Philosophy, Past and Present:

DOI: 10.4018/IJT.2019010101



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Philosophy, Past and Present:

John Macmurray and Our Future

Eleanor M. Godway, Central Connecticut State University, Britain, USA

ABSTRACT JohnMacmurray’scontroversialthesis:“Allmeaningfulknowledgeisforthesakeofactionandall meaningfulactionforthesakeoffriendship”isunpackedbyexplainingandillustratingwhathe meansbythe“personal.”Heseesphilosophyasaculturalphenomenonwhichexpressesandresponds toitshistoricalcontext,andinturnaffectshowpeoplethinkandbehave.TheSubjectasThinker, whichhasdominatedmodernphilosophy,hasledustovalueknowledgeforitsownsakeandtrust theoryoverpractice,needstobereplacedbytheselfasagent.Thelogicofthepersonal,inwhich thepositive(e.g.action,love)isconstitutedandsustainedbyitsnegative(e.g.thinking,fear)arises outofpersonalrelationship(“I-and-you”).Facingtheproblematicpersonhoodmayenableustofind meaninginrelationswithothers,andfacethefuturewithhope. KeywORdS

Action, Knowledge, Logic, Meaning, Negative, Positive, Reflection, The Personal, Thinking

(ThiswasduringtherelativelybrieffloweringofBritishIdealism,avariantofHegelianism,taken especiallyseriouslyatMacmurray’scollege,Balliol.)Astheroleofscienceandallsortsofquestions aboutknowledgebecamemoreandmoresignificantinhislaterthinkingthiscommentseems particularlystriking. HisstudiesatOxfordwereinterruptedbytheFirstWorldWar,andlikemanyofhispeers,he enlisted.Andaswithotherswhosurvivedthetrenches,hisworldwaschangedbytheexperience. Itcametohimevenasheparticipated(hewashonoredwiththeMilitaryCrossforValor)thatwhat peopleweredoingwastotallyirrational.Somethinghadgonebadlywrongfortheseactionstoseem tomakesense.Igivethisbiographicalbackgroundtotrytogivecontexttotheuniquephilosophical insightswhichMacmurraydevelopedandwhichIbelieveaddressissuesthatourcultureneedsto facetoday.3_{HegavetheGiffordLecturesin1953and54,andthepublishedversions,1957and61} respectively,whichofferperhapsthemostfullydevelopedversionsofhisthought,aretitledThe Self as AgentandPersons in Relation.Thesetitlesindicatethetwothemesthatarecentraltohisproject, whichcombinesepistemology,ontology,andethicsinwhollynewways.Thefirst,surprisingifnot controversial,heputsclearlyenough:

thewaymostpeoplethink.Thus,forhim,metaphysicsisnotrestrictedtotheconsiderationofan abstrusesetofhypotheses–suchasfelloutoffavorwithanalyticphilosophers.Rather,weall functionaccordingtotaken-for-grantedassumptionsabouthowtheworldmakessense,sothereis animplicitmetaphysicsunderlyingeverythingwedo,whetherwethinkaboutitornot.InDescartes’ case,hisimplicitmetaphysicswasatoddswithhisexplicitlyformulatedepistemology,anditisthat epistemologywhichwastakenupbysucceedingthinkers. TheCartesiandictum“IthinkthereforeIam”isariddleDescartesthoughthehadsolved,but forMacmurrayitisanon-starter.Tothinkinawaynotintegratedwithactionistostopinteracting withreality,towithdrawintoimagination.HisrejoindertoDescartes:“cogito ergo non-sum”(1995a, p.81).AmentalnoteisanoteIdonotinfactmake.5_{Ifaphilosophicalsystemendsinsolipsism,}

ithasrefuteditself,andbydefinition,thesubjectofthecogitoiscutofffromtherealworld.And reallyhasanyonebeenconvincedbyDescartes’reasoning?Doesn’theleaveuswithmorequestions thananswers?Hebelievedhecouldestablishcertainknowledgethroughthoughtalone.Therewill bemoretosayaboutimaginationlater.Macmurraycontendsthat

orbyfindingawaytoassertherwillaggressivelyandwinthatway.8_{Theseattitudesmayunderlie} generalapproachestolife,andinfluencephilosophicalpositions,inparticular,moraltheories,which areusuallywaystotrytosolvetheproblemswehavewhenwillsconflict.Macmurray’saccount emphasizesthepersonal,andconcludesthatitispersonalrelationshipswhichmakelifeworthliving, inhisterms,giveitmeaning. Wewillcomebacktotheseissueslater.Fornow,letusspendmoretimewiththechild.Asher rangeofexperienceexpandsandsheexplorestheworld,shelearnstodiscriminatebetweendifferent Others.Atfirstitseemsshethinkstheyareallother“I”s,butinduecourse,someareclearly“I”s (i.e.“you”s)becausetheyrespondtoherasopposedtosomewherethisisnotquiteclear.Someare animate,butnotsopersonal,suchaspets,andsomeseemtobeobjectsshecanmanipulate.Vygotsky documentedhowachildearlyonstartstousethingstoachieveherends(1986).Alreadyshehas beenmakingchoices,sayingyestothisandnotothatandadjustingwhatshedoesifthwarted,if realityhassaid“no”.Tosolveaproblem,youhavetofigureitout,tryingdifferentwaystohandleit. AsIhavesuggested,thisisbywayofimaginingdifferentsolutions.Anditisaloteasierifyouhave controlofinertstuffthanifyouhavetodealwithotherpeopleandtheirgoalsandactions(orwith recalcitrantanimalsorplantsthatneedwatering,etc.).

Leibnizcontinuedhisproject,producingversionswhichwereperhapsmoreconsistent,butinsome waysfurtherandfurtherfromwhatwashappeninginrealpeople’slives.(Surelytheseweregrand featsofimagination!)When“rationalism”wassupersededby“empiricism”,itwasnotsomuchthat Descartes’dualismwasovercomeasthatinterestinthe“mentalsubstance”waned,andwewereleft withthematerial–orthe“object”withoutaclearaccountofanysubject.Andifwedotrytomake senseoftheself,accordingtoaphysical(mechanistic)conception,wemustendinskepticismas becamecleartoHume.Evennow,asIhavealreadysuggested,“thinking”isaproblemforscience, whichissometimespresented–orperceived–asnottheproductofhumanpersonsatall.Andthe relationbetweenbrainsandmindscontinuestopuzzlemany.10 Obviously,theapplicationofmathematicalsymbolismhasworkedwellinmanyareasofhuman endeavor,butwhenthislogicalformisuniversalized,itdoesn’tsolveallourproblems.Ifapplied tolivingthingsitrunsintotrouble,andevenmoresoifitistohelpuswithrelationshipswithother humanbeings.Therecognitionthatotherlogicalformsarepossiblegraduallychangesthewaypeople think.Forexample,lookatthedifferencebetweenHobbes’pictureofsocietywherethegreatmachine isbuiltupofunitsalleffectivelyinterchangeableandmovedbythesameenergy,(thedifferences beingduetotheirrelativepositions)andthatofRousseau.Rousseauenvisionedasocietywhere allmembersfoundtheirfulfilment(freedom)intheircontributiontothewhole.Thisreflectionon interrelatednessandprocessisechoedinKant’sThird Critique.(The Critique of Pure Reasonisstill workingoutthesubstancemodel.MacmurraynotestheeffortintheCritique of Practical Reasonto makeroomforaction,evenifitisincomprehensibleaccordingtothefirstCritique11_{).Inthelogic} ofsubstancewhichismathematical,theunitsarestableandinterchangeable,andsopositiveand negativecanceleachother:~(A•~A).ButthelogicalformfiguredoutbyHegel,thedialectic,will havetosymbolizetheorganic.This“logic”isquitedifferent:herepositiveandnegativeinteract andareabsorbedintosomethingnew(theAufhebung).Thismakesitpossibletoreflectonlifeand growthasitaccountsforarelationshipbetweendisparateelementsinwhichbotharechangedasthey contributetoawholegreaterthanthemselves.(A•~A)→B.Reflectingonhumanlifeaccordingtothis symbolism,Rousseau’svisionhadmoregoingforitthanHobbes’butitisnotgoingtobeadequate inthelongrun.Thelifeexperiencedinsuchatotalitarian-typesocietywillnotprovesatisfactory. Asinthefull-fledgedHegelianstate,allmustfindtheir“truth”inthefunctionwhichtheyperform forthegreatergood.Justasthecause/effectmetaphysicsstillcolorsourthinkingaboutthevalueof science,theorganicmodelisalsopartofourtaken-for-grantedmetaphysics.Wethinkofourselves asmembers(i.e.limbs)oflarger(corporate)organizations(organ,again);ourfunctioninsocietyis partofwhoweare,butthereismoretolifethanthis.MacmurraywasveryinterestedintheRussian experience:itwasthefirsttimeaphilosophicaltheorywasactuallytestedintherealworld(1995a). Andtheresultofthetestwas:itdoesnotwork;i.e.societyrunthatwaydidnotmeettheneedsofthe peopleinvolved.Whetherthecapitalistversionofdemocracyworksisperhapsstillbeingdecided. Theorganicmodelisveryinfluential:itunderliesthecurrentobsessionwithgrowth,whereaswith realorganisms,thecycleoflifeincludesdeath. Butabouthumanbeings:physically,certainlywearematter,andbiologicallyalive,butneither accounttellsthewholestory.Wemayhaveitrightaboutphysics,andaremakingprogressin understandinglivingsystemsofplantsandanimals,butourselves?Ourlackofself-knowledgemay– perhapsalreadydoes–spelldisaster.Thelogicalformsthencanbesymbolized~(A•~A),(A•~A)→B andnowtrythis:(A•~A)•(~A•A)→(A’•A’’)→?(thesearemysymbols,notMacmurray’s).Inthe caseofthepersonal,somehowthenegativeisessential,isinfactconstitutiveofthepositive.Iam mebecauseIamnotyou,andviceversa.Theunitofthepersonalis“Iandyou”. Thesubstancelogicofscience,asourculturehasappliedit,hasallowedustoaccumulatemore andmoreknowledge.Thereferenceto“means”suggestsmoneyinthebank12_{.MaryMidgley’sbook}

Wisdom, Information and Wonderhasthesubtitle:“Whatisknowledgefor?”Sheisscathingabout

forgoodorill,andthemorepoweritgivesus,themoredamageitcandointhewronghands.Not necessarilywithevilintent,butbecause,asseemstobemostoftenthecase,peopledonotknow whattodowithit.Remember,thisknowledgeisreflective,theproductofwithdrawalfromreality. Hence,thethrustofMacmurray’sclaim:“Allmeaningfulknowledgeisforthesakeofaction.”What isthepointofallthisdata? Thesecondmodeofreflectionwhichmakessenseoftheorganic,allowsonetoappreciatehow thewholecanbemuchmorethanthesumoftheparts.Here,judgment,asKantdescribeditinthe Third Critique,isaesthetic,amatteroffeeling,asenseofhowentitiesthatdiffer,evenopposeeach other,caninteractinsuchawaythattheydisappearintoafinal,satisfactoryform.Macmurraysays ithasusseeingtheworldasend.Again,thisinsightisreflective,detachedfromtherealworldand so,impersonal.Thishasbeenregardedwithsomecomplacency(Aristotlebeingonlyoneexample) asan(intellectual?)virtue,butitisclearlyanoccupationalhazardforahumanbeingwhoexistsin therealworld.13_{Suchthinkingisnotdoinganythingsoittakesnorisksanddoesnotinvolveother} people.Action,ontheotherhand,takesplaceinrealtime,thatistosay,asitchangesthesituation, itinitiatesafuturewhichisdifferentfromthepast.(Thetraditional“problemoffreewill”canonly seemlikeonefromtheperspectiveofreflection:i.e.,inimagination.)Andwearealwaysalreadyin relationshipswithothers,evenifwehavesometimesbeeninapositiontoignorethis,orevenforget it.Buttodaywehavenochoice. Nowwehavetostopandreflectonwhatishappeninginourworldandfigureoutwhattodo next,sowedoneedtobeabletokeeptherelevantissuesinmind.Macmurray’sarticulationofthe problemmayseemabstractandoddlyexpressed,andheisinsomewaysstrugglinginthedark,but certainlythereneedstobesomerethinking14_{,orwewillnotmakeitasaspecies.Whattodoabout} conflictsbetweenhumanbeingsandtheirintractableconflictingdesires?Thelogicofthepersonal, inwhichthepositiveisconstitutedandsustainedbythenegative,involvesasMacmurrayputsit a“practicalcontradiction”(1995a,p.98).Wehavealreadydiscussedhowloveisconstitutedand sustainedbyfear.Thepersonalisinherentlyproblematic.Andanycasewillinvolvethisweirdlogic, asweallknowin(personal)experience.Wecanonlytellthetruthifwecanalsolie;wecanonly getitrightifwecouldhavegotitwrong–whetherinanindividualprojectlikethecarver’s,orwith otherpeople;wecanonlyignoresomethingorsomeoneweknowisthere;wecanonlyenslavea beingthatisfree…Andtheclinchers:onlyapersoncanbehaveimpersonally,onlyahumanbeingcan beinhumane.MacmurrayquotesaninsightfromKierkegaard(hisfundamentalcriticismofHegel):

The dialectic of the personal life is a dialectic without a synthesis… (1995a, p. 98).

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Costello,J.E.(2002).John macmurray, a biography.Edinburgh,UK:FlorisBooks. Davidson,D.(1980).Essays on actions and events.NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress. deBeauvoir,S.(1996).Ethics of ambiguity.NewYork,NY:CitadelPress.

Godway,E.M.(2007).Surrenderandcatchandthequestionofreason:Kurtwolffandjohnmacmurray.InG. Backhaus&G.Psathas(Eds.),The sociology of radical commitment: Kurt wolff’s existential turn(pp.80–91). Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks.

Godway,E.M.(2008).Theworldasoneaction.International Studies in Philosophy,40(1),79–87.doi:10.5840/ intstudphil200840115

Godway,E.M.(2010).Thecrisisofthepersonal:Macmurray,postmodernismandthechallengeofphilosophy today.Appraisal, the Journal of the Society for Post-Critical and Personalist Studies, 8(1),3-17.

Heidegger,M.(1977).The question concerning technology and other essays. (J. G. Gray, J. Stambaugh(W. LovittTrans.&Ed.).NewYork,NY:Harper&Row.

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McGilchrist,I.(2009).The master and his emissary: The divided brain and the making of the western world. NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress.

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Mill,J.S.(1988).The subjection of women.Indianapolis,IN:HackettPublishingCo.(Originalworkpublished 1869)

Russell,B.(1946).The history of western philosophy.London,UK:Allen&Unwin. Stern,D.N.(1985).The interpersonal world of the infant.NewYork,NY:BasicBooks. Suttie,I.D.(1963).The origins of love and hate.Harmondsworth,UK:PenguinBooks.

Vygotsky,L.S.(1986).Thought and language. (E.Hanfmann&G.VakarTrans.&Eds.).Cambridge,MA: MITPress.

Winnicott,D.W.(1988).Babies and their mothers.Reading,MA:Addison-Wesley.

Wittgenstein,L.(1999).Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus(C.K.Ogden,Trans.).Mineola,NY:DoverPublications, Inc.

eNdNOTeS 1_{ SeeCostello(2002).} 2_{ SeeMidgley(1991).Heraccountofspecialization,theinfluenceoftheprestigeofscience,andtheeffects} thesehadonhowBritishphilosophycametoseeitselfhelpsexplainwhathappenedtoMacmurray.When heresignedfromtheGroteProfessorshipatUniversityCollege,London,1945,totakeuptheMoral PhilosophyChairinEdinburgh,hewassucceededbyA.J.Ayer. 3_{ Inrelationtootherphilosophicalmovementsonecanseesomeaffinitieswithpragmatism(about} whichIthinkheknewlittleornothing)andalsowithexistentialism.HetookKierkegaardseriously, andfeltclosetoBuber(Costello,2002,p.322);seeI and Thou(BuberM.,1970)andBetween Man

and Man(BuberM.,1965)butherejectedSartre’sposition.Hedismissedphenomenology,buthis workisconsistentwiththelaterHusserl,hassomeparallelsinHeideggerandmoreinMerleau-Ponty anddeBeauvoir.See“TheCrisisofthePersonal:Macmurray,PostmodernismandtheChallengeof PhilosophyToday”(Godway,2010). 4_{ Cf.MaryMidgleyquotesBertrandRussell(1946,p.515)“Theproblemofadurableandsatisfactory} socialordercanonlybesolvedbycombiningthesolidityoftheRomanEmpirewiththeidealismof St.Augustine’sCityofGod.Toachievethisa new philosophy will be needed.”(Midgley,1991,p.115) (Heritalics). 5_{ Cf.theoldjokeaboutDescartesinthebar:askedbythebarkeepifhe’dlikeasecondbeerhesays,“I} thinknot”,anddisappears. 6_{ Firstpublished1933.} 7_{ Hispointisthatifthereisnoelementofrisk,novulnerability,nopossibilityofoneorotherpartytothe} relationshipfailinginsomeway,throughtheirfaultornot,thensomethingislackingwhichpreventsit frombeingloveinafull(personal)sense.Cf.theStoics’advicenottoloveanyoneoranything–suchan investmentwouldinevitablybringpain.

8_{ SeeThe Origins of Love and Hate(Suttie,1963)(firstpublished1935andknowntoMacmurray).} 9_{ Cf.(Wittgenstein,1999).ButWittgensteindidseethatthiswasnotgoingtowork,andhislaterwritings}

aremoreconsistentwithsomeideasinMacmurray.

10_{ ButseeIainMcGilchrist,The Master and His Emissary(2009).}

11_{ Asitisboundtobe,accordingtoMacmurray,bothbecauseoftheprioritygiventothinkingandthewrong}

logicalform;seeThe Self as Agent,Chapters2and3(1995a,pp.39-83).

12_{ Cf.Heidegger’scriticismofasystemwhichregardseverythingas“standingreserve”–aresourcetobe}

usedforsomethingelse(1977).

13_{ AsnotedbyKierkegaard(1987).}

14_{ SeeRethinking Thinking(Hoppers&Richards,2012).}

15_{ “Iftheterminus a quoisahelplesstotaldependenceontheOther,theterminus ad quemisnotindependence}

butamutualinterdependenceofequals”(MacmurrayJ.,1995b,p.66).

16_{ SeeKurtWolff(2002),forwhichIwrotetheforeword,andmyessay“SurrenderandCatchandthe}

QuestionofReason:KurtWolffandJohnMacmurray”(Godway,2007,pp.80-91).

17_{ The Self as Agent,Ch.10(MacmurrayJ.,1995a,pp.203-222)and“TheWorldAsOneAction”}

(Godway,2008).