences are not.
Concerning the variable pleasure, the interactive online shop shows the highest score, followed by the film of the real store, and
then by the virtual online shop and the film of the virtual store. The differences between the IOS and the other three versions are highly significant again. Likewise, the differences between the film of the real store and the other two virtual versions are significant. No significant differences were found between the virtual online shop and the film of the virtual store.
Cognitive Variables
The interactive online shop led to the strongest feeling of
control of the situation, which was probably due to the possibility to explore the store on one’s own. However, the differences between it and the other versions (and also between all other versions) are not significant. The relatively high scores on the control variable indicate that the participants never had the feeling, in any version, to have lost control of the situation.
The evaluation of information gain is highest in the interactive online shop, with the differences to every other version being significant. There were no significant differences between the other three versions with regard to information gain.
Though the respondents could best imagine how the products
would look in reality when using the interactive online shop, the differences from and between the other three versions are not significant. The participants could imagine how the products looked in reality in all four versions, as the relatively high mean values indicate (from 3.83 to 4.06 on a five point scale).
The products were judged to have the highest quality in the real film with a significant difference from the other three versions. A
real picture of the product led in this case to a higher evaluation of a product’s quality than a virtual model in a virtual store. The second highest product evaluation was achieved in the interactive online shop. However, the difference is only significant in comparison to the virtual online shop. The virtual film and the interactive virtual store showed no significant differences.
Flow
The interactive virtual store displayed the highest flow feeling, with highly significant differences to the other versions. The differences in flow feeling, which customers acquired from the other versions, are not significant. This suggests, in conformity with the theory, that flow feeling is positively influenced by the presence of interactivity possibilities. Interaction facilitates the “immersion” of the individual into the online shop.
Intentional Variables
The approach intention to the online shop (composed of the intention to stay longer in the shop, higher purchase intention and stronger exploration and search behavior) was found to be strongest in the interactive online shop. All of the differences between the interactive online shop and the other versions are highly significant. No significant differences were found between the other versions. Although the interactive online shop creates the largest amount of intention to visit the real store, only the differences between it and the other virtual stores (VOS and VF) are significant. The difference between the virtual online shop and the real film is
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
Pictures of the real store
statistically negligible. It can be assumed that the real film version appeared more like a real store. There were no differences between the other versions.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
In summary, the interactive online shop (IOS) is evaluated to be the best of the four versions for the majority of the variables analyzed in this study. In conformity with the theory, the interactive online shop achieved the highest evaluation regarding the affective variables arousal and pleasure. With regard to the cognitive vari-ables in this study, the results were more ambiguous. Only for information gain was the IOS evaluated significantly higher than the other versions. No significant differences occurred for the variables control and idea of how products look in reality. The IOS was inferior to the real film concerning the evaluation of products as being high-quality. The IOS evoked the strongest flow feeling and led to the strongest approach intention, both to the virtual and the real store.
The second best evaluation occurred for the real film, though there were no interaction possibilities. This suggests that a true-to-reality design of online shop may be of high importance for the affective, cognitive and intentional customer variables as well. As expected, the virtual film was evaluated lowest, due to the lack of interactivity.
For Internet marketing, it can be concluded that an interactive online shop is most suited to emotionally address the customer, to evoke a feeling of flow and to convey information. Especially the
triggering of a flow feeling is seen as important prerequisite to increase the attractiveness of online offers. Compared to real stores, many Internet users complain about the lack of emotional experi-ences when shopping or surfing in an online shop. Our results show that emotions can be evoked by integrating interaction possibilities. Online sellers should therefore offer a broad array of interac-tion possibilities to their customers. As the film of the real store was evaluated second best, it is advisable to design the 3D-online shop as close to reality as possible. Through further development of virtual reality, it becomes possible to make products and store design even more realistic. As long as virtual presentation lacks realism, virtual stores should strive to integrate pictures of real objects into their programs.
A first improvement to a static virtual store would be the offering of a walk-through that should be complemented by further interaction possibilities. An online shop with a high degree of interactivity evokes the highest interest to visit the real store. With regard to Multi-Channel-Marketing, an interactive online shop stimulates the desire to visit the real store and can therefore generate more traffic for the real store.
We would like to point to some directions for further research. Subsequent studies should analyze what product categories or what kind of websites are most in need of interactivity. Another interest-ing research question would be to delve deeper into the personal traits that correspond to the positive or negative evaluations of interactivity features of online shops. Further research might also place a focus on the analysis of negative effects of interactivity
TABLE 1:
Mean Values of Variables Dependent on Online Shop Version and Significances of Contrasts
Mean Value of Version Significance of Contrasts VariableIOS VOS VF RF IOS-VOS IOS-VF IOS-RF VOS-VF VOS-RF VF-RF
Affective Variables Arousal1) 0.22 -0.75 -0.85 -0.44 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.628 0.126 0.045 Pleasure1) 0.21 -0.84 -0.83 -0.22 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.995 0.003 0.003 Cognitive Variables Control 3.65 3.55 3.44 3.32 0.558 0.224 0.054 0.633 0.311 0.594 Information gain 3.07 2.24 2.17 2.29 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.779 0.807 0.604 Idea of how products 4.06 3.93 3.93 3.83 0.409 0.408 0.153 0.994 0.646 0.654 look in reality Evaluation of products 3.36 3.02 3.32 4.05 0.013 0.807 0.000 0.096 0.000 0.000 as being high-quality Flow1) 0.15 -0.59 -0.38 -0.37 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.335 0.317 0.972 Intentional Variables Approach intention to 0.16 -0.64 -0.46 -0.35 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.385 0.166 0.607 online shop1) Intention to visit 3.19 2.55 2.68 2.98 0.000 0.006 0.242 0.603 0.079 0.222 real store
IOS=Interactive online-shop; VOS=Virtual online shop; VF=Filmed walk-through of virtual online shop; RF=Filmed walk-through of real store
1) values are factor scores
(such as the feeling of lost in hyperspace or a higher perceived effort). We think that most negative effects of interactivity can be avoided by not forcing the individual to use interactivity features. However, negative effects may also occur during the use of interactivity characteristics, and, for instance, it would be most interesting to analyze the kind of situations during which a shift from positive to negative effects of interactivity occurs.
REFERENCES
Bezjian-Avery, A., B. Calder, and D. Iacobucci(1998), “New Media Interactive Advertising versus Traditional Advertis-ing, in Journal of Advertising Research,” 38, 4, 23-33. Chen, C. and R. Rada (1996), “Interactivity with Hypertext. A
Metaanalysis of Experimental Studies,” in Human-Com-puter-Interaction, 11, 125-156.
Conklin, J. (1987), “Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey,” in
Computer, 20, 9, 17-41.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975), Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: The Experience of Play in Work and Games, San Francisco et al.: Jossey-Bass.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997), Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement with Everyday Life, New York:
HarperCollinsPublishers.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000), Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: The Experience of Play in Work and Games, 2nd edition, San Francisco et al.: Jossey-Bass.
Diehl, S. (2001), “Virtual Stores on the Internet: Design of Emotional Online Shopping Offers on the Internet from a Behavioral Point of View,” in: European Advances in Consumer Research, ed. Gröppel-Klein, A. and F.-R. Esch, Vol. 5, 115-119.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000), Psychology of Learning for Instruction, 2nd edition, Boston et al.: Allyn and Bacon.
Gerpott, T. J. and H. Wanke (2004), “Interactivity Potentials and Usage of German Press-Title Web Sites: An Empirical Investigation,” in Journal of Media Economics, 7, 4, 241-260.
Ghose, S. and W. Dou (1998), “Interactive Functions and Their Impacts on the Appeal of Internet Presence Sites,” in Journal of Advertising Research, 38 (March/April), 29-43.
Hewitt, B. and G. N. Gilbert (1993), “Groupware interfaces,” in:
CSCW in practice: an introduction and case studies, ed. Diaper, D. and C. Sanger, London: Springer, 31-38. Holley, C. and J. E. Hunton (1996), “Doing Business on the
Internet: How and why to develop a Home Page,” in Journal of Accountancy, March, 42-48.
APPENDIX
Measurement of VariablesThe affective, cognitive and intentional customer reactions dependent on the four shop versions were measured as follows: Affective Variables:
- Arousal: Please give us your spontaneous opinion regarding these statements about the store. The shop is (1) active; (2) arousing.
Participants could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) highly disagree to (5) highly agree.
- Pleasure: Pleasure was tested through two questions, one regarding the overall impression of the store and one regarding the store atmosphere. The overall impression was tested by this question: If you had to describe the store according to the following scale, which picture would best suit your opinion? For an answer scale, the respondents were given a non verbal scale with five faces with different expressions (Kroeber-Riel and Weinberg 2003).
The store atmosphere was tested using a verbal question. Please mark you first feeling, in regards to your opinion about the following statement regarding the store’s atmosphere: The store was very appealing. Respondents could answer again on a 5-point rating scale from (1) highly disagree to (5) highly agree.
Cognitive Variables
- Control:Please rate the following statement about your feelings in case you go into the online shop while surfing in the Internet: In this online shop, I have a feeling of control over the situation. Participants could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) highly disagree to (5) highly agree.
- Information gain: Did you have the feeling that you have gained information while visiting the online shop? Respondents could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) little information to (5) a lot of information.
- Idea of how products look in reality: I can easily picture how the products would look in reality. Respondents could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) highly disagree to (5) highly agree.
- Evaluation of products as being high-quality:I would value the products as …. Respondents could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) not high-quality at all to (5) very high-quality.
- Flow: Flow was measured using three statements: Please indicate your agreement or disagreement to the following statements.
(1) I feel immersed in this store. (2) Time flies in this online shop. (3) I feel captivated by the online shop. Respondents could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) highly disagree to (5) highly agree.
Intentional Variables
- Approach intention: Approach intention was measured using three indicators. The anticipated duration of the visit was measured in minutes. Please let us know, in minutes, how long you think you were usually in a store like the one presented?
Purchase intention: The presentation of products makes me want to buy products that I have not thought of before. Respondents could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) highly disagree to (5) highly agree.
Exploration and search behavior: The presentation of products led me to wish to further explore the store. Respondents could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) highly disagree to (5) highly agree.
- Intention to visit the real store: The online shop made me want to visit the real store. Respondents could answer on a 5-point rating scale from (1) highly disagree to (5) highly agree.
Jee, J. and W.-N. Lee (2002), “Antecedents and Consequences of Perceived Interactivity: An Exploratory Study,” in Journal of Interactive Advertising, 3, 1, 1-18.
Jonassen, D. H. (1989), Hypertext/Hypermedia, Educational Technology Publications, New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs. Jonassen, D. H. (1991), “Hypertext as instructional design,” in
Educational Technology Research and Development, 39, 1, 83-92.
Jonassen, D. H. and S. Wang (1993), “Acquiring Structural Knowledge from Semantically Structured Hypertext,” in
Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 20, 1, 1-8.
Kelly, G. A. (1963), A Theory of Personality: The Psychology of Personal Constructs, New York: W.W.Norton & Company. Kiousis, S. (2002), “Interactivity: A Concept Explication,” in
Liu, Y. and L. J. Shrum (2002), “What Is Interactivity and Is It Always Such a Good Thing? Implications of Definition, Person, and Situation for the Influence of Interactivity on Advertising Effectiveness,” in Journal of Advertising, 31, 4, 53-64.
Macias, W. (2003), “A Preliminary Structural Equation Model of Comprehension and Persuasion of Interactive Advertising Brand Web Sites,” in Journal of Interactive Advertising, 3, 2, 1-19.
McMillan, S. J. and J.-S. Hwang (2002), “Measures of Perceived Interactivity: An Exploration of the Role of Direction of Communication, User Control, and Time in Shaping Perceptions of Interactivity,” in Journal of Advertising, 26, 3, 29-42.
Mehrabian, A. and J.A. Russell (1974), An Approach to Environmental Psychology, Massachusetts: The MIT Press Cambridge.
Nelson, T. (1987), Computer Lib, 2nd edition, Washington: Redmond, Microsoft Press.
Nelson, W. A. and D. B. Palumbo (1992), “Learning, Instruction and Hypermedia,” in Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1992, 1, 287-299.
Novak, T. P., D. L. Hoffman, and Y.-F. Yung (2000), “Measur-ing the Customer Experience in Online Environments: A Structural Modelling Approach,” in Marketing Science, 19, 1, Winter, 22-42.
Pavlou, P. A. and D. W. Stewart (2000), “Measuring the Effects and Effectiveness of Interactive Advertising: A Research Agenda,” in Journal of Interactive Advertising, 1, 1-24. Preece, J. (1994), Human-Computer-Interaction, Wokingham:
Addison-Wesley.
Russell, J. N.; Pratt, G. (1980), “A description of the affective quality attributed to environments,” in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 311-322.
Shneiderman, B. and C. Plaisant (2005), Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction, 4th edition, Boston: Pearson, Addison-Wesley,. Strain, H. C. and P. M. Berry (1996), “Better page design for the
World Wide Web,” in Online&CD-ROM Review, 20, 5, 227-238.
Trevino, L. and J. Webster (1992), “Flow in computer-mediated communication,” in CommunicationResearch, 19, 5, 539-573.
Webster, J., L.K. Trevino, and L. Ryan (1993), “The Dimension-ality and Correlates of Flow in Human-Computer Interac-tions,” in Computers in Human Behavior, 9, 411-426. Zuckerman, M. (1979), Sensation Seeking: Beyond the Optimal
Level of Arousal, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
