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F I
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L
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8
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3
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si
t
eb
y h y
d
r a zi
n ed
e ri
v ati
v e s3 9
4
.E q
ui l i
b
ri
um
of A
P
sit
e s4 0
5
.B E R
of
A
P
si
t
e s4 1
6
.M
e ch
a ni
sm
of
st
r a nd b
r e ak
ag
ei
nD
N
A
b
y
/3
-e
U m in
at
i
o n4 2
7
.A
R P
r e a ct
i
o nw i
t
h A P
si
te s
4 3
8
.S
y
n t
h
e si
s of A
R P
4 4
9
.S y
nt
h
e si
s of
b
i
ot
in
h y d
r a zi
d
e4 5
1
0
.S y
nt
h
e si
s of 0
-
(
c a rb
o xy
m
et
h y l
)
h y d
r o xy l
am
i
n eh
em i
h y d
r o ch l
o ri
d
e.. .4 5
1
1
.S
y
nth
e si
s of i m i
n oA
R P
4 6
1 2
.A
t t
em
p
t
ed
sy
nth
e si
s of
h y
d
r a zi
n o a c et
i
c a ci d
4
7
1
3
.S
y
nth
e si
s of h
y
d
r a zin o
A R
P
4
8
1 4
.S y
nth
e si
s of
A
^
-h y d
r o xy
s u c ci
ni
m
i
d
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e r of
1 6
-h
y
d
r o xy h
e x ad
e c a n oi
c a ci
d
4 9
1
5
.S y
n t
h
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s at t
em
p
t
of A
^
-p h
t
h
al i
m
i d
od
e riv a
t
iv e
of
A
^
-h y d
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s u c ci
ni
m
i d
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e r of
1 6
-h y d
r o xy h
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e c a n oi
c a ci d
5 0
1
6
.S
y
nth
e si
s of
b i
ot i
nh
y
d
r a zid
e-1 6
-h y d
r o xy
h
e x ad
e c a n oic
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c o n
j
ug
at
e5 0
1 7
.N
-p h
th
al
i m
i
d
od
e ri
v at
i
v e of
b
i
ot
i
nh
y d
r a zi d
e-1 6
-h
y
d
r o xy
h
e x ad
e c a n oi
c a ci d
c o nj
ug
at
e5 1
1 8
.A
t t
em
p
t
ed
sy
nth
e si
s of
1
6
-H
y
dr o x
y
h
e x ad
e c a n oic a c
i d A
R P
5
2
1
9
.N
M
R
of 7V
-(
te
r^
b
ut
o xy
c a rb
o ny
l
)
-0
-(
c a rb
o xy
m
eth
y
l
)
h
y
d
r o xy
l
-a
m i
n e5
3
2 0
.N
M
R
of
A
^
-
h y
d
r o xy
s u c ci
ni m i
d
e e st
e r of
A
'^(
/
e?-^
b
ut
o xy
c a rb
o ny
l
)
-0
-(
c a rb
o xy
m
et
h y l
)
h y
d
r o xy l
am i
n e5 4
2 1
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M
R
of
B
i
ot
in
h y
d
r a zi
d
e -N
-(
te rt
-b
u
t
o xy
c a rb
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l
)
-0
-(
c a rb
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m
et
h
y
l
)
h
y
d
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-am i
n eC
o nj
ug
at
e5 5
2 2
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M
R
of A
R P
5 6
2
3
.M
a s s sp
e ct
r um
of A
R P
5 7
2 4
N
M
R
of B i
ot
in
h
y d
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d
e5 8
2 5
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M
R
of 0
-(
c a rb
o x5
Tn
et
h y l
)
h y
d
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l
am i
n eh
em i h
y
dr o c
h l
o ri d
eb
y
s
y
nth
e sis
5
9
2
6
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M
R
of C>
-(
c a rb
o xy
m
et
h
y l
)
h y d
r o xy l
am i
n eh
em
i
h
y d
r o ch l
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es
t
a nd
a rd
6 0
2
7
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M
R
of
2
-
i m i
n ob i
o
t
i
nh
y d
r a zi d
e-A
^
-(
z'e r
^
b
uto x
y
c a rb
o ny
l
)
-0
-(
c a rb
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m
et
h y l
)
h y d
r o xy l
am i
n e c o nj
ug
at
e6 1
2 8
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M
R
of
i m i
n oA R P
6 2
2
9
.M
a s s sp
e ct
r um
of i m i
n oA R
P
6
3
3
0
.N
M
R
of
N
-h y d
r o xy
s u c ci
ni m i
d
e e st
e r of
b
r om
o a c eti
c a ci
d
6 4
3 1.
N
M
R
of N
-h y
d
r o xy
s u c ci
ni m
i
d
e e st
e r of A
^
^-c a rb
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m
eth
y l
-t
e rt
i
a ry
b
ut
y
l
c a rb
a z ate
6
5
3
2
.E
SI
m
a s s sp
e ct
r um
of
A
^
-h
y
d
r o xy
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i m i d
e e ste r o
f
A
^
' -c a rb
o xy
m
et
h y l
-t
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ia r
y
b
ut
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c a rb
a z at
e6
6
3 3
.F
A
B
m
a s s sp
e ctr u
m
of A
'
^-h y
clr o xy
s u c ci
m m
i d
e e st
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N
^ -c a rb
o xy
m
et
h y l
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a ry b
ut
y l
c a rb
a z ate
6 7
3 4
N
M
R
of
b
i
oti
nh y d
r a zi
d
e-t
e rti
a ry
b
ut
y l
c a rb
a z ate c o nj
ug
at
e6 8
3 5
.N
M
R
of
H
y d
r a zin o
A R P
6 9
3 6
.N
M
R
of 1 6
-h y d
r o xy h
e x ad
e c a n oi
c a ci
d
7
0
3 7
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M
R
of A
^
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dr o x
y
s u c ci
ni
m
i d
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e r of 1 6
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y
d
r o xy h
e x ad
e c a n oic
a ci d
7 1
3 8
.N
M
R
of b
i
ot
in
h y d
r a zi
d
e -1 6
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y d
r o xy
h
e x ad
e c a n oi
c a ci
d
c o n
j
ug
at
e7
2
3 9
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M
R
of A
^-
P h
t
h
al i
m
i d
od
e ri
v at
i
v e of b i
ot
i
nh y d
r a zi d
e -1 6
-h
y
d
r o xy
h
e x ad
e c a n oic
a ci d
c o nj
ug
at
e7 3
I
.I
nt
r od
u
ct
i
o nD
N A i
sth
eb
ui l d i
ng
b
l
o ck
of l
i f
e an
d
r ep
r e s e nt
st h
e c om
p l
et
eh
e r ed i
t
a ry
b
a ck
g
r o u nd
of
al l l
i
vi
ng
t
h i
ng
s.G i
v e nt
h
ei m
p
o rt
a n c e of D
N A
,g
e n om i
c r e sp
o n s e st
oc e r
t
ai
n st
r e s sf
ul
e n vi
r o nm
e nt
al
a nd
ch
em
i
c al
th
r e at
s a r eb
e c om i
ng
i
n c r e a si
ng
l
y
s
i g
ni f
i c a nt
a sm
o r e a nd m
o r ek
n
ow l
ed g
ei
sg
ai
n ed i
nt
h
e
fi
el d
s of
D
N A
r ep
ai
r a nd
m
ut
ag
e n e si
s.F
u rt
h
e r si
g
ni
f
i c a nt
c on t
ri b
ut
i
o n st
om
a n 's
k
n ow
l
ed g
e of m
ut
ag
e n e si
s a nd
c a r c
i
n og
e n e si
sm
ay
r e s ul
t
f
r om
b
ei
ng
ab l
et
o ef
fi
ci
e nt
l y
a nd
s e n si
t
i
v el
y
d
et
e ct
d
am
ag
et
oD
N A
.A
p
u ri
ni
c/
ap y
ri m i d i
ni
c(
A P
)
sit
e s a r e c om
m
o n n o n -c od i
ng D
N A l
e si
o n st
h
at
c a ni
nh ib it
D N A
r ep
l i
c ati
o n a nd
r e s ult
i
n
m
ut
at i
o n s a nd l
o s s of
g
e n et
i
ci
nt
eg
rit
y
(
L
i
nd
ah l
a nd
N yb
e rg
1
9
7 2 ;
N
ak
am
u r a et
al
.19 9 8
)
.A P
si
t
e s a r ef
o rm
ed
ei
t
h
e r sp
o nt
a n e o u sl
y
,b
y
d i
r e ct
a c
t
i
o n of d
am
ag
i
ng
ag
e nt
s, o r a si
nt
e rm
ed i
at
e sd
u ri
ng
t
h
e c o u r s e of
b
a s e e x ci
si
o n r ep
ai
r(
B E
R
)
of
o xi d i
z ed
,d
e am
i
n at
ed
, o r al
k
y
l
at
ed b
a s e s(
A
t
am
n a et
al
.2 0 0 0
)
.D
et
e ct
i
o n of A P
s
it
e si
si
m
p
o rt
a nt
si
n c eA
P
sit
e s a r e c om
p
o n e nt
s of
D
N A d
am
ag
e an
d
r ep
ai
r .I
n
vi
ew
of
th
e si
g
ni fi
c a n c e of A
P
si
t
e s, s e v e r al m
et
h
od
sh
a v eb
e e n e st
ab l i
sh
ed f
o rt
h
ei
rd
et
e ct
i
o n a nd
q
u a nt
i fi
c ati
o n .H
ow
e v e r,
m
a ny
a r e ei
th
e r v e ry
l
ab
o ri
nt
e n si
v e o rr e
q
ui
r et
h
e u s e of
r ad i
o a ct
i
vi
t y
o rl
a ck
s e n si
ti
vi
t y
f
o rm
e a s u r em
e nt
of l
ow
n
um
b
e r s of A P
s
i
t
e s(
I
d
e et
al
.1 9 9 3 ;
N
ak
am
u r a et
al
.
1 9 9
8
)
.K
ub
o et
al
.d
em
on
st
r at
ed
a si m p l
e, s e n s
i
t
i
v em
et
h
od f
o rt
h
ed
et
e cti
o n of A
P
sit
e su
si
n
g
an
al d
eh
y
d
e-r e a c
t
i
v ep
r ob
e(
A R
P
)
.T h i
s r e s e a r ch f
o c u s e s o nt
h
e sy
nt
h
e si
s of
t h
eA
R
P
u si
ng
t
-b
ut y l
o xy
c a rb
o ny
l
(
/
-B O C
)
a s ap
r ot
e cti
ng g
r o up
c o up
l
ed w i
th
a n a ct
i
v at
ed
e st
e r sy
nt
h
e si
s.T
h i
s r e s e a r ch
al
so
i
n v ol
v e sw
o rk
o nt
h
e sy
nt
h
e si
s of
ot
h
e r n o v el A R
P p
r ob
e st
h
at
c o ul d b
e u s ed i
nt
h
ed
et
e ct
i
o n of
A
P
si
t
e s.M
od
i f
i c at
i
o n s of
A
R P
m
ay
al
lo
w
f
o rf
u rth
e ri
m
p
r o v em
e nt
sin
A P
q
u a nt
i fi
c at
io n
a s s ay
sth
at
c a ni
n c r e a s e s e n sit
i
vi
t
y
, sp
e ci f
i cit
y
, a nd
st
ab i
l
it
y
of
r e ag
e nt
s.T h
eD N A
p
r ob
e sin v o
lv e
d i
nth i
s r e s e a r ch
c a nb
e s e e nin
F i
g
u r e1
A
n o v el
A
R P
w
a s sy
nt
h
e si
z ed
u sin
g 2
-i m i
n ob
i
o
ti
nh
y d
r a zi
d
eh y d
r o ch l
o ri
d
e , ac o
m p
o u nd
si
m
i
l
a ri
n st
r u ct
u r eto
b i
oti
nh y d
r a zi d
ed i f f
e ri
ng
o nl
y
in
th
at
i
t
i
sp
r e s e nt
a s as a
lt
a nd h
a s a ni
m
in
o r ath
e rth
a n a c a rb
o ny
l
g
r o up
at
C 2
.I
nth
eA R P
a s s ay
, o n c eA P
s
i
te s
h
a v e r e a ct
ed
w i
th
A R
P
,th
e c om
p l
e x e s c a nb
ed
ete c
te
d b
y
t
h
eb in
d in
g
of
t
h
eb i
ot
in
to
a vi d i
n o r st
r ep t
a vi d i
n
,w
h i
ch
th
e n ,w h
e n r e a ct
ed w i
th
th
e ap p
r op
ri
at
e s ub
st
r ate
,w i l l
g
i
v e a si g
n al p
r op
o rti
o n at
et
oth
e n um
b
e r of
A
P
si
t
e s.T
h
e a vi
d
i
n -b
i
o
ti
n c om
p
l
e xi
sc
h
a r a ct
e riz e
d b
y
ad i
s s o ci
at
i
o n c o n st
a nt
(
K
d)
of
ap
p
r o xi m
at
el y 1
0
-1
5 ;
st
r ep
ta v
i d in
i
sr e
p
o rt
ed
t
oh
a v e a si m i l
a rK
d va
l
u e(
H
e n ey
a nd O
r r1
9
8 0
)
.A
s s u ch
,t
h
eb i
nd i
ng
of
a v
i d i
n-b io
t
i
ni
s v e ry
st
r o ng
a nd m
ak
e sit
d i ffi
c ult t
o u s ei
nt
h
e af f
i nit
y
is o
la
t
i
o n of
b i
ot
in
y
la
t
ed
c om
p
o n e nt
s.R
el
e a s e of
c om
p
l
e x e sfi
rom
a nl A
c ol
um
n r eq
uir e
h
a r sh
c o n
d i
t
io n s
w h i
ch
c a nd
e n at
u r ep
r ot
ein
s.H
ow
e v e r,
i m i
n ob i
ot
in
h
a s am
u ch lo
w
e rd i
s s o ci
at
io n
c on
st
an t t
h
at
h
a st
h
e ad d i
ti
o n al
ad
v a nt
ag
e of b
ei
ng p
H d
ep
e nd
a nt
A
t
h i g h
p H
,th
e2
-
i m i
n ob
i
o
ti
n e xi
st
sm
o stl
y
in
it
sfr
e eb
a s ef
o rm w i
t
h
t
i g h
t
b i
nd
in
g
t
o a vi d i
nc
h
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c of b i
ot
i
n.A
t
lo
w
e rp
H
,
t
h
e c om
p
o u nd
e xi
st
si
nth
e s alt
f
o rm
, a nd i
t
i
nt
e r a cts o n
l y w
e ak l
y
w i
t
h
a vi d i
n(
H
e n ey
a nd O
r r19 8 0
)
.T h i
si
o
ni
z at
i
o n of
th
eg
ua
ni d i
n eg
r o up
, a s sh
ow
ni
nF
i
g
u r e2
,m
ak
e st
h
ep
u ri fi
c at
i
o n of
c om
p
o u nd
s c o nj
ug
at
ed
t
oi
m
i
n ob i
ot
in
p
o s si b l
e u nd
e rm
i l d
c o nd it
i
on
sb
y
af fi
n
it
y
ch
r om
at
og
r ap
h
y
(
A
t
h
ap
p
i l l
y
an
d
H
e ndr
i
ck
s o n1
9
9 7
)
.A
P
sit
e st
ag g
ed w it
h i m in o
A
R P
c a nb
e e x ci
s ed b
y
e n zy
m
e a nd
t
h
e ne a s
i l
y p
u ri
fi
ed b y
st
r ep
t
a vi
d i
n aff
i ni
t
y
ch
r om
at
og
r ap
h
y
b
ef
o r eb
ei
ng q
u a nt
i fi
ed b
y
I
n ad d i
t
i
o n , ap
r ob
ew
a s sy
nt
h
e si
z ed w i
t
h
te r
t
i
a ry
b
ut
y
l
c a rb
a z at
e,t
h
u s ch
a ng
i
n
g
t
h
e r e a ct
i
ng
m
oi
et y
of
t
h
e o ri
g
i
n al
A
R P
f
r om
-O N H
2
t
o -N H N H
2
M
u ch
of
t
h
et
e ch
n ol
og y
a v ai l
ab
l
eto
d
ay
d
o e s n ot
al l
ow f
o rt
h
edi
st
i
n ct
i
o nb
et
w
e e ni
nt
a ct
A
P
si
t
e s a nd
A P
si
t
e s at t
h
e3
'-
t
e rm
i
n
u s(M
al
vy
et
al
.1 9 9 9
)
.T
om
e a s u r eA
P
si
t
e s at t
h
e3
'-
t
e rm
i
n
u su s
i
ng A R P
r eq
ui
r e s5
'c
l
e a v ag
ew i
t
h
e x o n u cl
e a s eI I I
,b
ut
n o n -sp
e ci fi
c cl
e a v ag
e al
s oo c c u r s a
t t
h
e3
'l i
nk
ag
em
ak
i
ng
t
h
eq
u a nt
i fi
c at
i
o n v e ry d i f fi
c ul
t
.L
i
vi
ng
st
o n n ot
i
c ed
t
h
at
c
l
e a v ag
e of
t h
eD N A b
a ck b
o n ew
a s c a u s ed b
y
c om
p
o un
d
s c on
t
ai
ni
n
g
N H
-N H
2 a n
d
n
ot
t
h
o s e c o nt
ai
ni
ng O
-N H
2.
T
h
ef
o rm
at
i
o n of
aS
ch i f f b
a s e e nh
a n c e st
h
ed
ep
a rt
u r e of
ap
r ot
o nfr
om C
2
'o
f
t
h
ed
e o xy
ri
b
o s e a nd
m
ak
e st
h
ep
h
o sp h
od
i
e st
e rb
o nd l
ab
i
l
e(
F
i
g
u r e3
)
(
T
alp
a e rt
-B
o rl
e'
a n
d
L
ui
z zi
1
9 8
3
)
.T h
e r e a ct
i
o n of h
y d
r o xi
d
ei
o n s o rp
ri
m
a ry
am
i
n e sw
i
t
h
t
h
e al d
eh y
d
ef
u n ct
i
o n al g
r o up
i
n a nA
P
si
t
el
e ad
st
o3
'c
l
e a v ag
et
h
r o ug
h b
et
ae
l
i
m
i
n at
i
o n a nd
t
h
e nt
o s e c o nd
a ry
cl
e a v ag
ei
n5
't
h
r o ug
h
d
el
t
a el i
m
i
n at
i
o nw
h
i
ch
r e s ul
t
si
nt
h
e r em
o v al
of
t
h
eA
P
si
t
e al
o ng
w i
t
h
t
h
ed
e o xy
ri b
o s e ri
ng
fr
om
t
h
eD N A b
a ck b
o n e(
M
al
vy
et
al
.2 0 0 0
)
.I
t
i
sp
r op
o s ed
t
h
at
h y
d
r a zi
n oA
R P
w i l
l
cl
e a v e3
', r e
q
ui
ri
ng
n
oe n
d
o n u cl
e a s e, r e s ul
t
i
ng
i
n am
o r e a c c u r at
ew
ay
of
m
e a s u ri
ng
i
nt
a ct
si
t
e st
h
r o ug
h
th
en u
m b
e r of b
r e ak
s.E
x ci
s ed
si
t
e s c a nt h
e nb
e e a si l
y
ch
a r a ct
e ri
z ed
a nd q
u a nt
i f
i ed b
y
L
C /
M
S
.S
j m t
h
e si
s of
ap
r ob
ei
n c o rp
o
r at
i
ng
al
o ng
al k y l
ch
ai
nw
a s at t
em p
t
e
d b
y
c o n
j
ug
at
i
ng 1
6
-h
y
d
r o xy h
e x ad
e c a n oi
c a ci
d t
ob i
ot
i
nh
y
d
r a zi
d
e.T
h
ep
ri
m
a ry
ob
j
e ct
i
v e of
t
h i
sm
od i f
i c at
i
o nt
oA
R P
w
a st
op
u ri f
y
ol i
g
n u cl
e ot
i d
e s c o nt
ai
ni
ng
ab
a si
c si
t
e s(
K
r ot
z2
0 0
1
)
.B
a s ed
o n r e s e a r ch w i
t
h m
et
h
o xy
am i
n
e(M
X
)
,w
h i
c
h
c an
i
nh i b i
t
t
h
e
cl
e a v ag
e of
A P
si
te s
(
L
i
u et
al
.l 9 9
9
)
t
ow
a rd
sA
P
e nd
o n u cl
e a s e.A
s s u ch
,
i
t
m
ay h
a v e ap l
a c e am
o ng
a nt
i
-c a n c e r
d
r ug
sI I
.L
i
t
e r at
u r eR
e vi
ew
I I
.A
.A
P
S
i t
eF
o rm
at i
o nT h
eD
N A i
n e a ch
c el
l
c o nt
ai
n s al l
t
h
eg
e n et
i
ci
nf
o rm
at
i
o n n e ed
ed f
o rg
r ow
t
h
a nd
r e
p
r od
u ct
i
o n .G
e n e s c a r ry
t
h
ei
n st
r u ct
i
o n sf
o rm
ak i
ng p
r ot
ei
n s, e n zy
m
e s, a nd
ot
h
e rb i
om
ol
e c ul
e st
h
at
a r e r e sp
o n si b l
ef
o r c a r ry
i
ng
o ut
c el l
ul
a rp
r o c e s s e s.T h
i
si
nf
o rm
at
i
o ni
sc o
d
ed b
y
as
e ri
e s of f
o u rb
a s e s -a
d
e
ni
n e,
g
u an
i
n
e, cy
t
o si
n e a nd
t
h
y
m
i
n el i
nk
ed
t
og
et
h
e ri
n
a s
p
e ci
j
E
i
c s eq
u en
c e o r c od
e.T
h
e s eq
u e n c ei
nw h i
ch
t
h
e s em
ol
e c ul
e s a r e o rd
e r ed
d
et
e rm i
n e st
h
ei
nf
o rm
at
i
o n c o nt
ai
n ed
i
nt
h
eD
N A
(
C
am
p
b
el l 1 9 9 4
)
.G i
v e nt
h
e r ol
e of D
N A
,m
ai
nt
e n an
c e of
t
h
e a c c u r a cy
of
t h
eg
en
et
i
c c od
ei
s c ri
t
i
c al
f
o rt
h
e s u r vi
v al
of
c el l
s,i
nd
i
vi d
u al
s, a nd
e v e nw
h
ol
e sp
e ci
e s.H
ow
e v e r,t
h
e st
r u ct
u r e of
D
N A i
sd y
n am
i
c a nd
c a nb
e al
t
e r ed i
n s e v e r al
w
ay
s(
F
ri
ed
b
e rg 1
9
9 5
)
.G
e n om
e s a r ev u
l
n e r ab l
et
o aw i d
e a r r ay
of D N A d
am
ag
ew h i
ch
c om
es
i
nm
a ny
f
o rm
s a nd
c a nb
ec a u s e
d b
y
n um
e r o u s ag
e nt
s.O
xi d
at
i
o n ,h
y
d
r ol
y
si
s, a nd
al k
y
l
at
i
o n a r e al l m
aj
o rf
o rm
s of
d
am
ag
e.F
o rm
at
i
o n of
ap
u ri
ni
c/
ap
y
ri m i d i
ni
c(
A
P
)
si
t
e sm
ak
e s up
o n e of
t
h
em
aj
o rg
r o up
s of D N A
l
e si
o n s.A
P
si
t
e s a ri
s e vi
at
h
e sp
o nt
a n e o u s, ch
em
i
c al l y
-
i
nd
u c ed
, o re n z