APPsychUnit1-2.pptx

AP PSYCHOLOGY

Introduction, History and Methodology

The History and

Scope of Psychology

Unit 1

 Read Pages 1-3

Bell Work

Psychology’s Roots

 _{Prescientific Psychology}

 _{Psychological Science is Born}  _{Psychological Science Develops}

Contemporary Psychology

 _{Psychology’s Big Debate}

 _{Psychology’s Three Main Levels}

of Analysis

 _{Psychology’s Subfields}

4

Prescientific Psychology 5

Psychology’s Roots

Confucius (551-479 BCE)

6

Prescientific Psychology

In China, Confucius stressed the power of ideas

and of an educated mind.

Hebrew Scriptures

7

Prescientific Psychology

Socrates (469-399 BCE) and Plato (428-348 BCE)

8

Prescientific Psychology

Socrates and his student Plato believed that the mind was separate from the body, that it continued to exist

after death, and that ideas were innate.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

9

Prescientific Psychology

Aristotle suggested that the soul is not separable

from the body and that knowledge (ideas) grow

Rene Descartes

(1596-1650)

10

Prescientific Psychology

Descartes, like Plato, believed in soul (mind) body

separation but speculated on how the immaterial

mind and the physical body communicated.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

11

Prescientific Psychology

Bacon was one of the founders of modern science,

especially the experimental method.

ht

tp

://

w

w

w

.ie

p.

u

tm

.e

John Locke (1632-1704)

12

Prescientific Psychology

Locke held that the mind is a

tabula rasa

or blank

sheet at birth and experience writes on it.

Prescientific Psychology

What is the relation of the mind to the body?

Mind and body are

connected

Mind and body are

distinct

The Hebrews

Socrates

Aristotle

Plato

Augustine

Descartes

Prescientific Psychology

How are ideas formed?

Some ideas are inborn

The mind is a blank

_slate

Socrates

Aristotle

Plato

Locke

14

Bell Work

 Why study Psychology?

◦ Consider the following:

 _{Types of Research}

 _{Psychological Professions}

 _{Goals of Psychology}

 Why have you chosen to take A.P.

Psychology

 Psychology:

 _{The study of behavior and mental processes}

 Empiricism:

Historical Approaches of

Psychology

 Historical Approaches of Psychology:

◦ Structuralism:

 _{Structure of the human mind}  _{Introspection}

 _{Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)}

 _{*Psychology officially recognized (1879)}

◦ Functionalism:

 _{Function/Role of the human mind}  _{William James (1842-1910)}

Structuralism

19

Psychological Science is Born

Wundt and Titchner studied the elements (atoms) of the mind by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany in

1879. W u n d t ( 18 32 -1 92 0) T itc h n er (1 86 7-19 27 )

Functionalism

20

Psychological Science is Born

Influenced by Darwin, William James established

the school of functionalism, opposing

structuralism.

Ja

m

es

(1

84

2-19

10

Historical Approaches of

Psychology

How might we

compare

Structuralism

and

Functionalism

to studying an

Psychological Science

Develops

 Throughout the 20th century, Psychology

continued to expand as a study integrating the views of both Philosophy and

Biochemistry:

◦ Experimental Psychology

◦ Behaviorism

◦ Psychoanalytic Theory

◦ Humanistic Psychology

The Unconscious Mind

23

Psychological Science is Born

Early 1900s: Sigmund Freud and his followers emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and its effects on

Behaviorism (arose out of a fusing of Structuralism and Functionalism)

Watson (1913) and later Skinner emphasized

the study of overt behavior as the subject of

psychology. Not concerned with cognitive

processes, only what they could see

W a ts o n (1 8 7 8 -1 9 5 8 ) S kin n e r ( 1 9 0 4 -1 9 9 0 )

Humanistic Psychology

25

Psychological Science Develops

Maslow and Rogers emphasized current

environmental influences on our growth potential

and our needs for love and acceptance.

Cognitive School-

Concentrate

on thinking, knowing,

remembering

-How and why do you know what

you know

-Jean Piaget- “schemas”, a way to

view the world

-encounter new and novel

situations, we can “assimilate”

(if its close) or we can

 Take your books out and read pages 8-11

Reading

Psychology Today

We define psychology as the scientific study of behavior (what we do) and mental processes

(inner thoughts and feelings).

A much more eclectic approach to studying the human mind and behavior

Contemporary schools of thought (7 schools):

• _{Biopsychology (organic causes, brain,}

biochemistry)

• _{Evolutionary Perspective (Darwin stuff)} • _{Psychodynamic (unconscious mind)}

• _{Behavioral (what we can see)} • _{Humanist (free will)}

• _{Cognitive (how we think about ourselves and the}

world)

• _{Social-Cultural (behavior is dictated by your}

Contemporary Psychology

Psychology’s 1st Big Debate

Nature versus Nurture

How much of our thinking and behavior is

due to biological influences (nature) and

what role does the environment play

(nurture)

Often studies involve identical

 How much of who we are and how we

behave will change over our lifetime?

◦ Baby temperament a predictor of personality?

◦ Likes and dislikes, ways of thinking

◦ Are you going to become your parents???

Psychology’s 2nd Big Debate

 Is development a continuous process or

does it occur in distinct stages?

◦ We will study stage theorists of social (Erickson), cognitive (Piaget), and moral (Kohlberg)

development

Psychology’s 3rd Big Debate

Psychology’s Three Main Level of Analysis

32

Contemporary Psychology

Social-cultural Influences

• _{presence of others}

• _{cultural, societal, and family}

expectations

• _{peer and other group influences} • _{compelling models (such as media)}

Behavior or mental process

Psychological Influences

• _{learned fears and other learnt}

expectations

• _{emotional responses}

• _{cognitive processing and perceptual}

interpretations

Biological influences

• _{genetic predispositions} • _{genetic mutations}

• _{natural selection of adaptive}

physiology and behaviors

AP Test moment…

 Know the differences between the schools

and be able to apply this to every unit we study (particularly personality,

development, abnormal psych., treatment)

Psychology’s Current Perspectives

Perspective Focus Sample Questions

Biological How the body and brain enables emotions.

How are messages

transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives?

Evolutionary How the natural selection of traits the promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes.

How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?

Humanistic How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve

self-fulfillment

How can we work toward fulfilling our potential? How can we overcome barriers to our personal growth

Psychology’s Current Perspectives

Perspective Focus Sample Questions

Psychodynamic How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.

How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and

aggressive drives or as

disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood

traumas?

Behavioral How we learn observable responses.

How do we learn to fear particular objects or

situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say lose weight or quit smoking?

Psychology’s Current Perspectives

Perspective Focus Sample Questions

Cognitive How we encode, process, store and retrieve

information.

How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Problem solving?

Social-cultural How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

How are we --- as Africans, Asians, Australian or North American – alike as members of human family? As products of different environmental contexts, how do we differ?

Discussion Questions

What is more influential in creating the person that you will become?

◦ Genes Or Environment WHY?

Are we somewhat different people at

different stages (ages) of life?

Or

Are we always the same person but have

more experiences to reference?

 Explain

1.

Bell work

Do children merely experience life as it

confronts them, which helps shape who they are?

Or

Do children actively construct their

experiences with, which allows them to create the way they develop?

Explain

 Read Pages 12-24

 Take Notes using Unit 2 Notes Guide

Assignment

Bell Work #2

 Describe the 7

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

 Which approach(es)

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology:

“The Outrageous Celebrity”

 Directions:

◦ Choose a celebrity who is known for their outrageous behavior, style, and/or persona. Provide a list of his/her behavior that you

consider abnormal, or out of the ordinary. Next, apply what you have learned about the 7

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology, by describing how each school of thought would

explain the behavior. Feel free to be creative

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology:

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology:

“The Outrageous Celebrity”



Part I.: Background Information

◦ Which celebrity did you choose and why?

Create a list of his/her behavior that you consider

abnormal.



Part II.: 7 Contemporary Approaches to

Psychology

◦ Biological Psychology

◦ Evolutionary Psychology

◦ Psychodynamic Psychology

◦ Behavioral Psychology

◦ Cognitive Psychology

◦ Humanistic Psychology

Psychology’s Subfields

Research

Psychologist

What s/he does

Biological Explores the links between brain and _mind.

Developmental Studies changing abilities from womb to _tomb.

Cognitive Studies how we perceive, think, and solve _problems.

Personality Investigates our persistent traits.

Social explore how we view and affect one _another.

45

Psychology’s Subfields: Research

Data: APA 1997

Biological 9.9%

Developmental 24.6%

Cognitive 8.0% Personality

4.8% Social 21.6%

Psychometrics 5.5%

Experimental 14.1%

Psychology’s Subfields

Applied

Psychologist

What s/he does

Industrial/ Organizational

Studies and advise on behavior in the workplace.

Counseling Helps people cope with academic, _{vocational, and marital challenges.}

Clinical Study, assess, and treat people with _{psychological disorders}

47

Psychology’s Subfields: Applied

Data: APA 1997

Clinical 67% Counseling

15%

Educational 9%

Other 3% Industrial

A

clinical psychologist

(Ph.D.) studies, assesses,

and treats troubled people with psychotherapy.

Psychiatrists

on the other hand are medical

professionals (M.D.) who use treatments like drugs

and psychotherapy to treat psychologically

diseased patients.

48

Psychology’s Subfields

Psychologist – Patient Dialogue



Activity:

◦ Choose one of Psychology’s Subfields that we discussed in class

◦ With a partner, create a hypothetical dialogue between the psychologist of that subfield and the patient (7-10 lines per person)

◦ Incorporate (If applicable):

 _{Area of study}  _Duties

 What are characteristics a psychologist

should have who is going to be conducting research?

 How must he/she act when presented to

questionable data?

Bell work

Thinking Critically with

Psychological Science

Research Methods

5 3

Thinking Critically with Psychological

Science

The Need for Psychological

Science

 _{The limits of Intuition and Common}

Sense

 _{The Scientific Attitude}  _{The Scientific Method}

5 4

Impression of Psychology

Hoping to satisfy curiosity, many people listen

to talk-radio counselors and psychics to know

about others and themselves.

Dr. Crane (radio-shrink)

htt p:/ /w w w .n bc .c om htt p:/ /w w w .p ho to va ult .c om

5 5

The Need for Psychological Science

Intuition & Common Sense

Many of us believe that intuition and common

sense are enough to bring forth answers about

human nature.

56

Limits of Intuition

Personal interviewers

tend to be overconfident

of their “gut feelings”

about job applicants.

T

ax

i/ G

ett

y I

m

ag

5 7

Errors of Common Sense

Try this !

If you were to fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick)

100 times, how large do you think its thickness

would be?

Or which would you rather

have…

 A million dollars today  Or

 A penny that doubles everyday for a month

 .01  .02  .04  .08  .16  .32  .64

 By day 8 you have…. $1.28

 $2.56  $5.12  $10.24  $20.48  $40.96  $81.92

In the interest of time…

 16 $327.68

Hindsight Bias

is the “I-knew-it-all-along”

phenomenon.

We tend to believe, after learning about an

outcome,

that we would have foreseen it. We

knew that the mortgage bubble would burst,

only after

it did.

63

Overconfidence

We tend to think we know

more than we actually do.

Anagram BARGE GRABE ENTRY ETYRN WATER WREAT

How long do you think

would it take to unscramble

these anagrams?

People said about 10

seconds. On average they

6 4

Psychological Science

1. How can we differentiate between uninformed

opinions and examined conclusions?

2. The science of psychology can help make these

examined conclusions, which lead to our

6 5

The Scientific Attitude

The scientific attitude is composed of

curiosity

(passion for exploration),

skepticism

(doubting

and questioning) and

humility

(humbleness to

66

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking does

not blindly accept

arguments and

conclusions.

It examines

assumptions, discerns

hidden values,

evaluates evidence,

assesses conclusions.

The Amazing Randi

6 7

Scientific Method

Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that

organize, summarize and simplify

6 8

Theory is an explanation that integrates principles, organizes and predicts behaviors or events.

For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.

6 9

Hypothesis

is a testable prediction, often induced by a

theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the

theory.

Example: People with low self-esteem are apt to feel

more depressed.

Null Hypothesis vs. If, Then Hypothesis

Null is easiest to disprove

A statement that the IV will have NO EFFECT on the DV If found false, implication of relationship

(Most data will suggest that the IV will at least have some effect on the DV)

7 0

Research refers to the process of testing the hypothesis.

Example: Administer tests of self esteem and depression to people.

Individuals who score low on self-esteem measures and high on depression tests, would confirm our hypothesis.

BUT BEWARE OF BIAS!

Some Biases that may affect your Research:

 _{Observer/Experimenter Bias}  _{Confirmation Bias}

 _{Extraneous Variables}  _{Placebo Effect}

 What is a Null Hypothesis and why is it used

in psychological research?

Bell Work

 A statement of the procedures (operations)

used to define research variables.

 Example: Human intelligence may be

operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

 Turn in your Operational definition

Worksheet

Operational Definitions

Descriptive Study Methods in

Psychology

Blinds

Case Study

Survey

Naturalistic Observation

Experiment

Description

Case Study

A technique in which one person is studied

in depth to reveal underlying behavioral

principles.

In-depth information, time consuming,

difficult to generalize results for population

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the

self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors

of people usually by questioning a random

sample of people.

-usually easy to conduct

-a lot of data very quickly

-beware of wording effect,

overgeneralizing,

false consensus effect, bias

Survey

Wording can change the results of a

survey.

Q: Should cigarette ads not be allowed on

television? Yes or no.

Survey

A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and

behaviors.

Survey

 Blind and Double

Blind to reduce bias

 Hide or “mask”

Survey

Random Sampling

From a population, if

each member has an

equal chance of

inclusion into a

sample, we call that a

random sample

(unbiased).

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior of animals

in the wild, to recording self-seating patterns

in lunch rooms in a multiracial school

constitute

naturalistic observation.

Observe in natural environment

Least amount of researcher interference

May not observe studied behavior at times

More of a way to develop an idea of what to

study

Descriptive Methods

Case studies, surveys, and

naturalistic observation all describe

behaviors.

-

Longitudinal studies

-same subject

over a

long period of time

-

Cross-sectional studies

-representative sample of different

people during a particular time.

Confirm who you are going to choose.

 Look around the room and find someone

that you don’t really know. Over the next

week please observe this individual in class discreetly and take brief notes about them. Note their behavior, body language,

clothing, etc.

 Turn in a half page report on this person on

Sept. 2nd documenting what you discovered

 Don’t get caught

Bell Work

Correlation

When one trait or behavior

accompanies another, we say the two

correlate.

Correlation

coefficient

Indicates direction of relationship

(positive or negative) Indicates strength

of relationship (0.00 to 1.00)

r = 0.37

+

Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship between two

Perfect positive correlation (+1.00)

Scatterplot

is a graph comprised of points

generated by values of two variables. The

slope of points depicts the direction, and

the amount of scatter the strength of

relationship.

No relationship (0.00) Perfect negative

correlation (-1.00)

Scatterplot on the left shows a negative

correlation, and the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.

Patterns of Correlation

 The more TV is on, the lower your GPA.

 The higher the ice cream consumption, the

higher the murder rate.

 People who wear hats are less likely to

or

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where

none exists.

Given random data we look for order, for

meaningful patterns.

Order in Random Events

 Individually create your own correlational

study.

 Develop a hypothesis

 Make sure you have 2 variables that are

properly operationally defined.

 Determine if it will be a positive or negative

correlation.

Bell work

 Identify and you variables within the

framework of experimental design.

 Today:

• Review correlations

• Experimental design

• Experimental Variables

• In-class Practice

• Experimental Variable Worksheet

Objective

Experimentation

Like other sciences, experimentation forms

the backbone of research in psychology.

Experiments isolate causes and their

effects.

Many factors influence our behavior.

Experiments

(1)

manipulate

factors that interest us while

keeping

other factors under

(2) control

.

Effects generated by manipulated factors

isolate cause and effect relationships.

Independent Variable

(cause) is a factor,

manipulated by the experimenter, and

whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

(outcome, effect) is a

factor that may change in response to

independent variable. In psychology it is

usually a behavior or a mental process.

The dependent variable depends on what

you do to the independent variable

For example

General hypothesis: food effects learning

Specific (operationalized) hypothesis: students who eat an oatmeal raisin cookie before class

each day will have higher average scores on the semester final than students who don’t eat a

cookie.

**Operationally define your variables to allow for

Eating cookies before class each

day will lead to higher average

scores.

Independent (IV)

Controlled by experimenter The “cause” variable

Dependent (DV)

Eating cookies before class each day

will lead to higher average scores.

Groups (conditions): to establish different levels of the IV

Experimental group Exposed to IV

Get cookie

Control group

Not exposed to IV

No cookie

Eating cookies before class each day

will lead to higher average scores.

IV

DV

Expt. Gp.

Cookie

95%

Cntrl. Gp.

No Cookie

82%

Confounding

Variables

Environmental

Expectations

Random Sampling

To select participants from population

Allows you to generalize results

All members have the same chance to be chosen

Representative Sample

accurately represents the population, think about

the numbers of students who are seniors,

juniors, etc

Random Assignment (experiments only)

To divide participants into either the

experimental

or control group

Eating cookies before class each day

will lead to higher average scores.

IV

DV

Expt. Gp.

Cookie

95%

Cntrl. Gp.

No Cookie

82%

85%

In evaluating drug therapies it is important

to keep the patients and experimenter’s

assistants blind to which patients got real

treatment and which

placebo

.

This can control experimenter bias

Evaluating Therapies

Bell Work

What types of problems do

psychological researchers

encounter

when

 Review and use variables and concepts

within the framework of experimental design.

 Identify measures of central tendency

 Today:

• Review correlations

• Experimental design

• Experimental Variables

• In-class Practice

• Experimental Variable Worksheet

Objective

Experimental Research

Review

 Experiments begin with a hypothesis

Experimental Research

Review

 Experimenters must employ variables:

◦ Independent Variable:

 _{Manipulated/changed by experimenter to observe its}

effects (e.g. Coffee/Redbull)

◦ Dependent Variable:

 _{The effects/changes that occur in relation to the}

independent variable (e.g. improved test performance)

◦ Confounding Variables:

 _{Factors other than the independent variable that}

Experimental Research

Review

 Experimenters divide participants into two

groups (often randomly):

◦ Experimental Group:

 _{Independent variable is applied (e.g. Coffee is given}

to participants)

◦ Control Group:

 _{Treated the same way as experimental group, but}

Question

What types of problems do

psychological researchers

encounter

when

Problems in

Experimental Research



Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:

Problems in

Experimental Research

◦ A change in a

participant’s behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather than the

actual treatment (e.g.

Solutions in

Experimental Research

How can

psychological

researchers

avoid

self-fulfilling prophecies

and

placebo effects

when

conducting

experimental

Solutions in

Experimental Research

 Single-Blind Procedure:

◦ Participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment (e.g. participants do not know which participants received “Red Bull”)

 Double-Blind Procedure:

Solutions in

Experimental Research

How do

single-blind

and

double-blind procedures

help

avoid

self-fulfilling

prophecies

on behalf of

the

experimenter

Comparison

 With a Partner:

◦ Design an experiment using the concepts we have discussed

• _Hypothesis

• _{Independent & Dependent variable} • _{Experimental & Control Group}

• _{Controlling for Confounding variables} • _{Random assignment}

• _{Blinding or Placebo}

Create your own

Experiment

 Why would you not use the mean as your

measure of central tendency?

 Objective:

 Understand how descriptive statistics allow

us determine whether research in warranted

Bell Work

Statistical

Reasoning

Measures of central tendency

The normal curve and standard

deviation

Sampling

Measures of Central

Tendency

Mode:

The most frequently occurring

score in a distribution.

Mean:

The arithmetic average of

scores in a distribution obtained by

adding the scores and then dividing

by their number.

Statistical Reasoning

A. Describing data

Statistical Reasoning

A. Describing data

1. Frequency distributions

Histogram

V. Statistical Reasoning

A. Describing data

B. Measures of central tendency

4

3

5

4

4

Mode=most common=4

Central Tendency

1968 TOPPS Baseball Cards

Nolan Ryan $1500 Billy Williams $8 Luis Aparicio$5

Harmon Killebrew $5 Orlando Cepeda$3.50 Maury Wills $3.50

Jim Bunning $3

Tony Conigliaro $3 Tony Oliva $3

Lou Pinella $3

Mickey Lolich $2.50

Elston Howard $2.25 Jim Bouton $2

Rocky Colavito $2 Boog Powell $2

Luis Tiant $2

Tim McCarver $1.75 Tug McGraw $1.75

Joe Torre $1.5

Rusty Staub $1.25 Curt Flood $1

Measures of Central

Tendency

Statistical Reasoning

A. Describing data

B. Measures of central tendency C. Measures of variation

1. Range

Statistical Reasoning

A. Describing data

B. Measures of central tendency

C. Measures of variation

 Look over your data from yesterday’s

assignment.

◦ Mean

◦ Standard deviation

◦ Variance

 Would the data help confirm your

hypothesis that cookies can help raise grades?

 Why or why not?

Bell work

 Complete statistics  Ethics Discussion

 Review

 Quizizz / Practice Tests  Due Friday

◦ Unit 1 & 2 Notes

◦ Naturalistic Observation report

Today

Statistical Reasoning

A. Describing data

B. Measures of central tendency C. Measures of variation

D. Characteristics of the normal curve

E. Inference

1. Does the sample represent the

pop.?

a. Non-biased sample-good

b. Low variability-good

Statistical Reasoning

E. Inference

1. Does the sample represent the

pop.?

2. Are differences between groups

statistically significant?

a. Big differences-good

b. Low variability-good

c. Big groups-good

3. Statistical significance is the

likelihood that your results occurred

by chance. The p value (probability)

must be lower than .05. Basically

AP Test moment…

 Know the difference between random

sample and representative sample, what about random assignment (selection)

 Know strengths and weaknesses of all

methods of research

 Be able to critique a research study or

experiment…

◦ What was done right?

◦ What should have been done differently?

Advantages of each:

 Survey/interview

◦ Usually anonymous, so answers are more honest

◦ Instant feedback

◦ Quantitative data

 Case study (either longitudinal or

cross-sectional)

◦ You observe activities/reactions personally and do not rely on others’ reports

◦ For longitudinal, you can see how a

treatment/behavior changes over a long period of time

◦ For cross-sectional, you can see if a

Advantages cont.

 Experiment

◦ You decide what you are looking for before you start, and set the experiment up to directly show

your hypothesis as part of the scientific method.

◦ You can focus more on causation, and less on correlation.

Disadvantages…

 Survey/interview

◦ You have to control for different types of bias or leading questions.

◦ You have to make sure you have a representative population and a random sample of that population.

 Case study

◦ Your findings may be specific to the particular subject you have chosen. They may be the

exception to the norm (though it worked out in Piaget’s case).

Disadvantages cont…

 Experiment

◦ You have to monitor all things closely and make sure to control the environment as to limit stimuli and confounding variables

◦ You have to make sure that you are following all ethical protocols.

More AP info…



Measures of central tendency



Biases

◦ Confirmation, hindsight, experimenter, participant



_{Blind and double blind can help}



_{Must account for confounding}

(extraneous) variables

◦ Hawthorne Effect

◦ False consensus

◦ Belief perseverance

• _{By operationally defining your variables you can help}

Ethics in Psychological Research

 Ethics:

◦ The methods of conduct/standards for proper and responsible behavior among psychological

researchers

Ethics in Psychological Research

 Ethical Principles in Psychology

(A.P.A.):

◦ Informed Consent must be obtained

◦ Information about participants must be treated

confidentially

◦ Protection against physical/psychological harm

◦ Limited deception; only if absolutely necessary

◦ Participants must be debriefed afterward

◦ Research proposals must first be screened by

  Pros Cons

Descriptive Methods:

1. Case Study - Allows for in-depth study

- can study things

otherwise impossible to study (brain damage, for example)

- single subject may not be representative; could be a fluke

- only describe behavior; do not tell us cause and effect (or “why?”)

2. Survey - can measure attitudes, motives, and opinions - can get a lot of data easily

- wording of the questions can drastically affect results

- relies on honesty and reflection of participants - small rate of return is not likely to be representative - only describe behavior; do not tell us cause and effect (or “why?”)

3. Naturalistic

Observation - results have ecological (real world) significance - only describe behavior; do not tell us cause and effect (or “why?”)

4. Correlation

Studies - useful for predicting behavior - provides quantitative data about the strength of the relationship

- only describe behavior; do not tell us cause and effect (or “why?”)

Experimentation:

1. Experiment - Can be used to

determine cause and effect relationships

- may lack ecological (real-world) significance



Create a table for each color:



Using the observed frequency of

your sample, formulate expected

percentages of the entire



Now pool your data with others

in your group and revise your

hypothesis if necessary



Mars.Inc. reports the actual

percentages: For plain M&M’s,



13 percent are brown

13 percent are red,

14 percent are yellow,

24 percent are blue,