P a g e i
Guidebook on
Academic Writing and Harvard
Referencing
P a g e 0 Table of Contents
1.1 Introduction to academic writing ... 3
1.1.1 Has a clear structure and uses formal language ... 3
1.1.2 Has an argument ... 3
1.1.3 Referencing and citation ... 3
1.1.4 Engages in an inquiry, open to multiple suggestions ... 4
1.1.5 The audience... 4
1.1.6 Punctuation and grammar ... 4
1.2 Features of Academic Writing ... 5
1.3 Structuring Academic Reports ... 5
1.3.1 Sample Content Page ... 6
1.3.2 Detail Assignment Structure ... 7
1.3.2.1 Introduction... 7
1.3.3.2 Main body ... 7
1.3.3.3 Conclusion... 7
1.3.3.4 Recommendation ... 7
1.3.3.5 References ... 8
1.3.3.6 Appendices... 8
1.4 Word Count Regulations ... 8
1.5 Effective Academic Writing ... 10
1.5.1 Modelling ‘Identifying appropriate Literature’ ... 10
1.5.2 Modelling ‘Discussing Literature in your own Words’ ... 11
1.5.3 Critical Analysis - Defining Terms ... 11
P a g e 1 1.5.5 Modelling Critical Review through Comparing and Contrasting Theoretical
Perspectives ... 12
1.5.6 Modelling Critical Review through Challenging the Validity of the Theory . 13 1.5.7 Modelling ‘Synthesis’ ... 13
1.5.8 Modelling Summarising and Judgement; Example 1 ... 14
1.5.9 Modelling Summarising and Judgement: Example 2 ... 14
2.1 Critical Writing ... 15
2.1.1 What is critical writing? ... 15
2.1.2 What is descriptive writing? ... 15
2.1.3 The difference between descriptive writing and critical writing ... 16
2.1.4 Finding your academic voice ... 16
2.1.5 Stringing together of quotes ... 17
2.1.6 Strategic use of paragraphs ... 17
2.1.7 If it’s worth including, it’s worth telling us why ... 18
2.1.8 Line of argument ... 18
2.1.9 Example of an effective critical writing ... 19
2.1.10 Checklist for an overall review of your writing ... 20
2.1.0.1 What is the balance between descriptive and critical writing? ... 20
2.1.10.2 Why should the reader be convinced by what I’ve just written? ... 20
2.1.10.3 Is my conclusion trailed and supported sufficiently well by my preceding analysis and argument? ... 20
2.1.10.4 Have I included any unsubstantiated statements? ... 20
3.1 Academic Honesty and Plagiarism ... 21
3.1.1 Characteristics of Plagiarism ... 21
3.1.2 How to avoid Plagiarism ... 22
P a g e 2
3.1.2.2 Summarizing ... 22
3.1.3 Academic Paragraphs ... 22
3.1.4 Coherence ... 23
3.1.5 Signposting/Signaling... 24
3.1.6 Dos and Don’ts in Academic writing ... 25
4.1 Referencing ... 26
4.1.1 What to reference/cite ... 26
4.1.2 In-text and End-text citation ... 26
4.1.2.1 Sample In-text citation ... 26
4.1.2.2 Sample End-text citation (Reference list) ... 27
4.2 In-text Citation ... 27
4.2.1 Direct Citation ... 27
4.2.2 Indirect Citation ... 27
4.2.3 Referencing in the text ... 27
4.2.4 Direct Quote - In-text citation ... 28
4.3 End-text Citation (Reference list)... 28
5.1 Sample Assignment ... 29
6.1 Practice Questions ... 41
Exercise 1: State ‘True’ or ‘False’ for the following statements ... 41
Exercise 2: Short answer question ... 41
Exercise 03: Underline the most appropriate source for the given reference pattern . 42 Exercise 4: Citing in the text... 43
Exercise 5: Paraphrasing ... 45
P a g e 3 1.1 Introduction to academic writing
Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. However, academic
writing does many of the things that personal writing does not: it has its own set of rules
and practices.
1.1.1 Has a clear structure and uses formal language
These rules and practices may be organised around a formal order or structure in which
to present ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author citations in
the literature. Unlike most essays, a report is divided according to clearly labeled sections, such as “Introduction”, “Discussion”, “Conclusions”, and “Recommendations”.
Further, unlike an essay, reports allow for bulleted points with respect to the conclusions
and recommendations sections.
1.1.2 Has an argument (Presents different views for better understanding of the
subject)
In contrast to personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because it deals
with the underlying theories and causes governing processes and practices in everyday
life, as well as exploring alternative explanations for these events. Academic writing follows a particular ‘tone’ and adheres to traditional conventions of punctuation,
grammar, and spelling.
1.1.3 Referencing and citation
A significant difference between academic writing and other writing genres is based on
the citation and referencing of published authors. If you make judgments about
something in academic writing, there is an expectation that you will support your opinion
by linking it to what a published author has previously written about the issue. Citing the
work of other authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have read the
literature, understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and varying
P a g e 4 1.1.4 Engages in an inquiry, open to multiple suggestions
Like all varieties of writing, academic writing has its own tone, which dictates the choice
of words and phrasing. The tone of academic writing can also vary significantly
depending on the subject-area and the academic discipline you are writing for. The
readings, textbook, and study guide of your course show you what tone is expected in
the paper, so study their style carefully.
1.1.5 The audience (Scholars in your field of study)
It is important to remember who you are writing for. Being conscious of academic tone
suggests that you are aware of your audience and respect the formality normally
associated with academic writing. When writing academically, you must target a more
general audience than just your lecturer and/or marker. You should assume that your
readers will be intelligent thinking people, but they may not be specifically informed of
your topic. Do not presume that your reader knows all the terms and concepts
associated with your work.
1.1.6 Punctuation and grammar
In academic writing you should always follow rules of punctuation and grammar,
especially as the end-user or consumer of your writing, unlike a friend, is likely to be
very different from you and will not always know to what you are referring. Hence, it is
vital that you are clear. Punctuation and the conventions of grammar are universally
known systems (within English speaking cultures) that maintain clarity and avoid
P a g e 5 1.2 Features of Academic Writing
Academic writing is much more considered than everyday
writing or business writing. It has a language of its own, which tends to: be precise and accurate - concerned with definitions
be cautious - not very direct or bold
be careful and clear in establishing links between ideas, evidence and
judgements
be objective rather than emotional or rhetorical be logical in sequence and structure
be sceptical - open to doubt, aware of alternative evidence and views avoid sweeping claims or statements
contain references to other work to show where evidence and ideas have come from
1.3 Structuring Academic Reports
A report is a formal document. It should be concise, well organised, using headings,
sub-headings, sections, and be easy to follow. The exact format should be confirmed
with the module tutor for each separate report. However, generally speaking, academic
reports have the following elements.
A covering title page (not included in your word count) A contents page (not included in your word count)
Acknowledgements page (not included in your word count) Introduction
Main body (separated by headings and sub-headings) Conclusions
Recommendations (if required)
P a g e 6 1.3.1 Sample Content Page
1.0 Introduction pg. 4
2.0 Defining Leadership pg. 4
2.1 Leadership Perspectives pg. 5
2.2 Models of Leadership pg. 5
2.2.1 Transformational Leadership pg. 8
2.2.2 Transactional Leadership pg.10
3.0 Evaluating Personal Leadership Styles pg.12
3.1 Leadership Strengths and Weaknesses pg.12
3.2 Leadership Development Areas pg.13
4.0 Conclusion pg.14
5.0 Recommendations pg.14
Reference List pg.16
Bibliography pg.17
Appendix 1 pg.18
P a g e 7 1.3.2 Detail Assignment Structure
1.3.2.1 Introduction
The introduction should give the reader a clear idea about
Set the scene (Define the topic / subject area) The purpose of the assignment
Signposting (What will be covered in the assignment) Contextual/background information
1.3.3.2 Main body
This section contains the main debate relating to the focus of your report It should be logical, cohesive, points should link fluently
It should be separated by headings and sub-headings
1.3.3.3 Conclusion
Your conclusion should flow on from your previous discussion If appropriate, you should also discuss how well you achieved your
objectives/purpose/aim of the report
Summarising and synthesising key messages from the report Making final comments
1.3.3.4 Recommendation
If your report requires you to make recommendations, then these should be:
clearly stated specific
aligned to your findings/analysis Backup with the literature presented
P a g e 8 1.3.3.5 References
You should produce a comprehensive list of references which details all of those
sources to which you have referred in the text. Remember this list should be:
In alphabetical order
Following the Harvard referencing technique
Should be on a separate page from the recommendations At the end of the report but before any appendices
1.3.3.6 Appendices
Any additional information which supports your discussions in the main body but is not essential to the report
Any specific information the assignment brief has requested be in the appendices Elements critical to the assignment should NOT BE INCLUDED in the
appendices to enable you to manage your word count
1.4 Word Count Regulations
University regulations state that you must adhere to the report word count – this will be noted on the assignment brief. You are allowed to exceed the stated word
count by a maximum of 10%. E.g. if your report is 5000 words you can go over
this by 500 words. You must state the word count on your cover page
YOU MUST ADHERE TO THE WORDCOUNT REGULATIONS: If you exceed
the word count by more than 10% your mark will be reduced by 10%. E.g. if you
would have achieved 70% you will be awarded 63% for exceeding word count
P a g e 9
Included in Word Count NOT Included in Word Count
Introduction Cover title page
Main body Contents page
Conclusion Acknowledgements
Recommendations Final reference and bibliograpy list
Citations and quotes in the main body of
the report
Tables, graphs, figures and any pictorial
images
In the main body of the report (these
should be minimised as overuse to
manage word count will be penalised)
P a g e 10 1.5 Effective Academic Writing
1.5.1 Modelling ‘Identifying appropriate Literature’
There are numerous and varied definitions of coaching, similarities and disparities seem
dependent on the context within which the coaching is delivered. Below are two which provide some level of ‘fit’ with the research conducted
coaching is the art of facilitating the performance and learning and development of others’ (Downey, 2003, p. 11)
P a g e 11 1.5.2 Modelling ‘Discussing Literature in your own Words’
On the surface, these definitions appear analogous, each highlighting the potential
contribution and impact that coaching can have on the learning, development and
performance of others, although it could be suggested that divergence and disparity
exist in how these definitions are expressed.
Downey (2003) refers to coaching as an ‘art’ which signifies it as a ‘skill’, ‘talent’; an ‘ability’ to facilitate i.e. make easy, assist or make possible the learning development
and performance of others. Parsloe (1999) on the other hand positions coaching as a process, which suggests it is a ‘procedure’ or ‘method’ rather than a skill that enables or
makes possible learning and development to improve performance.
Are they different? - yes, are the definitions individually deficient in some way? -
possibly.
1.5.3 Critical Analysis - Defining Terms
Critical Analysis: Most of your assignments will ask you to critically analyse aspects of
the topic you are studying. It may help to understand the difference between criticism
and critical analysis.
Criticism is a negative process. When we criticise someone we are pointing out only
their faults (potentially bias)
Critical analysis is a positive and creative process as it involves close consideration of
an idea, theory or piece of evidence, for example, interpreting and evaluating it and
comparing it to other ideas (balanced)
Critical analysis is a central process in all academic work. It involves thinking critically,
which is applying rational and logical thinking while deconstructing the texts you read
P a g e 12 1.5.4 Critical Debate/Argument Synthesis
What is meant by argument in academic writing?
Although in everyday speech the word argument means to quarrel or disagree, in the
academic world, to argue means to make a case for an idea or theory and to back it up
with evidence. In your assignments the use of argument will probably take the following
forms:
Identifying and critically discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the theories that
you are writing about.
or
A contrast between two or more theories. For example: “Writer X argues that… because…, however, Writer Y argues that… because…”
1.5.5 Modelling Critical Review through Comparing and Contrasting Theoretical Perspectives
Directive coaching involves the coach teaching, advising and feeding back information
to the coachee (Fielden, 2005). Fielden notes that this form of coaching is disliked by
many of the coaching purists, as they consider it authoritarian in nature, unsupportive in
relation to the coachee taking responsibility for their learning and development
and nothing more than the provision of consulting advice. Atkinson (2004) in an article
in Coaching Today, disagrees and contributes to the debate arguing that there is a role
for the directive approach, suggesting that it should be employed when groups of staff
need specific advice, often when an organisation is going through trauma or if the
coachee is in the infancy of their learning journey.
Here we are comparing and contrasting what the two writers i.e. Fieldon and Atkinson
think of directive coaching
We are also demonstrating our breadth of reading – the writer is demonstrating that
they have read both the works and they are evidencing that they are able to present
P a g e 13 1.5.6 Modelling Critical Review through Challenging the Validity of the Theory
In the 1970s, much work was carried out by psychologists on ‘normally’ functioning
individuals to improve their work performance, much of this work was based on Martin Seligman’s work which focused on how highly functioning people became successful
within an organisational context (Coaching Systems, 2004). This work helped to
popularise coaching in the USA in the late 1980s and it is suggested by Feldman and
Lankau (2005) that coaching has since emerged as a specific intervention with its
purpose aimed at behavioural change, learning and performance development in junior,
middle and senior managers. This purpose is somewhat different to that suggested by
Whitmore (2004) who deems that the purpose of coaching is related to increasing
awareness and encouraging the coachee to take self-directed responsibility for personal
growth.
These works focus on small samples of participants within specific organisational
settings and are fundamentally grounded in only assessing coaching for managers. It
could be suggested therefore that the assumptions and inferences drawn may not
translate in the same manner for differing contexts and groups. This is a view
supported by Manek (2004) who questioned the generic benefits and uses of coaching
in a health organisation for consultants with no direct managerial responsibility.
1.5.7 Modelling ‘Synthesis’
According to Fielden (2005) coaching is centred on unlocking a person’s potential to
maximise his or her own performance. This view, supported by the CIPD (2009),
highlights the links between coaching and improvement in performance in that‘coaching can and does provide a platform for individuals to reach their performance aspirations’
(CIPD, 2009, p. 65).
Generally speaking in order to achieve this unlocking of potential and
maximisation of performance, one of two types of coaching are usually employed –
P a g e 14 1.5.8 Modelling Summarising and Judgement; Example 1
The literature suggest that irrespective of the approach adopted and the differing
nuances suggested, there are common core themes that exist across all models of
coaching. These include: coaching as a collaborative relationship; a focus on solutions;
goal settin; and goal attainment (CIPD, 2008; Whitmore, 2009; Downey, 2003 and
Stober and Grant, 2005). Learning is also a focal underpinning and constant element of
coaching, and in a work context the principles guiding effective adult learning are
deemed important (CIPD, 2009; Hughes, 1999).
1.5.9 Modelling Summarising and Judgement: Example 2
The literature suggests that creativity and innovation are important to organisations and
can lead to improved performance (Nystrom, 1990). Waight (2005) suggests
innovations can be generated by all employees Indeed Spender & Strong (2010) found
frontline employees often have the best innovations. Creativity is the building block for
innovation (Von Stamm, 2008) however the culture and climate must support creativity
and innovation (Shalley & Gilson, 2004). In this way, leaders are noted to have a
crucial innovation role (Amabile & Khaire, 2008; Mumford et al, 2002). Leaders need to
foster a climate that encourages employee creativity.
Through thematic analysis of creative climate assessment models and points that stifle
innovation, key antecedents have been identified as to how leaders can impact
innovation through the climate they cultivate. These include encouraging knowledge
development; enabling risks to be taken; setting challenging roles and goals;
encouraging and enabling autonomy; providing appropriate resources; rewarding and
recognising efforts; instigating idea evaluation processes; enabling group interactions;
and acting as a role model (Shalley & Gilson, 2004; Amabile & Khaire, 2008; Mumford
P a g e 15 suggests the climate is the manifestation of the culture, such manifestations Schein
suggests are represented by the outer rings of his model.
2.1 Critical Writing
It is common for feedback on student writing to focus on the need to engage more critically with the source material. Typical comments from tutors are: ‘too descriptive’, or ‘not enough critical analysis’. This Study Guide gives ideas for how to improve the level
of critical analysis you demonstrate in your writing. Other Study Guides you may find
useful are: What is Critical Reading? Using Paragraphs and The Art of Editing.
2.1.1 What is critical writing?
The most characteristic features of critical writing are:
a clear and confident refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers without evaluating the arguments and evidence that they provide;
a balanced presentation of reasons why the conclusions of other writers may be
accepted or may need to be treated with caution;
a clear presentation of your own evidence and argument, leading to your
conclusion; and a recognition of the limitations in your own evidence, argument,
and conclusion.
2.1.2 What is descriptive writing?
The most characteristic features of descriptive writing are that it will describe something,
but will not go beyond an account of what appears to be there. A certain amount of
descriptive writing is needed to establish for example:
the setting of the research;
a general description of a piece of literature, or art; the list of measurements taken;
the timing of the research;
P a g e 16 2.1.3 The difference between descriptive writing and critical writing
With descriptive writing you are not developing argument; you are merely setting the
background within which an argument can be developed. You are representing the
situation as it stands, without presenting any analysis or discussion.
Descriptive writing is relatively simple. There is also the trap that it can be easy to use
many, many words from your word limit, simply providing description.
In providing only description, you are presenting but not transforming information; you
are reporting ideas but not taking them forward in any way. An assignment using only
descriptive writing would therefore gain few marks.
With critical writing you are participating in the academic debate. This is more
challenging and risky. You need to weigh up the evidence and arguments of others, and
to contribute your own. You will need to:
consider the quality of the evidence and argument you have read; identify key positive and negative aspects you can comment upon;
assess their relevance and usefulness to the debate that you are engaging in for your assignment; and
identify how best they can be woven into the argument that you are developing.
A much higher level of skill is clearly needed for critical writing than for descriptive
writing, and this is reflected in the higher marks it is given.
2.1.4 Finding your academic voice
When you engage in critical writing you are developing your own academic voice within
your subject. Wellington et al. (2005 p.84) offer some suggestions for distinguishing
between the academic and the non-academic voice. They suggest that the academic
voice will involve:
P a g e 17 confidence … but not ‘cockiness’ or arrogance;
judgement which is critical … but not dismissive; opinions … without being opinionated;
careful evaluation of published work … not serial shooting at random targets; being ‘fair’: assessing fairly the strengths and weaknesses of other people’s
ideas and writing … without prejudice;and
making judgements on the basis of considerable thought and all the available evidence … as opposed to assertions without reason.”
2.1.5 Stringing together of quotes
It can be tempting to string together quotes to support an argument, feeling that the
more quotes you include, the stronger your argument. It is important, however, to
remember that you also need to interpret the quotes to the reader, and to explain their
relevance, discuss their validity, and show how they relate to other evidence.
2.1.6 Strategic use of paragraphs
There are several ways in which you can use the paragraph to enhance your critical
writing.
You can use paragraphs to make a clear and visual separation between descriptive
writing and critical analysis, by switching to a new paragraph when you move from
description to critical writing, and vice versa. This can help in:
emphasising to the reader that you are including both description and critical analysis, by providing a visual representation of their separation; and
pushing you to produce the necessary critical writing, especially if you find that your description paragraphs are always longer, or more frequent, than your
critical analysis paragraphs.
A paragraph break can provide a brief pause for your readers within a longer argument;
giving them the opportunity to make sure they are keeping up with your reasoning.
P a g e 18 once, resulting in their having to re-read the material until they can identify the point you
are making.
You can also use paragraphs to push yourself to include critical writing alongside
descriptive writing or referencing, by considering each paragraph almost as an essay in
miniature. Within each paragraph you would:
introduce the point you want to make; make the point, with supporting evidence; reflect critically on the point.
2.1.7 If it’s worth including, it’s worth telling us why
A certain amount of descriptive writing is essential, particularly in the earlier parts of the
essay or assignment or dissertation. Beyond that, however, there is a danger that too
much descriptive writing will use up valuable words from your word limit, and reduce the
space you have for the critical writing that will get you higher marks.
A useful habit to get into is to make sure that, if you describe some evidence relevant to
your argument, you need then to explain to the reader why it is relevant. The logic of
your explanation contributes to the critical component of your writing.
So, a sentence or two might describe and reference the evidence, but this is not enough
in itself. The next few sentences need to explain what this evidence contributes to the
argument you are making. This may feel like duplication at first, or that you are
explaining something that is obvious, but it is your responsibility to ensure that the
relevance of the evidence is explained to the reader; you should not simply assume that
the reader will be following the same logic as you, or will just work out the relevance of
the quote or data you have described.
2.1.8 Line of argument
So far this Study Guide has considered the detail of what you write. The other key
element in critical writing is the overall structure of your piece of writing. For maximum
effectiveness, your writing needs to have a line, or lines of argument running through it
P a g e 19 Just as you have used paragraphs on a micro scale to present your critical writing, so
you need to consider the ordering of those paragraphs within the overall structure. The
aim is to lead your readers carefully through the thread of your argument, to a
well-supported conclusion.
2.1.9 Example of an effective critical writing
The text below is an example of good critical writing, and is based on essay material supplied by University of Leicester’s School of Psychology.
The author refers to the available evidence, but also evaluates the validity of that
evidence, and assesses what contribution it can realistically make to the debate.
There are a number of inherent methodological difficulties in evaluating treatment
efficacy in this area, and this has contributed to controversy within the research
literature surrounding treatment outcomes for this group of offenders (Marshall, 1997).
Firstly, while there is no doubt that the primary criterion of treatment success is a
reduction in the rate of re-offending (Marshall et al., 1999), reconviction data does not,
in isolation, provide a realistic representation of actual levels of re-offending by this
group. It is well established that there is a discrepancy between re-offending and
reconviction rates: the latter underestimating the number of offences committed (Grubin,
1999). Indeed, a significant proportion of offences committed by offenders are either
unreported, or do not result in the offender being convicted (Abel et al., 1987).
You can see how the author is considering the available evidence, but also the
limitations on that evidence, and will be taking all of this into account in drawing
P a g e 20 2.1.10 Checklist for an overall review of your writing
It is always worth taking a critical look at your own writing before submitting it for
assessment. The kinds of questions that might be useful to ask at that stage are:
2.1.0.1 What is the balance between descriptive and critical writing?
While a certain amount of description is necessary to set the context for your analysis,
the main characteristic of academic writing is its critical element. A useful way to check
this balance in your own writing is to use two colored pens and to mark in the margin
whether the lines are descriptive or critical. The balance will change at different points,
but you need to make sure there is enough of the colour that represents critical writing.
2.1.10.2 Why should the reader be convinced by what I’ve just written?
Remember that, just as you are asking ‘Why should I believe what I’ve just read?’, the
readers of your work will be asking the same question of your writing. A critical read
through your own writing may reveal gaps in your logic, which you can rectify before you
submit it for the critique of others.
2.1.10.3 Is my conclusion trailed and supported sufficiently well by my preceding analysis and argument?
Check out the conclusions that you have drawn, then locate and check the supporting evidence you provide earlier on. This is a good way of making sure you haven’t
forgotten to include a crucial piece of evidence. It is also a way of checking that, when
your reader comes to the end of your writing, the conclusions make sense, rather than
being a surprise, or an unconvincing leap of logic.
2.1.10.4 Have I included any unsubstantiated statements?
Sometimes a generalised, sweeping statement can slip through: the kind of statement
that might be acceptable on conversation, but not in academic writing. There are three
main ways of dealing with such statements:
P a g e 21 re-phrase the statement to sound more cautious e.g.: ‘it could be argued …’ or
‘this suggests that …’ remove the statement
3.1 Academic Honesty and Plagiarism
If you understand the reasons for referencing it is evident why you should not pass off
work of others as your own.
Failing to reference appropriately could result in your assessors thinking you are guilty of plagiarism – the act of using somebody else’s work or ideas as your own.
Using someone else’s words or ideas without properly acknowledging them – presenting someone else’s ideas as your own.
Deliberate or inadvertent and even if you reference an author but your words are
considered too close to the original work you can be accused of plagiarism.
It is very important that you take steps to avoid plagiarism and learn to reference
correctly.
3.1.1 Characteristics of Plagiarism
Copying information from any source without acknowledgement (web, book, magazines,
journals, papers).
Writing about someone else’s ideas as if they were your own.
Writing about someone else’s ideas without giving a reference.
Using someone else’s words exactly without indicating that it is a direct quote and
including the reference.
Using more or less the same words as another writer even if you acknowledge their
work.
Copying another student’s work or letting another student copy from you.
P a g e 22 Downloading chunks of text from the Internet and putting them together to form an
essay.
3.1.2 How to avoid Plagiarism
Get into the habit of taking down full references when making notes so you know where
the ideas have come from.
Don’t forget to make a note of the URL and date accessed for any web based
information.
Do not copy word for word when making notes.
Try reading a paragraph at a time and then summarising the main points using your
own words.
This is an alternative way of referring to an author's ideas and is called paraphrasing.
3.1.2.1 Paraphrasing
Essential information and ideas expressed by someone else, presented in a new form
by you.
one legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to borrow from a
source.
A more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on a single
main idea.
3.1.2.2 Summarizing
Providing a brief account of someone else’s work, concentrating on the main points and
omitting the details.
involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s).
Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the
source material.
P a g e 23 Divide your text into meaningful paragraphs. This makes it easier for you to develop
your argument, and for the reader to follow it.
Each paragraph should contain one main idea or topic.
The idea or topic is often introduced in the opening sentence. The rest of the paragraph
is then used to give examples, evidence, definitions and further explanations of the
idea/topic.
Avoid paragraphs of just one or two sentences.
3.1.4 Coherence
Coherence means that the text within paragraphs is well linked, and that the paragraphs
are linked with each other. Coherence can be achieved with linking words and phrases.
Linking Words
Additionally Nonetheless
Moreover Furthermore
Nevertheless Further
In addition Correspondingly
However This suggests
On the contrary This implies
In contrast Likewise
P a g e 24 Reporting Verbs
acknowledge add address admit affirm agree argue articulate
assert attest state boast brag call claim comment
concede conclude concur confess confirm confide continue contradict
declare decree demand deny denounce describe disclose divulge
enunciate exclaim exhort explain hold hesitate implore indicate
inform inquire insinuate insist interject interrogate lament lecture
maintain mention narrate note object observe petition plead
preach presents profess pronounce propose protest query question
quote rant read reason rebut recite recount refute
3.1.5 Signposting/Signaling
o Signposting is an important feature of academic writing which enables the reader to follow your development of the topic.
o You need to signal how the various sections of your writing link together, and what you are going to discuss next and why.
o There are two aspects to signposting: saying where you are
P a g e 25 3.1.6 Dos and Don’ts in Academic writing
Dos Don’ts
Use of correct grammar and punctuation Uses cautious language
Is precise and concise
Uses linking words and phrases Uses correct referencing
Clear language Formal writing style
Avoids subjective and emotive language
Avoid descriptive writing Do not plagiarize
Always spell out words in academic writing –
For an example, percent, that is…..
Avoid etc. e.x. %. i.e., Don’t use texting language
Avoid using SMN language Always spell out these words as
Cannot, would not, Is not, Should not
Don’t use
Can’t, Won’t, Isn’t, Shouldn’t Third Party/Person Language
Example
This report will discuss the effect of…
The researcher found that
The results seemed to indicate …
It could be argued that..
The results appeared to show that...
First party language (do not use): I, Me, Mine, We, Us, Ours….
Second Party/Person Language Use second party language as linking
reference words
He, She, His, Hers, They, Them
P a g e 26 4.1 Referencing
Demonstrate researched appropriate literature/ undertaken reading Acknowledge used ideas of others (avoid plagiarism)
Key to good academic practice
Enhances the presentation of your work
Shows writing based on knowledge/informed by appropriate academic reading Enables person reading your work to trace source used/give credit for
effort/quality
4.1.1 What to reference/cite
What should I reference?
- all sources of information used in writing your essay
What is a citation?
- acknowledging others’ work in your work
- referring to them individually
- using a direct quotation
4.1.2 In-text and End-text citation
In-text citation (within sentences) and end-text citation (reference list) should be
provided
4.1.2.1 Sample In-text citation
PESTEL analysis encourages the development of strategic thinking (Hassan, 2014) and
helps to understand the business environment better (Sun, 2014). Disagreeing to this,
Dransfield (2004) believes that SWOT is a single tool to investigate the internal and
P a g e 27 4.1.2.2 Sample End-text citation (Reference list)
Hassan, R.E. (2014) Starting a Small Business. Google Books [Online]. Available at:
https://books.google.lk/books?id=XNmbI1kjiScC&dq=definition+of+swot+analysis+of+th
e+business&source=gbs_navlinks_s (Accessed: 24 October 2016).
Sun, T. (2014) Youth Offending and Restorative Justice. Google Books
https://books.google.lk/books/about/Youth_Offending_and_Restorative_Justice.html?id
=AdbKQV4HhdgC&redir_esc=y (Accessed: 24 October 2016).
Dransfield, A.E. (2004) Starting a Small Business. Google Books [Online]. Available at:
https://books.google.lk/books?id=XNmbI1kjiScC&dq=definition+of+swot+analysis+of+th
e+business&source=gbs_navlinks_s (Accessed: 24 October 2016).
4.2 In-text Citation
4.2.1 Direct Citation
Author’s name followed by date of publication
E.g. Gabe (2011) argues that...
4.2.2 Indirect Citation
E.g. Training and development endures an employee to be skilled, competed and
knowledgeable as per the job requirements (Aguinis and Kraiger, 2009).
4.2.3 Referencing in the text
If there are two authors, cite both
e.g. (Morris and Scott 1996)
If there are more than three authors use et al
P a g e 28 Quotations from journals follow the same format. E.g. Author + date of
publication
- give full details in reference list
Citing sources that have not been read directly
... (Denney 2005, cited in Moore 2008) - in the bibliography just reference Moore 2008
- only list texts in the bibliography if you have actually read them!
4.2.4 Direct Quote - In-text citation
Everything is same as the pervious in-text citation. However, include the page number in the in-text citation.
E.g. direct citation – Harris (2008, p.56) argues that “continuous training keeps employees up-to-date on new trends”.
Indirect citation - Thereby, “training program is not only beneficial for the
organisation itself but also to the individual employees” (Davies, 2007, p.124).
4.3 End-text Citation (Reference list)
Sources cited in main text should be in the reference list
Publications by a single author should come before joint publications by the same author
If there are two books/articles by the same author in the same year, distinguish by using ‘a’, ‘b’ etc after the date
P a g e 29 5.1 Sample Assignment
Qualification
Batch
Module Name
Module Number
Assignment Title
Name of Candidate
Candidate No.
Submission Date
P a g e 30 Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.0 Definitions on CSR ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.0 Advantages and disadvantages of CSR ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.0 Practical examples on CSR ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.0 CSR good for the business and good for the societyError! Bookmark not defined.
6.0 Conclusion ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
P a g e 31 1.0 Introduction
This essay critically analyses about Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Barth and Wolff (2008, p.7) state that “CSR is a mode of sustainability governance with a business societal and political dimension”. Further, they contend business elements to the
corporate law and systems by which companies struggle to become more socially and environment friendly. Similarly, Norton (2012, p.121) points out that “both sustainability
and CSR in businesses are often linked to the concept of a social licensed to operate, with the danger of not being able to conduct businesses if society’s acceptance is damaged”. Firstly, this essay conveys the definition of CSR and its merge with
sustainability. Secondly, the author discusses about the advantages and disadvantages
of CSR to the organisations. Thirdly, it contains a review of the importance of CSR.
Fourthly, this essay will be discussing about the local and international examples of
certain organisations which uses CSR. Finally, it will give the authors view about the
CSR perspective.
2.0 Definitions on CSR
Mullerat (2010, p.14) states that “CSR describes a company’s obligation to manage its activities to protect interests of all its stakeholders”. Similarly, Mallin (2009) points out
that, CSR is been characterised as the ways in which a business looks for to bring into
line its values and behavior with a range of stakeholders. Similarly, Hopkins (2006)
denotes that corporate social accountability offers a stage for institutions to be drawn in
economic progress in ways that can be much more prominent. Also Hopkins (2007)
states this as a commonly used definition; CSR is concerned with treating the
stakeholders of the firm ethically or in a responsible manner. Further he related,
‘ethically or responsible’ means treating stakeholders in a manner deemed acceptable
in civilized societies. Similarly, Urip (2010) denotes that, CSR is a striking area of
research with remarkable suggestions for academia, industry and society.
P a g e 32 run. However, Hack, Kenyon and Wood (2014) states that, CSR is moving from public
relation, reputation management and trigger marketing to issue of competitive
advantage and fine corporate governance. Further, they stated that modern day
businesses last long if they practice business ethics. On the contrary, Corporate Watch
Report (2008) denotes that, CSR has formed a language shift, a re-brand and a latest
caring image, but no substance. Additionally, they point out that many organisations
window dress saying that they are practicing business ethics, but in reality firms refuse
to do so. Although, Vytautas, and Vytautas (2008) expresses that, the wider aim of
social responsibility is to create higher standards of living, while preserving the
profitability of the corporation.
3.0 Advantages and disadvantages of CSR
Horrigan (2010) declares that, CSR gives discrete corporate reputational benefits.
Additionally, he states that the present importance of corporate standings and brands as
tangible assets expected on various basis of shareholders and stakeholders sustain.
Further he states that, CSR consists of increasing corporate reputation and corporate
brand recognition through cause-related marketing, social advocacy and other
CSR-related promotion. Similarly, Keinert (2003) states that, CSR policy would generate
financial improvement in preparation for competitive advantage. Likewise, Werther and
Chandler (2010) point out that, excellent CSR can get the accomplishment of
competitive advantage, further reaching out in to market segments like ethical
consumers and socially responsible investors, and improve chances for deliberate
associations. On the other hand, Fernando (2011) states that ethical businesses can
attract customers who prefer ethical products. Further, he denotes that, this customer
tends to be loyal towards the business and is also willing to pay a higher price. Although
Verbeke (2013) states that, ethical organization can also attract talented employees
who are interested in working for an ethical business.
Shaw and Hillary (2012) state that, practicing CSR takes time to monitor exchanges and
could involve hiring extra personnel that the business may not be able to afford.
P a g e 33 to undertake special training programs to their employees on ethical behavior, this is
both costly and time consuming. However, Rahim (2013) denotes that, following CSR
policy ethical objectives and profit objectives may conflict in the short run. Further he
points out that, investments should be undertaken by businesses, therefore it will
reduce the short term profits which may make the shareholders unhappy. Horrigon
(2010) point out that, CSR does not follow any rules and regulations which may mislead the company’s activities regarding practicing ethics. Further, he states that CSR policy
is done only to increase the goodwill among the public.
4.0 Practical examples on CSR
Dilmah (2014) denotes that, they are concerned about their waste management and
water quality management. They additionally stress that, they maintain their
sustainability on plantation. Further, they illustrate that, these core values allow them to
meet and exceed their customer expectations of sustainability. Similarly, Fernando
(2011) states that, ethical business can attract customers who prefer ethical products.
Body shop (2011) exemplifies that, their new hub-based distribution system helps them
to minimize their carbon footprint. Additionally, Body Shop (2011) states that, 83
percentages of their regular customers say that they choose retailers who take social
and environmental issues seriously, this will create brand awareness and customer
loyalty. Likewise, Horrigon (2010) points out that CSR will increase corporate reputation
and corporate brand recognition. Microsoft (2014) demonstrates that, from its earliest
days, Microsoft employees have been involved in their communities and contributed
towards their vitality and growth. Further, they state that, their CSR policies can be felt
around the world which creates goodwill to the business. Similarly, Verbeke (2013)
states that ethical organization can also attract talented employees who are interested
in working for an ethical business.
Dr. Pepper report (2014) shows that, they have improved energy efficiency and reduce
CO2 from emissions in manufacturing. They further state that, they are recycling 90
percentage of manufacturing solid wastes. Moreover, they said recycling process has
reduced their cost in the long run; also they have found out that, practicing CSR will
P a g e 34 appointed as a Goodwill Ambassador for Habitat for Humanity in Sri Lanka. Additionally,
Odel Embark has been responsible for more than 21,000 interventions on behalf of
homeless dogs and instrumental in creating greater awareness in the community about
their needs. Further, Odel denotes that, Otara Gunawardene was self-satisfied with this
cause.
5.0 CSR good for the business and good for the society
When analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of CSR, the benefits overweigh the
drawbacks. Indeed, CSR benefits business in many ways such as, employee
satisfaction and customer loyalty. Employee satisfaction motivates the work force and
productivity increases. Qualified employees might be willing to work for an ethical
organisation. Not only does CSR attract talented work force but also it motivates the
employees with innovation and learning abilities. Customers prefer paying higher prices
for green products. Furthermore, the brand name among the population exists with the
competitive advantage. To achieve competitive advantage, CSR act as the best tool.
Similarly, another external stakeholder can be the government and pressure group, who
will show a keen interest on how a business behaves towards the environment. If a
business practicing ethical codes, then pressure groups may give a good publicity which
will be a marketing tool in the long run.
However, there are negative aspects to CSR as well. A major one could be
dissatisfaction of the shareholders because CSR projects incur a high cost which will
result in lower profits leading to a lower dividend as well. Pressure groups argues that,
CSR may bring in new investments, however, following ethics in an organisation may
end up in losing share value as shareholders may not be willing to invest more. Many
organizations have ethical codes but only few will practice those codes, hence, having
ethics and not practicing it will make the firm ineffective in the market. Though, some
organisations practice CSR to maximise their profit, large businesses practice ethics to
benefit the society. Therefore, it is better to save society by practicing CSR because
business may use the resources which are in the process of extinct; hence, conserving
P a g e 35 6.0 Conclusion
The purpose of this essay was to identify whether CSR is good for the business and its
effects on society. To achieve this, it started by defining CSR. This essay further
compared and contrasted about practicing CSR in organisations from different
perspectives. Eventually, this essay argued about the advantages and disadvantages.
The main advantages identified for CSR were brand image and customer loyalty.
However, it was also noted that, CSR is a costly project and may not satisfy
shareholders with the highest dividends. Then this essay moved on to illustrate
international and local examples such as Dilmah, Microsoft and The body Shop and
further continued with the benefits that the firm got by practicing ethics. In conclusion,
CSR is a gain to the organisation because it is an intangible asset and helps the
business to sustain in a competitive market. If business practice ethics to benefit society
P a g e 36 References
Barth, R. and Wolff, S. (2009) Corporate Social Responsibility in Europe. Google Books
[Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=zgL3p855qu4C&pg=PA3&dq=csr+and+sustainability&h
l=en&sa=X&ei=T6UqVIinNYzguQT84YGIDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=csr
%20and%20sustainability&f=false (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Dilmah Tea (2014) Our Core Commitment to Sustainability. Available at:
http://www.dilmahtea.com/sustainability/ (Accessed: 15 September 2016).
Dr. Pepper Snapple Group (2014) our values. Available at:
http://www.drpeppersnapplegroup.com/values/sustainability/ (Accessed: 15 September
2016).
Fernando, A.C. (2011) Business Environment. Google Books [Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=xaHonZv5dfIC&pg=PA376&dq=advantages+of+csr&hl=
en&sa=X&ei=SCYkVLD2BtGgugTyj4A4&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=advanta
ges%20of%20csr&f=false (Accessed: 17 September 2016).
Hack, L., Kenyon, A. and Wood, E. (2014) ‘A Critical Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Timeline: how should it be understood now?’, International Journal of
Management Cases, 16 (4), pp. 46-55. Ebsco [Online]. Available at:
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?sid=bc92d566-3af5-405d-a1ec-f8e12c99e5d9%40sessionmgr111&vid=0&hid=121&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2Z
Q%3d%3d#db=bth&AN=97489531 (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Hopkins, M. (2007) corporate social responsibility & international development. Google
books. [Online].Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=4IqtKZ8JlCwC&pg=PA15&dq=csr+definition&hl=en&sa
=X&ei=ZM0SVLObEMHt8AWGrIG4DA&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=csr%20d
P a g e 37
Hopkins, N. (2006) ‘What is corporate social responsibility all about?’, Journal of Public
Affairs Special Issue: Corporate Social Responsibility, 6(3-4), pp. 298-306. [Online] DOI:
10.1002/pa.238 (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Horrigon, B. (2010) Corporate Social Responsibility in the 21st Century: Debates,
Models and Practices Across Government, Law and Business. Google books [Online].
Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=XSOcUn5BkFMC&pg=PA274&dq=advantages+of+csr&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=FfASVPTdBcL38QXD5oKIAg&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=ad
vantages%20of%20csr&f=false (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Horrigon, B. (2010) Corporate Social Responsibility in the 21st Century. Google Books
[Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=XSOcUn5BkFMC&pg=PA274&dq=advantages+of+csr&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=SCYkVLD2BtGgugTyj4A4&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=adva
ntages%20of%20csr&f=false (Accessed: 17 September 2016).
Keinert, C. (2008) Corporate Social Responsibility as an International Strategy. Google
books [Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=de0o4XkPIYYC&pg=PA89&dq=advantages+of+csr&hl=
en&sa=X&ei=FfASVPTdBcL38QXD5oKIAg&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=adva
ntages%20of%20csr&f=false (Accessed 3 September 2016).
Keinert, C. (2008) Corporate Social Responsibility as an International Strategy. Google
Books [Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=de0o4XkPIYYC&pg=PA89&dq=advantages+of+csr&hl=
en&sa=X&ei=SCYkVLD2BtGgugTyj4A4&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=advanta
ges%20of%20csr&f=false (Accessed: 17 September 2016).
Mallin, A.C. (2009) Corporate Social Responsibility: A Case Study Approach. Google
Books [Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=mAVauDMTFuQC&pg=PA123&dq=csr&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=7KwqVNzEG82yuASnyIHwBg&ved=0CCQQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=csr&f=false
P a g e 38 Microsoft (2014) corporate citizenship. Available at:
http://www.microsoft.com/about/corporatecitizenship/en-us/reporting/ (Accessed: 15
September 2016).
Mullerat, R. (2010) International Corporate Social Responsibility: The Role of
Corporations in the Economic Order of the 21st Century. Google books
[Online].Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=POKTUI3GyZoC&pg=PA14&dq=csr+definition&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=ZM0SVLObEMHt8AWGrIG4DA&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=csr%20
definition&f=false (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Norton, M. (2012) Sustainability: Duty or Opportunity for Business?. Google Books
[Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=uKZLEwd1j_AC&pg=PA120&dq=csr+and+sustainability
&hl=en&sa=X&ei=T6UqVIinNYzguQT84YGIDQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=
csr%20and%20sustainability&f=false (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Odel (2013) Clearance. Available at:
http://www.odel.lk/corporate-social-responsibility-home/embark (Accessed: 15 September 2016).
Rahim, M.M. (2013) Legal Regulation of Corporate Social Responsibility. Google Books
[Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=fNE-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA101&dq=disadvantages+of+csr&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lAkTVKKQDY398
QXBhIKQAg&ved=0CE0Q6AEwCDgK#v=onepage&q=disadvantages%20of%20csr&f=f
alse (Accessed: 17 September 2016).
Shaw and Hillary, J. (2012) ‘Journal of Business & Retail Management Research’, CSR,
SMEs and Food Retailing: The Advantages of Being a Lesser God, 6 (2), pp. 15-25
EBSCO [Online]. Available at:
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?sid=5fbbbd1f-244b-485c-9308-08633e8dff71%40sessionmgr110&vid=4&hid=121&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2Z
P a g e 39 The Body Shop International PLC (2011) value report. Available at:
http://www.thebodyshop.com/content/pdf/global-values_report.pdf (Accessed: 15
September 2016).
Urip, S. (2010) CSR Strategies: Corporate Social Responsibility for a Competitive Edge
in Emerging Markets. Google Books [Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=540rRlT4AFQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=csr&hl=en&sa
=X&ei=OK8qVPH0PMaWuATg3IKACQ&ved=0CCQQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=csr&f
=false (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Verbeke, A. (2013) International Business Strategy. Google Books [Online]. Available
at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=uQpaAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA495&dq=advantages+of+csr
&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SCYkVLD2BtGgugTyj4A4&ved=0CEgQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=adv
antages%20of%20csr&f=false (Accsessed: 17 September 2016).
Visser,W., Matten, D., Pohl, M. and Tolhurst, N. (2010) The A to Z of Corporate Social
Responsibility. Google books [Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=woqEDQQzGp0C&pg=PT213&dq=disadvantages+of+c
sr&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lAkTVKKQDY398QXBhIKQAg&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBTgK#v=onepag
e&q=disadvantages%20of%20csr&f=false (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Vytautas, J. and Vytautas, S. (2008) ‘Influence of Corporate Social Responsibility on Competitive Abilities of Corporations’, Engineering Economics, Vol. 58 Issue 3, p34-44,
Ebsco [Online]. Available at:
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=9020363c-33c1-4a1d-be59-939c2b5a1d2d%40sessionmgr110&vid=2&hid=121 (Accessed: 3 September 2016).
Werther, W and Chandler, D. (2010) Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility. Google
Books [Online]. Available at:
http://books.google.lk/books?id=4si6VV5RGNcC&pg=PA120&dq=advantages+of+csr&h
l=en&sa=X&ei=SCYkVLD2BtGgugTyj4A4&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=advant
P a g e 40 WHAT'S WRONG WITH CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY? : The arguments
against CSR (2014) Available at:
http://www.corporatewatch.org/content/whats-wrong-corporate-social-responsibility-arguments-against-csr (Accessed: 3 September 30,
P a g e 41
6.1 Practice Questions
Exercise 1: State ‘True’ or ‘False’ for the following statements
1) Underlining the headings are acceptable in academic writing
2) Underlining within the paragraphs is not acceptable
3) Quotation mark is needed for the paraphrased sentence
4) Quotation mark is mandatory for a direct quote
5) Page number is not vital for direct quote
6) End-text citation is called reference list
7) Needs to be cautious and precise when writing an academic assignment
8) Do not spell out words in academic writing
9) Do not use third party languages
10) Always write in first and second party language 11) Need not to acknowledge other’s work
12) Always write in active voice
13) Direct quote cannot exceed 10% of the total word count
14) All the claims made in academic writing must be backed up with references
15) It is mandatory to be subjective when writing an academic assignment
Exercise 2: Short answer question
16) List three methods to avoid plagiarism
17) Structure or elements of a good academic assignment
18) What are the sources you use in academic assignment for reference
19) Write an example of an in-text citation with two authors
20) Write an example of an in-text citation with seven author
P a g e 42 Exercise 03: Underline the most appropriate source for the given reference pattern
1) Fessler, C. (2013) Rebuilding the brand: How Harley Davidson became king of the
road.New York: Allworth Press.
2) Guardian News and Media Limited (2015) Available at:
http://www.theguardian.com/business/grogonomics/2015/mar/05/limping-gdp-growth-six-things-about-the-state-of-australias-economy (Accessed: 1 April 2015).
3) Hall, R.E. (2003) Starting a Small Business.Google Books [Online]. Available at:
https://books.google.lk/books?id=XNmbI1kjiScC&dq=definition+of+swot+analysis+of+th
P a g e 43 4) Mosco, V. (2011) ‘The web’, in Browining, H. (ed). Understanding Contemporary
Society:Theories of the Present. London: Croom Helm
books
5) Polychronidou, P., Ioannidou, E., Kipouros, A., Tsourgiannis, L. and Simet, G.F. (2014) ‘Corporate Social Responsibility in Greek Banking Sector – An Empirical Research’, Procedia Economics and Finance, 9, pp.193–199. Science Direct [Online]
DOI: 10.1016/S2212-5671(14)00020-3 (Accessed: 30 September 2014).
Exercise 4: Citing in the text
Training and development is considered as the most fundamental theory of human
resources Management (HRM) which would enhance a specific skills and ability with the
intention of achieving required standard through guidance and practices
(Grubb……….; …………...,2014). Moreover, Singh and
Mohanty, ……… present that training and development encourages the
work force to make positive changes and achieve the desired objective through the
learning experiences. However, training and development are two different concepts,
P a g e 44 Grubb, T. (2007). Performance appraisal reappraised: It’s not all positive. Journal of
Human Resource Education, 1, 1–22.
Tracey, J.B., Hinkin, T.R., Tran, T.L.B., Emigh, T., Kingra, M., Taylor, J., and Thorek, D.
(2014). A field study of new employee training programs: Industry practices and
strategic insights. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 1-10. doi:10.1177/1938965514554211
Singh, R., and Mohanty, M., (2012). Impact of training practices on employee
productivity: A comparative study. Interscience Management Review, 2(2), 87-92.
Chiaburu, D.S., and Tekleab, A.G. (2005). Individual and contextual influences on
multiple dimensions of training effectiveness. Journal of European Industrial Training,
P a g e 45 Exercise 5: Paraphrasing
(1) Recruitment is the process of finding and hiring the best-qualified candidate for a
job opening in a timely and cost-effective manner.
...
...
...
...
...
(2) The marketing mix refers to the set of actions, or tactics, that a company uses to
promote its brand or product in the market.
...
...
...
...
...
(3) Employee engagement is the extent to which employees feel passionate about
their jobs, are committed to the organization, and put discretionary effort into their
work
...
...
...
...
...
(4) Total Quality Management means a system of management based on the
principle that every member of staff must be committed to maintaining high
standards of work in every aspect of a company's operations.
...
...
...
...
P a g e 46 Exercise 6: Summarizing
(1) Organizations undertake change in order to improve performance - through
reduced costs, improved efficiencies, increased revenue, better utilized
employees, reduced risk exposure, etc. To improve performance, changes must be made to the processes, systems organization structures or job roles – and
ultimately these changes impact how people do their jobs. For these changes to
be successful, they must be managed from a technical perspective using project
management and from a people perspective using change management.
...
...
...
...
...
(2) Strategic Analysis is the process of conducting research on the business
environment within the boundary of an organisation operates and within the
organisation, in order to formulate strategy. Strategic analysis involves an
in-depth discussion with the management team on creating value for customers,
positive and negative forces at work, critical issues to be managed and visions
for the future. However, all the above benefits can be achieved if the assumption
made to create the tool is appropriate.
...
...
...
...
...
(3) Several types of organizational structures are each defined to meet the needs of
organizations that operate differently. Types of organizational structure include
divisional, functional, geographical and matrix. A divisional structure is suitable
for organizations with distinct business units, while a geographical structure
provides a hierarchy for organizations that operate at several locations nationally
P a g e 47 duties. A matrix structure, which has two or several supervisors for each job to
report to, is the most complicated but may be necessary for large organizations
with many locations and functional areas.
...
...
...
...
...
(4) Organizational culture is a system of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs,
which governs how people behave in organizations. These shared values have a
strong influence on the people in the organization and dictate how they dress,
act, and perform their jobs. Every organization develops and maintains a unique
culture, which provides guidelines and boundaries for the behavior of the
members of the organization. Let's explore what elements make up an
organization's culture
...
...
...
...
...
(5) The link between employee motivation and performance seems to be quite obvious. That’s because every time when we deem a task to be important and
valuable to us, we act with a high level of dedication and enthusiasm to its
completion. However, the relationship between these two things is in fact a lot
more complex. Realistically speaking, the duties we have at work can be most of
the time tedious, repetitive and quite boring.
...
...
...
...
