University of Windsor University of Windsor
Scholarship at UWindsor
Scholarship at UWindsor
Electronic Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Major Papers
1-1-1979
Children's knowledge about skimming strategies.
Children's knowledge about skimming strategies.
Christine Conheady Ransom
University of Windsor
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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation
Ransom, Christine Conheady, "Children's knowledge about skimming strategies." (1979). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 6746.
https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/6746
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CHILDREN'S KNOWLEDGE ABOUT
SKIMMING STRATEGIES
by
C h r i s t i n e Conheady Ransom
B . A . , S t . John F i s h e r C o l l e g e , 1976
A T h e s i s
S u b m i t t e d t o t he F a c u l t y o f Gr a duat e S t u d i e s Through t he De p a r t me n t o f Psychol ogy
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t he Requi r e ment s f o r t h e Degree
o f M a s t e r o f A r t s a t t he U n i v e r s i t y o f Wi ndsor
W i n d s o r , O n t a r i o , Canada
UMI Number: EC54718
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( S ) C h r i s t i n e Conheady Ransom 1979
ABSTRACT
C h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a b o u t v a r i a b l e s whi ch a f f e c t
t h e i r own l e a r n i n g has been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n s t u d i e s con
c e r n i n g both memory and o t h e r l e a r n i n g ( e . g . , r e a d i n g ,
s t u d y ) t a s k s . T h er e a r e , h o w e v e r , o n l y a few s t u d i e s on
t h e d e v e l o pme n t o f c h i l d r e n ' s awareness a b o u t v a r i a b l e s
t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e i r school l e a r n i n g . As p a r t o f t h e i r
school r e a d i n g p r o g r a m , c h i l d r e n o f t e n l e a r n a bo u t v a r i o u s
s t u d y s k i l l s . E x p e r t s on r e a d i n g have s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e
use o f s t u d y s k i l l s can f a c i l i t a t e t he l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .
The purpose o f t h i s s t u d y was t o i n v e s t i g a t e t he
d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a b o u t one o f t he
s t u d y s k i l l s r e f e r r e d t o as a " l o c a t i o n a l s k i l l . " Loca
t i o n a l s k i l l s a r e a s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d s k i l l s whi ch c h i l d r e n
l e a r n i n o r d e r t o enhance t h e i r c a p a b i l i t y f o r i n d e p e n d e n t
s t u d y and r e s e a r c h . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t he p r e s e n t s t u d y i s
conc e r ne d w i t h what c h i l d r e n come t o know a b o u t t he use
o f two skimming s t r a t e g i e s f o r t he purpose o f l o c a t i n g
d e s i r e d f a c t s i n t e x t m a t e r i a l s . To skim e f f e c t i v e l y
r e q u i r e s a t l e a s t t h e s e two b a s i c p i e c e s o f k nowl e dge :
( 1 ) t h e knowl edge t h a t t h e f i r s t few s e n t e n c e s o f a
p a r a g r a p h o f t e n i n t r o d u c e i t s g e n e r a l c o n t e n t and t h e r e b y
i n d i c a t e t o t he r e a d e r w h e t h e r o r not t he s o u g h t - a f t e r
i n f o r m a t i o n i s l i k e l y t o a p p e a r i n t h a t p a r a g r a p h , and
( 2 ) t h e knowl edge t h a t one can a n t i c i p a t e how t he
s o u g h t - a f t e r i n f o r m a t i o n i s l i k e l y t o a p p e a r , i . e . , i n
t erms o f c e r t a i n key words or s y m b o l s , and can t hen
s e a r c h q u i c k l y l o o k i n g o n l y f o r t h i s p r e d e t e r m i n e d " c l u e . "
C h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a b o u t t he use o f key words and t h i s
a s p e c t o f p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e were i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s
s t u d y . A s e c o n d a r y pur pose o f t h e s t u d y was t o i n v e s t i g a t e
c h i l d r e n ' s s k i l l t o use key words t o skim f o r a p i e c e o f
i n f o r m a t i o n .
C h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge was a ss ess ed u s i n g b e h a v i o r a l
and v e r b a l t e c h n i q u e s . C h i l d r e n from gr a de s 4 , 6', and 8
r e ad t h r e e c o mpa r a b l e s t o r i e s under t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s . Readi ng speeds o b t a i n e d unde r
t h e s e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s were compared t o see i f c h i l d r e n
r e ad f a s t e r when t h e y were asked t o f i n d one f a c t f rom
s t o r i e s i n whi c h t h e y m i g h t s p o n t a n e o u s l y use e i t h e r
p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e ( c o n d i t i o n 2) o r key words ( c o n d i t i o n
3) t h a n when t h e y were asked t o r e a d a s t o r y w o r d b y
-word ( c o n d i t i o n 1 ) . I n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e c h i l d r e n ' s
s k i l l t o l o c a t e a f a c t u s i n g key w o r d s , i n a f o u r t h
i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e y were g i v e n key words and t o l d how
t o use t hem. T h i s r e a d i n g speed was compared t o t h e i r
" w o r d - b y - w o r d " speed t o see i f t h e c h i l d r e n r e a d f a s t e r
when t h e y had knowl edge a bo u t how t o skim u s i ng key wo r d s .
C h i l d r e n a l s o r esponded t o a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s .
One s e t o f q u e s t i o n s asked c h i l d r e n t o d e s c r i b e how t h e y
r e a d under c o n d i t i o n s 2 and 3 . A second s e t o f q u e s t i o n s
was asked t o assess c h i l d r e n ' s v e r b a l i z a b 1e knowl edge
a b o u t t he use o f p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e and key words f o r
e f f i c i e n t ski mmi ng. The f i r s t q u e s t i o n s i n t h i s s e t d i d
n o t cue t he c h i l d r e n t o t h i n k a bo u t p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e
or key wo r d s . L a t e r q u e s t i o n s were i n t e n d e d t o cue #•
c h i l d r e n a b o u t t h e s e . The f i n a l q u e s t i o n s a sses sed t he
most b a s i c p i e c e o f knowl edge needed f o r skimming a b o u t
p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e , i . e . , what t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e g e n e r a l l y
does f o r a p a r a g r a p h , and a bo u t key w o r d s , i . e . , what
key words a r e l i k e l y t o i n d i c a t e t he l o c a t i o n o f u t h e
s o u g h t - a f t e r p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . Responses t o a l l
q u e s t i o n s were c a t e g o r i z e d and a n a l y z e d i n t erms o f
r e f e r e n c e t o p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e o r key words v e r s u s a l l
o t h e r t ype s o f a n s w e r s . The c a t e g o r i z e d r esponses were
a n a l y z e d u s i ng c hi s q u a r e a n a l y s e s .
The v e r b a l d a t a o f t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t a
m a j o r i t y o f c h i l d r e n a t a l l t h r e e grade l e v e l s had t h e
b a s i c knowl edge a b o u t wha t t he f i r s t s e n t e n c e u s u a l l y
does f o r a p a r a g r a p h and a bo u t how a s o u g h t - a f t e r f a c t
i s l i k e l y t o be e x p r e s s e d . I t was a l s o f ound t h a t
c h i l d r e n a t a l l t h r e e l e v e l s were e q u a l l y s k i l l f u l i n
u s i ng key words t o s k i m .
The v e r b a l d a t a a l s o s u g g e s t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t
bet ween grades 4 and 8 c h i l d r e n come to know how t o a p p l y
t h e i r b a s i c knowl edge when a c t u a l l y s e a r c h i n g f o r a f a c t .
Onl y a b o u t h a l f o f g r a de 4 c h i l d r e n , b u t a l m o s t a l l o f
g r a de 8 c h i l d r e n were a b l e t o v e r b a l i z e a b o u t how t o use
p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e and key words t o s k i m .
A compar i son o f t h e b e h a v i o r a l and v e r b a l d a t a
s u g g e s t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n come t o know when one s h o u l d
d e l i b e r a t e l y use t h e skimming s t r a t e g i e s s t u d i e d . About
50 t o 60% o f gr ades 4 and 6 c h i l d r e n were a b l e t o d e s c r i b e
how t o skim s t r a t e g i c a l l y b u t o n l y a few o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n
a c t u a l l y used t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s d u r i n g t he r e a d i n g * t a s k s .
Most o f t he gr a de 8 c h i l d r e n , h o w e v e r , n o t o n l y v e r b a l i z e d
knowl edge a b o u t skimming s t r a t e g i e s , b u t a p p r o p r i a t e l y
a p p l i e d t he knowl edge a c c o r d i n g t o t a s k demand d u r i n g t h e
r e a d i n g s e s s i o n .
The e d u c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The a u t h o r would l i k e t o e x t e n d s p e c i a l t ha n k s t o t h o s e
who have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t and t h e compl e
t i o n o f t he p r e s e n t m a n u s c r i p t . W i t h o u t q u e s t i o n . D r . A k i r a
Kobasigawa m e r i t s p r i m a r y t hanks f o r h i s g u i d a n c e and h e l p
a t e v e r y s t a g e o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s and d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n
o f t h e f i n a l m a n u s c r i p t . As Chai rman o f t he r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t ,
he gave more t ha n g e n e r o u s l y o f h i s t i m e and t a l e n t s f o r t h e
purposes o f p r o d u c i n g a v a l u a b l e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t and
t e a c h i n g a n o v i c e "how t o pr oduce v a l u a b l e r e s e a r c h . " Thanks
a r e a l s o due t o D r . G. Ann F o s t e r and D r . C o r n e l i u s J . H o l l a n d
f o r t h e i r v a l u a b l e a d v i c e and s u g g e s t i o n s and f o r t h e i r
w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o n t r i b u t e t owa r d " t h e l e a r n i n g o f t he
r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s . " The a u t h o r a l s o wi shes t o e x p r e s s a p p r e c i a
t i o n t o t he a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , f a c u l t y and s t a f f a t S t . Pi us
t he T e n t h School i n Tecumseh, O n t a r i o f o r t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n
and a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n phase o f t h e s t u d y .
S p e c i a l t ha n ks a r e due t o t he c h i l d r e n who were i n t e r v i e w e d ,
f o r t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t u d y . A p p r e c i a
t i o n i s e x t e n d e d t o Mary Anne M a r t i n f o r h e r prompt p r e p a r a
t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l s used i n t he s t u d y and f o r t h e t y p i n g
o f t h e f i n a l m a n u s c r i p t . S i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e i s o f f e r e d t o
f a m i l y and f r i e n d s , e s p e c i a l l y my husba nd, f o r t h e i r c o n s t a n t
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ... i i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... v1
LI ST OF TABLES ... i x LI ST OF FIGURES ... xi
C h a p t e r I INTRODUCTION ... T C h i l d r e n ' s Knowledge About Memory ... 2
Person ... 2
Task ...
I
S t r a t e g y ... g Summary and Comments ...^ . . ° P r e s e n t St udy ... . . 7I I METHOD ... 12
S u b j e c t s ... 12
M a t e r i a l s ... 12
S t o r i e s ... 12
I n t e r v i e w Q u e s t i o n s ... 15
Pr oce dur e ... 16
Reading Tasks ... 16
Assessment o f V e r b a l i z a b l e Knowledge. 18 F i n a l Reading Task ... 19
S c o r i n g ... 20
I I I RESULTS ... 22
B e h a v i o r a l Data ... 22
V e r b a l Data ... 29
Par a gr aph S t r u c t u r e ... 29
Key Words ... 40
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( c o n t ' d )
Page
REFERENCES ... 52
APPENDIX A STORIES ... 55
B READABILITY FORMULA ... 61
C RAW DATA ... 62
D AUXILLIARY TABLES ... 68
VI TA AUCTORIS ... 70
LI ST OF TABLES
T a b l e Page
1 Mean Amount o f Time Ci n s ec) Req u i r e d t o Complete Task Under Each, o f Four
I n s t r u c t i o n s a t T h r ee Grade L e v e l s ... 24
2 Number and P r o p o r t i o n ( i n p a r e n t h e s i s ) o f S u b j e c t s a t Each Grade Level G i v i n g V a r i o u s Types o f Answers t o Qu e s t i o n s About How They Read f o r t he Pa r a gr aph S t r u c t u r e Cupper h a l f ) and Key Word ( l o w e r h a l f )
TasKS ... 28
3a Number and P r o p o r t i o n ( i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) o f S u b j e c t s a t Each Grade L e v e l G i v i n g V a r i o u s
Types o f Answers t o I n t e r v i e w I t e m 1 ... 32
b T h r e e F o u r f o l d C o n t i n g e n c y T a b l e s D e r i v e d
f rom T a b l e 3a ... 32
4a Number and P r o p o r t i o n ( i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) o f
^
S u b j e c t s a t Each Grade Level G i v i n g "Yes" o r"No" Answers t o I n t e r v i e w I t e m 2 ...T*.. . . 34
b Thr ee F o u r f o l d Co n t i n g e n c y T a b l e s D e r i v e d
f rom T a b l e 4a ... 34
5a Number and P r o p o r t i o n ( i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) o f S u b j e c t s a t Each Grade L e v e l G i v i n g V a r i o u s
Types o f Answers t o I n t e r v i e w I t e m 3 ... 36
b Thr ee F o u r f o l d C o n t i n g e n c y T a b l e s D e r i v e d
from T a b l e 5a ... 36
6a Number and P r o p o r t i o n ( i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) o f S u b j e c t s a t Each Grade Lev el G i v i n g V a r i o u s
Types o f Answers t o I n t e r v i e w I t e m 4 ... 39
b Thr ee F o u r f o l d C o n t i n g e n c y T a b l e s D e r i v e d
From T a b l e 6a ... 39
7a Number and P r o p o r t i o n ( i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) o f S u b j e c t s a t Each Grade Level G i v i n g V a r i o u s
Types o f Answers t o I n t e r v i e w I t e m 5 ... 41
b Thr ee F o u r f o l d C o nt i n g e n c y T a b l e s D e r i v e d from
T a b l e 7a ... 41
L I S T OF TABLES ( c o n t ' d )
T a b l e Page
8a Number and P r o p o r t i o n ( i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) o f S u b j e c t s a t Each Grade L e v e l E i t h e r
G i v i n g o r Not G i v i n g a Good Key Word on T r i a l 1 i n Response t o I n t e r v i e w
I t e m 6 ... 44
b T h r e e F o u r f o l d C o n t i n g e n c y T a b l e s D e r i v e d
f rom T a b l e 8a: ... 44
9 Number o f S u b j e c t s a t Each Grade L e v e l G i v i n g V a r i o u s Good Key Words i n Response
LI ST OF FIGURES
F i g u r e Page
1 Sample par a g r a p h showing use o f t he f i r s t s e n t en c e t o i n t r o d u c e t he g e n e r a l
c o n t e n t o f t he pa r a g r a p h ... 14
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
R e c e n t l y , c h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a bo u t c o g n i t i v e phenomena
( g e n e r a l l y known as m e t a c o g n i t i o n ) has become an i m p o r t a n t
v a r i a b l e i n t he i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t
( Br o w n , 1 9 7 5 ; Brown, 1 9 7 8 ; F l a v e l l & W e l l m a n , 1 9 7 7 ) . Much
o f t h e r e s e a r c h has been c on c e r ne d w i t h c h i l d r e n ' s awar eness
o f t h e i r a b i l i t i e s and s t r a t e g i e s f o r t he l e a r n i n g o f
t r a d i t i o n a l memory t a s k s , i . e . , r e c a l l o f a l i s t o f p i c t o r i a l
i t e m s . A l t h o u g h s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s ( e . g . , Brown & S m i l e y ,
1 9 7 8 ; Mason, 1 9 7 8 ; Myers & P a r i s , 1 9 7 8 ) have made I T i i t i a l
a t t e m p t s , c h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a b o u t s t r a t e g i e s t h a t can
a s s i s t t h e i r school l e a r n i n g has r a r e l y been i n v e s t i g a t e d .
The p r e s e n t s t u d y i s c on c e r ne d w i t h t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f
c h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a b o u t one o f t he s t u d y s k i l l s , t he
s k i l l o f s e a r c h i n g e f f i c i e n t l y f o r i n f o r m a t i o n i n a w r i t t e n
p a s s a g e .
I n t he f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n , t he meaning o f me t a
c o g n i t i o n w i l l be c l a r i f i e d f i r s t . For t h i s p u r p o s e ,
v a r i o u s k i n d s o f m e t a c o g n i t i o n w i l l be i l l u s t r a t e d by
s e l e c t i v e l y r e v i e w i n g e x i s t i n g s t u d i e s . T h i s w i l l be done
by c o n s i d e r i n g t he a r e a o f memory d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c e most
1 9 7 8 ; F l a v e l l , 1 9 7 8 ) . Then t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w i l l be
o u t l i n e d .
C h i l d r e n ' s Knowledge About Memory
Most a d u l t s have l e a r n e d t h a t t h e r e a r e many v a r i a b l e s
or f a c t o r s t h a t e f f e c t t h e i r memory p e r f o r m a n c e . F l a v e l l
and Wellman ( 1 9 7 7 ) have c l a s s i f i e d t h e s e v a r i a b l e s i n t o
t h r e e m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s : p e r s o n , t a s k and s t r a t e g y . T h us ,
a g r owi ng c h i l d w i l l e v e n t u a l l y l e a r n t h a t how w e l l a per son
l e a r n s and remembers depends on ( a ) what h e / s h e i s l i k e as
a 1 e a r n e r ( per son v a r i a b l e ) , ( b ) what t he l e a r n i n g t a s k i s
( t a s k v a r i a b l e ) , and ( c ) what b e h a v i o r h e / s h e engages i n t o
1 e a r n ( s t r a t e g y v a r i a b l e ; F l a v e l l , 1 9 7 7 , p. 2 0 8 ) . ^
P e r s o n . One t y p e o f m e t a c o g n i t i o n i n t he per son c a t e
gor y r e f e r s t o a c h i l d ' s knowl edge o f h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f and
o t h e r s as p o t e n t i a l 1 e a r n e r s or m e m o r i z e r s . I n r e l a t i o n
t o t h i s k n o w l e d g e , t h e a b i l i t y o f c h i l d r e n t o e s t i m a t e
t h e i r own memory c a p a b i l i t i e s has been f r e q u e n t l y s t u d i e d .
F l a v e l l , F r i e d r i c h s and Hoyt ( 1 9 7 0 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , asked
c h i l d r e n t o e s t i m a t e t h e i r memory spa n. From one t o t e n
p i c t u r e s were p r e s e n t e d t o t he c h i l d r e n i n c r e m e n t a l l y . The
c h i l d r e n were asked t o i n d i c a t e a t each l i s t l e n g t h w h e t h e r
t h e y c o u l d s t i l l r e c a l l a l i s t t h a t l o n g . A l t ho u g h o n l y
a few o f t h e o l d e r c h i l d r e n ( g r a d e s 2 and 4) p r e d i c t e d t h a t
t h e y c o u l d r e c a l l a l l o f t he t e n p i c t u r e s , more than h a l f
manner. Markman ( 1 9 7 3 ) a l s o found t h a t h e r 5 - y e a r - o l d
c h i l d r e n were as i n a c c u r a t e i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e i r own r e c a l l
as t he y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n i n t he F l a v e l l e t a l . ( 1 9 7 0 ) s t u d y .
The o t h e r s u b c a t e g o r y o f " p e r s o n " metamemory r e f e r s t o
t he a b i l i t y t o m o n i t o r and i n t e r p r e t o n e ' s own i mme d i a t e
mnemonic e x p e r i e n c e s i n s p e c i f i c memory s i t u a t i o n s . A d u l t s
know, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t t h e y d o n ' t have an answer t o t h e
q u e s t i o n , "What i s B e e t h o v e n ' s t e l e p h o n e number?" O r ,
sometimes a per son has t h e f e e l i n g t h a t s omet h i n g h e / s h e
i s t r y i n g t o memorize s t i l l needs t o be s t u d i e d . These
woul d be exampl es o f t h i s s u b c a t e g o r y .
F l a v e l l e t a l . ( 1 9 7 0 ) , i n t he i n v e s t i g a t i o n j u s t c i t e d ,
i n s t r u c t e d c h i l d r e n t o s t u d y a s e t o f i t e m s u n t i l t h e y v/erc
a b s o l u t e l y sur e t h e y c o u l d r e c a l l them a l l w i t h o u t e r r o r .
They found t h a t t he y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ( 4 - 6 y e a r s o f age)
were l e s s a d e p t a t e s t i m a t i n g t h e i r r e a d i n e s s f o r r e c a l l
t h a n c h i l d r e n 7 - 1 0 y e a r s o f a g e . The l e t t e r ' s r e c a l l was
u s u a l l y p e r f e c t on a l l r e c a l l t r i a l s .
T a s k . One s u b c a t e g o r y o f t a s k - r e l a t e d metamemory
r e f e r s t o o n e ' s awar eness o f t he o b j e c t i v e need t o employ
a s p e c i f i c s e t o f s t r a t e g i c b e h a v i o r s f o r t he s u c c e s s f u l
c o m p l e t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r memory t a s k . A p p e l , Coope r ,
M c C a r r e l l , S i m s - K n i g h t , Yussen and F l a v e l l ( 1 9 7 2 ) s t u d i e d
t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s k i n d o f metamemory. I n t h i s s t u d y ,
c o u l d be grouped i n t o f 1 ye c o n c e p t u a l c a t e g o r i e s ( e . g . ,
a n i m a l s , y e h i c l e s ) , and asked under twp d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c
t i o n s t o e i t h e r ( a ) l o o k a t o r Cb) memori ze t h e s e i t e m s .
Onl y a t t he 1 1 - y e a r - o l d l e v e l was r e c a l l i n t he "remember"
c o n d i t i o n h i g h e r t ha n i n t h e " l o o k " c o n d i t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n »
o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e c h i l d r e n ' s b e h a v i o r d u r i n g t he s t u d y
t i m e r e v e a l e d t h a t o n l y t h e 1 1 - y e a r - o l d s r e h e a r s e d more i n
t he memory c o n d i t i o n t ha n i n t he “ l o o k i n g " c o n d i t i o n . These
f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t an awareness o f t h e need to use
d e l i b e r a t e m e m o r i z a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s b e g i n s t o d e v e l o p b e
tween gr a de 3 and g r a d e 6 .
w-A n o t h e r s u b c a t e g o r y h e r e i n c l u d e s a p e r s o n ' s knowl edge
a bout t a s k - r e l a t e d v a r i a b l e s t h a t a f f e c t t he d i f f i c u l t y
l e v e l o f a g i v e n memory p r o b l e m . The d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s
k i n d o f knowl edge i s i l l u s t r a t e d by K r e u t z e r , Leonard and
F l a v e l l ( 1 9 7 5 ) . C h i l d r e n i n t h i s s t u d y were f i r s t f a m i l i a r
i z e d w i t h p a i r e d - a s s o c i a t e l e a r n i n g p r o c e d u r e s , and t h e n
asked i f one o f two s e t s o f word p a i r s woul d be " e a s i e r f o r
you t o 1 e a r n " t h a n t he o t h e r , and i f s o , why. One l i s t o f
words c o n s i s t e d o f r andoml y p a i r e d i t ems w h i l e t he second
l i s t o f p a i r s were based on common a s s o c i a t e s ( e . g . , boy
wi t h g i r l ; b l a c k w i t h whi t e ) . Most o f t h e k i n d e r g a r t e n
c h i l d r e n f a i l e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h e e ase o f l e a r n i n g t h e
p a i r s o f o p p o s i t e s , w h i l e a l m o s t a l l o f t h e gr ades 3 and 5
e x p l a i n why. I n t h i s same s t u d y , t he i n v e s t i g a t o r s found
t h a t gr ades 3 and 5 c h i l d r e n seemed t o have a t l e a s t
i n t u i t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t he c l a s s i c a l phenomenon o f
r e t r o a c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e . T h us , many o f t he gr ades 3 and 5
c h i l d r e n , b u t a l m o s t none o f t he k i n d e r g a r t e n c h i l d r e n , )
i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t m i g h t be h a r d e r t o r e c a l l a s e t o f p e o p l e ' s
names i f one had l e a r n e d a n o t h e r s e t o f p e o p l e ' s names
i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d s t ha n i f one had n o t .
S t r a t e g y . The s t r a t e g y c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s knowl edge o f
how t o s t o r e and r e t r i e v e i n f o r m a t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y . K r e u t z e r
e t a l . ( 1 9 7 5 ) gave t h e i r s u b j e c t s 20 c o l o u r e d p i c t u r e s and
t o l d them t h a t two c h i l d r e n had t o 1 e a r n t hem. Tbey wer e
t o l d t h a t one c h i l d s t u d i e d f o r f i v e mi n u t e s w h i l e t he
o t h e r c h i l d s t u d i e d f o r one m i n u t e . The s u b j e c t s were
t h e n asked to i n d i c a t e whi ch c h i l d remembered more and t o
j u s t i f y t h e i r a n s w e r . The m a j o r i t y o f c h i l d r e n a t a l l age
l e v e l s p r e d i c t e d t h a t s t u d y i n g f o r f i v e m i n u t e s woul d be
a b e t t e r s t r a t e g y , b u t y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n were l e s s a b l e t o
j u s t i f y t h e i r c h o i c e s .
C h i l d r e n a l s o a c q u i r e s e v e r a l p i e c e s o f knowl edge
c o n c e r n i n g r e t r i e v a l s t r a t e g i e s . C h i l d r e n o f d i f f e r e n t
ages respond d i f f e r e n t l y when t h e y do n o t remember some
t h i n g i m m e d i a t e l y . Some c h i l d r e n may t e r m i n a t e t h e i r
memory s e a r c h q u i c k l y , w h i l e o t h e r s may know t h a t a l i t t l e
a n s w e r s . C h i l d r e n a t a more advanced l e v e l may a l s o know
t h a t t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s t h e y can use t o l o c a t e
t h e r e q u e s t e d i n f o r m a t i o n e f f i c i e n t l y . The a v a i l a b l e s t u d i e s
i n d i c a t e t h a t knowl edge o f s t r a t e g i c r e t r i e v a l ( e . g . ,
d e l i b e r a t e l y t h i n k o f A i n o r d e r t o remember £ ) b e g i n t o
d e v e l o p bet ween gr ade 1 and grade 3 ( s e e Koba s i gawa , 1 9 7 7 ) .
Summary and Comments. The purpose o f t h e p r e v i o u s
s e c t i o n was t o i l l u s t r a t e what p e o p l e g e n e r a l l y mean by
m e t a c o g n i t i o n . M e t a c o g n i t i o n has been c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a
p e r s o n ' s knowl edge a b o u t wha t v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t t he c ou r s e
and outcomes o f c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s . Most e m p i r i c a l
s t u d i e s on m e t a c o g n i t i o n have c e n t e r e d on k n o w l e d g e . a b o u t
o n e ' s own memory a b i l i t i e s and s t r a t e g i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o
s i m p l e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n s . The e x i s t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a l
l i t e r a t u r e a ppe ar s t o s u g g e s t t h a t m e t a c o g n i t i o n may be
q u i t e ma t ur e by t h i r d g r a d e . H o w e v e r , Brown ( 1 9 7 8 ) has
s ug g e s t e d t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s due t o t h e s i m p l e t yp e s o f
met amemori al s k i l l s which have been e x a m i n e d , and t h e r e f o r e
may need t o be q u a l i f i e d . M e t a c o g n i t i o n can o c c u r i n o t h e r
s i t u a t i o n s t ha n memory ( F l a v e l l , 1 9 7 8 ) , and i n r e l a t i o n t o
l e a r n i n g t a s k s whi ch a r e more r e l e v a n t t o t he l e a r n i n g
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t he school and e v e r y d a y l i f e t ha n a r e
t r a d i t i o n a l memory tasks^l I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e f oc us
i s on c h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a bo u t s e a r c h i n g f o r i n f o r m a t i o n
w o r l d . Such knowl edge I s r e l a t e d t o needs i n r e a l l i f e
l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , t he t a r g e t s t r a t e g y o f
t he s t u d y i s p r e s u ma b l y a c h i e v e d l a t e r t han t ho s e exami ned
i n t h e p r e v i o u s me t a memor i al s t u d i e s .
P r e s e n t St udy
E a r l y i n t h e J u n i o r gr ade y e a r s ( g r a d e 4 ) , t he c h i l d
i s r e q u i r e d t o r e a d w i t h i n c r e a s e d i n d e p e n d e n c e . The c h i l d
a t t h i s grade l e v e l i s a l s o e x p e c t e d t o be c a p a b l e o f more
i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d y and r e s e a r c h i n t he c o n t e n t a r e a s ( e . g . ,
s o c i a l s t u d i e s , h i s t o r y , s c i e n c e ) . For t h e s e p u r p o s e s , t h e
c h i l d g e n e r a l l y l e a r n s a s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d s k i l l s f r e q u e n t l y
subsumed under t he . he adi ng " l o c a t i o n a l s k i l l s . " As one o f
t h e l o c a t i o n a l s k i l l s , t he c h i l d may 1 e a r n t h a t t h e p r o c e s s
o f i n f o r m a t i o n s e a r c h w i l l be f a c i l i t a t e d i f h e / s h e nar rows
down a broad r e s e a r c h t o p i c ( e . g . , t h e Rocky M o u n t a i n s )
i n t o s m a l l e r s u b t o p i c s ( e . g . . What do mount ai ns l o o k l i k e , "
Why a r e t h e y c a l l e d t h e Rocky M o u n t a i n s ? ) . They a l s o 1 e a r n
o f r e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l s ( e . g . , b o ok s , d i c t i o n a r y , e n c y c l o p e d i a ,
newspapers and p e r i o d i c s ) and how t h e y can use t hem. A f t e r
t h e c h i l d has l o c a t e d a p p r o p r i a t e books and o t h e r r e f e r e n c e
m a t e r i a l s , h e / s h e l e a r n s t o a p p l y knowl edge a b o u t t h e
v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t he book ( e . g . , t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s , i n d e x e s ,
page h e a d i n g s ) t o l o c a t e ' ' t h e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n ( s ) . T h e n ,
t h e s t u d e n t needs t o know and use t h e s k i l l o f skimming i n
8
t he t e x t o f t h e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n ( s ) (Thomas & Robi ns o n ,
1 9 7 5 ; Z i n t z , 1 9 7 5 ; Spache & Spache, 1 9 7 7 ) .
From among t he v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n a l s k i l l s , t h e s t r a t e g y
o f skimming was i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y . C h i l d r e n ' s
knowl edge a bo u t t he o t h e r l o c a t i o n a l s k i l l s has been
f r e q u e n t l y assessed by s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s ( e . g . , " Ca na di a n
T e s t s o f B a s i c S k i l l s " ) w h i l e c h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a b o u t
skimming has n o t been s t u d i e d e x t e n s i v e l y .
I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s k i l l o f s k i mmi n g , c h i l d r e n 1 e a r n
two b a s i c p i e c e s o f k n o w l ed g e . F i r s t , t h e y 1 e a r n t h a t
when s e a r c h i n g f o r a p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n t e x t m a t e r i a l s ,
t h e y can g l a n c e s w i f t l y down t h e page o r c ol umn, s k i p p i n g
e v e r y t h i n g b u t what t h e y a r e l o o k i n g f o r . To s k i n T l e f f e c
-t i v e l y assumes -t h a -t a per son has -t h o u g h -t a b o u -t -t h e pr obl em
and has d e t e r m i n e d t h e k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n h e / s h e w i l l
l o o k f o r . I n d e t e r m i n i n g what h e / s h e w i l l l o o k f o r , a
per son may use h i s / h e r knowl edge t h a t c e r t a i n k i n d s o f
i n f o r m a t i o n a r e o f t e n e x p r e s s e d i n t erms o f c e r t a i n key
w o r d s , i n n u m e r i c a l form o r a r e accompanied by a s p e c i a l
symbol ( e . g . , t he de g r e e symbol ®, "F" f o r F a h r e n h e i t o r
"C" f o r C e n t i g r a d e ; Thomas & Ro b i ns o n , 1 9 7 5 ; Z i n t z , 1 9 7 5 ;
Spache & Spache, 1 9 7 7 ) .
Second, c h i l d r e n l e a r n t h a t t h e y do n o t have t o l o o k
t hr o u g h e n t i r e p a r a g r a p h s o f a passage i f t h e y a r e i r r e l e v a n t
I n d e c i d i n g whi ch p a r a g r a p h s a r e i r r e l e v a n t , a per son uses
p r e s e n t i n g f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l s t h a t t he f i r s t s e n t e n c e o f a
p a r a g r a p h u s u a l l y i n t r o d u c e s i t s c o n t e n t (Thomas & R o b i n s o n ,
1 9 7 5 ; Z i n t z , 1975 ; Spache & Spache, 1 9 7 7 ) .
I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , c h i l d r e n ' s awar eness o f t h e s e
two p i e c e s o f knowl edge was i n v e s t i g a t e d by u s i n g b e h a v i o r a l
and v e r b a l assessment t e c h n i q u e s . P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s ( e . g . .
Mason, 1 9 7 8 ; Myers & p a r i s , 1978) have a sses sed c h i l d r e n ' s
s c h o o l - r e l a t e d m e t a c o g n i t i v e knowl edge m a i n l y on t he b a s i s
o f t h e i r v e r b a l r e p o r t s a b o u t l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s r e q u i r e d
by h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . One p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t y w i t h
t h i s m e t h o d o l o g y l i e s i n r e l y i n g on c h i l d r e n ' s a b i l i t y t o
v e r b a l i z e a c c u r a t e l y wha t t h e y know a bo u t t h e i r own-^mental
a c t i v i t i e s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t c h i l d r e n may know"tiow t o
p e r f o r m a p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y w i t h o u t b e i n g a b l e
t o v e r b a l i z e t h a t knowl edge a c c u r a t e l y ( s e e Brown, 1 9 7 8 ,
f o r such i n s t a n c e s ) . An a l t e r n a t i v e way o f g e t t i n g
c h i l d r e n t o e x t e r n a l i z e t h e i r knowl edge a b o u t l e a r n i n g
s t r a t e g i e s i s t o o b s e r v e t h e i r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d l e a r n i n g
a c t i v i t i e s ( e . g . , r e a d s l o w l y v e r s u s r e a d f a s t ) unde r
d i f f e r e n t t a s k i n s t r u c t i o n s ( e . g . , comprehend t h e m a t e r i a l
v e r s u s l o c a t e a p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n from t he same m a t e r i a l ) .
T h i s b e h a v i o r a l a ssessment t e c h n i q u e was s u c c e s s f u l l y used
by Appel e t a l . ( 1 9 7 2 ; t h e Appel e t a l . s t u d y i s summari zed
on page 3 ) . At t he p r e s e n t t i m e , h o w e v e r , i s i s u n c l e a r
10
g i v e s a more a c c u r a t e i n d i c a t i o n o f what c h i l d r e n know.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , f o l l o w i n g Brown' s ( 1 9 7 8 ) r e c o mme n d a t i o n , bot h
o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y .
For t h e purpose o f t he p r e s e n t s t u d y , c h i l d r e n were
p r e s e n t e d w i t h f o u r c ompar abl e s t o r i e s under f o u r d i f f e r e n t
r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s . The f i r s t r e a d i n g d i r e c t i v e was
d e s i g n e d t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n would r e a d t he whol e
s t o r y w o r d - b y - w o r d and t h e r e b y a l l o w a b a s e l i n e measure o f
r e a d i n g speed t o be o b t a i n e d . The second and t h i r d r e a d i n g
d i r e c t i v e s and t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t o r i e s were d e s i g n e d
t o a l l o w c h i l d r e n t o u s e , s p o n t a n e o u s l y , knowl edge a b o u t
p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e and key words o r s ymb o l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
t o skim e f f e c t i v e l y . I f t h e c h i l d r e n use t h e i r knowl edge
a bo u t skimming s t r a t e g i e s , t h e y s ho u l d r e a d t h e s t o r i e s
f a s t e r under t h e second and t h i r d i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a n u n de r
t h e f i r s t i n s t r u c t i o n ( b e h a v i o r a l a s s e s s m e n t ) . Even i f
t h e c h i l d r e n have t he a p p r o p r i a t e knowl edge a b o u t skimming
s t r a t e g i e s , t h e y may n o t show d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r e a d i n g
b e h a v i o r s under t he p r e s e n t t a s k c o n d i t i o n s ( i . e . , r e a d
f a s t e r under t he second and t h i r d i n s t r u c t i o n s t ha n u n d e r
t he f i r s t i n s t r u c t i o n ) f o r a t l e a s t one r e a s o n . The
c h i l d r e n s i m p l y may n o t have t he r e q u i r e d s k i l l s t o c a r r y
o u t what t h e y know. I n \ ) r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y ,
t he f o u r t h r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n was i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y .
n
words and were e x p l i c i t l y i n s t r u c t e d how t o use t h e s e t o
l o c a t e a p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n q u i c k l y . I f t he c h i l d r e n
have t he n e c e s s a r y s k i l l t o use t he knowl edge p r o v i d e d i n
t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e y sho u l d r e ad more q u i c k l y under t he
f o u r t h i n s t r u c t i o n t ha n under t he f i r s t i n s t r u c t i o n .
A f t e r t he c h i l d r e n had c ompl e t e d t he t a s k s under t he
f i r s t t h r e e i n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e y were asked a s e r i e s o f
q u e s t i o n s to assess t h e i r v e r b a l i z a b l e knowl edge a bo u t
skimming t e c h n i q u e s . These q u e s t i o n s were d e s i g n e d t o f ocus
on two p i e c e s o f k n o wl e d g e , v i z . , t h e use o f t he p a r a g r a p h
s t r u c t u r e and key w o r d s , t o skim e f f e c t i v e l y .
C h i l d r e n o f gr ades 4 , 6 , and 8 were used as s u b j e c t s .
Grade 4 c h i l d r e n were used because c h i l d r e n a t t h i s gr ade
l e v e l b e g i n t o 1 e a r n t h e s k i l l o f s k i mmi ng. Te a c h e r s
c o n c e n t r a t e on such s k i l l s t h r o u g h o u t t he J u n i o r g r a d e s ,
t h a t i s , grades 4 , 5 , and 6 ( Spache & Spa che , 1 9 7 7 ) . T h u s ,
one m i g h t e x p e c t a d e v e l o p m e n t a l change t o o c c u r i n c h i l d r e n ' s
CHAPTER I I
METHOD
S u b j e c t s
T w e n t y - f o u r grade
I
4 c h i l d r e n ( 1 2 boys and 12 g i r l s ) ,24 g r ade 6 c h i l d r e n ( 12 boys and 12 g i r l s ) , and 14 g r a d e 8
c h i l d r e n ( 8 boys and 6 g i r l s ) p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t he p r e s e n t
s t u d y . These c h i l d r e n were drawn f rom a p a r o c h i a l school
i n a suburban a r e a o f W i n d s o r , O n t a r i o . The mean
c h r o n o l o g i c a l ages were 9 - 1 1 , 12- 1 and 13- 11 f o r gr ades 4 ,
6 and 8 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r t e a c h e r s ' j u d g e
m e n t s , none o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n s h o u l d have had d i f f i c u l t y
i n r e a d i n g t he m a t e r i a l s used i n t h i s s t u d y .
M a t e r i a 1s
S t o r i e s . Four s e t s o f pr ose p a s s a g e s , each a t t h e
gr ade 3 . 8 r e a d a b i l i t y l e v e l ^ . were p r e p a r e d . The passages
were f a c t u a l prose s i m i l a r t o t ho s e one f i n d s i n a
c h i l d r e n ' s e n c y c l o p e d i a . Each o f t h e f i r s t two s t o r i e s
was composed o f two p a r a g r a p h s . I n s t o r y 1 ( c o n t r o l s t o r y ) ,
v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t he brown b e a r were d e s c r i b e d
i n t h e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h w h i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p o l a r
b e a r were d e s c r i b e d i n t he second p a r a g r a p h . I n s t o r y 2 ,
t he m a j o r f e a t u r e s o f t he b l a c k b e a r were i n d i c a t e d i n t h e
T^See Appendi x B f o r d i s c u s s i o n o f r e a d a b i l i t y f o r m u l a
13
f i r s t p a r a g r a p h and t ho s e o f t h e g r i z z l y b e a r were
i n d i c a t e d i n t h e second p a r a g r a p h . As i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n
F i g u r e 1 , t he g e n e r a l c o n t e n t o f each o f t he p a r a g r a p h s
was i n t r o d u c e d by t h e f i r s t s é n t e n c e o f t h a t p a r a g r a p h .
T h a t i s , t he s t o r i e s were d e s i g n e d so t h a t c h i l d r e n c o u l d
c o m p l e t e l y s k i p a " t a s k - i r r e l e v a n t " p a r a g r a p h ( e . g . , b l a c k
b e a r ) and pr o c e e d t o t he second p a r a g r a p h ( e . g . , g r i z z l y
b e a r ) i f asked t o l o c a t e a p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t he
g r i z z l y b e a r . The amount o f t i m e r e q u i r e d by a c h i l d t o
r e a d t he f i r s t p a r a g r a p h o f each o f t h e s e two s t o r i e s
was a c r i t i c a l d e p e n d e n t measure o f t h i s s t u d y . The l e n g t h s
o f t he f i r s t p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e two s t o r i e s w e r e , t f f e r e f o r e ,
e q u a t e d ; both c o n t a i n e d 121 wo r d s .
Each o f t he r e m a i n i n g two s t o r i e s c o n s i s t e d o f one
p a r a g r a p h c o n t a i n i n g v a r i o u s p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
Va nc ouv e r ( t h i r d s t o r y ) o r New York C i t y ( f o u r t h s t o r y ) .
The a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e o f each c i t y d u r i n g t he w i n t e r ,
t h e t a r g e t i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s t u d y , was s t a t e d i n i t s
r e s p e c t i v e s t o r y as t h e 1 2 1 s t w o r d , and was e x p r e s s e d i n
n u m e r i c a l f or m u s i n g t he deg r e e s y mbol . No o t h e r t e m p e r a
t u r e i n f o r m a t i o n o r n u m e r i c a l f i g u r e a p p e a r e d i n e i t h e r
o f t h e s e s t o r i e s . I t s h o u l d be n ot e d t h a t a l l f o u r o f
t h e s e s t o r i e s were made so t h a t t he e x p e r i m e n t e r c o u l d
measure t h e speed w i t h whi ch c h i l d r e n r e a d t he same l e n g t h
14
IN THIS STORY, FIRST YOU WILL READ ABOUT BROWN BEARS.
THE BROWN BEAR IS THE BIGGEST KIND OF BEAR. THEY CAN GROW
TO BE AS LONG AS 2 . 7 METERS. MANY OF THEM WEIGH MORE THAN
360 KILOGRAMS. BROWN BEARS HAVE A SHAGGY COAT. BUT A
BROWN BEAR DOES NOT ALWAYS HAVE A BROWN COAT. SOME ARE
GRAYISH WHITE. OTHERS LOOK ALMOST BLUE. SOME ARE BLACK.
THESE BEARS BECOME AFRAID EASI LY. THEY WILL ATTACK WHEN
THEY ARE AFRAID. BROWN BEARS LIKE TO BE ALONE. MOST OFTEN
THEY LIVE IN THE WILD PARTS OF ALASKA AND ASI A. THESE
ARE THE BEARS ONE SEES IN A ZOO. THEY CAN BE TRAINED AND
BECOME QUITE FRIENDLY. THESE BEARS LIKE TO EAT MEA.T, FISH
AND PLANTS.
15
Each o f t h e s e f o u r s t o r i e s was t y p e w r i t t e n on p l a i n
w h i t e pape r ( 2 2 x 28 cm) w i t h each p a r a g r a p h p r i n t e d on a
s e p a r a t e p a g e . The p a r a g r a p h s were a t t a c h e d t o g e t h e r ,
s e p a r a t e l y f o r each s t o r y , w i t h a b l a n k p a p e r a p p e a r i n g as 2
t he c o v e r page.
I n t e r v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . T h e r e were two m a j o r s e t s o f
i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s . One s e t o f q u e s t i o n s was p r e p a r e d t o
assess c h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a b o u t t h e use o f p a r a g r a p h
s t r u c t u r e f o r e f f i c i e n t ski mmi ng. They were :
1. "Suppose you wa nt t o t e a c h one o f y o u r c l a s s m a t e s
how t o f i n d o u t f rom t h i s s t o r y where a g r i z z l y b e a r u s u a l l y
l i v e s . How woul d you t e a c h them t o f i n d t he answer q u i c k l y ? "
2 . "Some s t u d e n t s t e l l me t h a t when t h e y a r e l o o k i n g
f o r one s p e c i f i c p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n a f a c t u a l a r t i c l e
t h e y do n o t r e a d a l l o f t h e p a r a g r a p h s . They say t h e y s k i p
some o f t h e p a r a g r a p h s . Do you e v e r r e a d t h i s way when you
a r e s e a r c h i n g f o r a p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n ? "
3 . "How do you ( t h e s e s t u d e n t s ) f i n d o u t whi ch p a r a
graphs you ( t h e y ) can s k i p ? How do you ( t h e s e s t u d e n t s )
f i n d o u t whi ch p a r a g r a p h s you ( t h e y ) s h o u l d r e ad?"
4 . "What i n f o r m a t i o n does t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e o r two
o f a p a r a g r a p h i n a f a c t u a l a r t i c l e u s u a l l y t e l l you?"
The o t h e r s e t o f q u e s t i o n s was p r e p a r e d t o assess
16
e f f i c i e n t ski mmi ng. These w e r e :
5 . "When you l o o k f o r t he t e m p e r a t u r e o f Vancouver
d u r i n g t he w i n t e r , i s t h e r e some way you can f i n d t h i s
i n f o r m a t i o n r i g h t away?"
6 . "What m i g h t g i v e you a c l u e where t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n
c o u l d be l o c a t e d ? What o t h e r c l u e s mi g h t h e l p you t o l o c a t e
t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n q u i c k l y ? "
P r oc e d u r e
The c h i l d r e n were t e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y i n a q u i e t room.
A f t e r t he e x p e r i m e n t e r and c h i l d i n t r o d u c e d t h e ms e l ve s t o
each o t h e r , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r b r i e f l y e x p l a i n e d t o t h e c h i l d
t h e n a t u r e o f t he i n t e r v i e w . The r e m a i n i n g sessi qri. c o n s i s t e d
o f t h r e e main phases: ( a ) phase 1 i n whi ch t he c h i l d ' s
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r e a d i n g speeds were o b t a i n e d w i t h i n s t r u c
t i o n s t o r e ad a whol e s t o r y and w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s t o l o c a t e
one p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n ( a s s e s s m e n t o f d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
r e a d i n g ) ; ( b ) phase 2 i n whi ch t he c h i l d ' s v e r b a l knowl edge
a bo u t skimming s t r a t e g i e s was ass essed w i t h i n t e r v i e w
q u e s t i o n s ( a s s e s s me n t o f v e r b a l k n o w l e d g e ) ; and ( c ) phase
3 i n whi ch t he p r e s e n c e o r absence o f b a s i c s k i l l s t o
p e r f o r m skimming s t r a t e g i e s was assessed ( f i n a l r e a d i n g t a s k ) ,
Reading T a s k s . The e x p e r i m e n t e r began t h i s phase o f
t h e s e s s i o n by s a y i n g : "Today I have some s t o r i e s f o r you
t o r e a d and a few q u e s t i o n s I woul d l i k e t o ask y o u . " The
17
be a bo u t b e a r s . Havi ng a s s u r e d t h a t t he c h i l d knew t h a t
t h e r e were f o u r k i n d s o f b ea r s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , t he
e x p e r i m e n t e r gave t he c h i l d t he s t o r y t o be used t o o b t a i n
t h e b a s e l i n e measure o f r e a d i n g speed ( s t o r y 1) w i t h t he
f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s :
" L e t ' s b e g i n w i t h t h i s s t o r y . What I would l i k e you t o
do f i r s t i s r e a d t h i s s t o r y t o y o u r s e l f . I wa nt you t o r e a d
e v e r y l i n e so t h a t you have r e a d e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s i n t h e
s t o r y . The s t o r y i s w r i t t e n on two s e p a r a t e p a g e s. When
you have f i n i s h e d w i t h t he f i r s t p a g e , go r i g h t on t o t h e
second o n e . When you a r e r e a d y t o b e g i n , you may t u r n t h e
p a g e . "
The speed w i t h whi ch t he c h i l d r e a d t he f i r s t p a r a g r a p h
o f t h i s s t o r y was measured by u s i ng a H u n t e r 1910 t i m e r t o
t h e n e a r e s t s e c ond. The e x p e r i m e n t e r m a n u a l l y a c t i v a t e d
t he t i m e r when t h e c h i l d t u r n e d t he f i r s t page and t hen
s t oppe d i t when h e / s h e t u r n e d t he second p a g e . When t he
c h i l d f i n i s h e d r e a d i n g t he f i r s t s t o r y , t he e x p e r i m e n t e r
s a i d : "How d i d you l i k e t h a t s t o r y ? Di d you know some o f
t h e t h i n g s i n t h e s t o r y a l r e a d y ? "
The e x p e r i m e n t e r t h e n p r o c e e de d t o t h e second r e a d i n g
t a s k i n whi ch t h e c h i l d c o u l d skim e f f i c i e n t l y by u s i n g t h e
p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e . The c h i l d was i n s t r u c t e d t h a t h i s / h e r
t a s k was t o f i n d o u t " j u s t one t h i n g " from t he second s t o r y :
18
a l s o t o l d t o u n d e r l i n e t h e s e n t e n c e t h a t c o n t a i n e d t he
r e q u e s t e d i n f o r m a t i o n . To i n s u r e t h a t t he c h i l d would
c l e a r l y remember h i s / h e r t a s k , h e / s h e was asked t o r e p e a t
what h e / s h e was t o f i n d o u t . The c h i l d t he n began r e a d i n g
t h e second s t o r y . The amount o f t i m e r e q u i r e d by t h e c h i l d
t o r e a d t he f i r s t p a r a g r a p h o f t he s t o r y was me asur e d. When
t h e c h i l d f i n i s h e d u n d e r l i n i n g t he t a r g e t s e n t e n c e , h e / s h e
was a s k e d : "How d i d you r e a d t h i s s t o r y t o f i n d o u t where
a g r i z z l y b e a r u s u a l l y l i v e s ? Did you have any s p e c i a l way
o f r e a d i n g ? "
The e x p e r i m e n t e r t h e n we nt on t o t he t h i r d r e a d i n g t a s k
i n whi ch t he c h i l d c o u l d ski m f o r "key words" t o 1o c a t e t h e 1. *
t a r g e t i n f o r m a t i o n . The c h i l d was t o l d t o f i n d o u t " j u s t
one t h i n g " from t he t h i r d s t o r y : "How c o l d i s i t i n
Va ncouv er i n t he w i n t e r ? " The c h i l d was t o l d : "When you
f i n d t he a n s w e r , p l e a s e u n d e r l i n e i t ? " t he e x p e r i m e n t e r
checked t o be s ur e t h a t t h e c h i l d remembered wha t h e / s h e
was g o i n g t o l o o k f o r and t h e n gave h i m / h e r t he t h i r d
s t o r y . For t h i s t a s k , t he e x p e r i m e n t e r t i med t he c h i l d
b e g i n n i n g when h e / s h e t u r n e d t h e f i r s t page u n t i l h e / s h e
began t o u n d e r l i n e t h e t a r g e t s e n t e n c e . The c h i l d was
t h e n a s k e d , as h e / s h e was f o r t he second t a s k , how h e / s h e
r e a d t he s t o r y t o f i n d t he answer t o t he q u e s t i o n .
Assessment o f V e r b a l i z a b l e Knowl edge . I m m e d i a t e l y
19
i n t e r v i e w e d w i t h t he two m a j o r s e t s o f q u e s t i o n s ( s e e
M a t e r i a l s ) . These q u e s t i o n s were asked i n t h e same o r d e r
( i n n u m e r i c a l o r d e r as seen i n M a t e r i a l s ) f o r a l l o f t he
c h i l d r e n . The a p p r o p r i a t e s t o r y f o r each o f t he two m a j o r
s e t s o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e ( s t o r y 2) and
a bo u t key words ( s t o r y 3) was a v a i l a b l e f o r t he c h i l d t o
l o o k a t d u r i n g q u e s t i o n i n g . The e x p e r i m e n t e r empha s i zed
t h a t t h e r e were no " r i g h t " o r "wrong" answers t o t he
q u e s t i o n s . I f t he c h i l d was u n a b l e t o answer o r c l e a r l y
m i s u n d e r s t o o d t he q u e s t i o n s , i t was r e p e a t e d o r r e p h r a s e d
u n t i l t h e c h i l d p r o v i d e d an a n s w e r . The e n t i r e i n t e r v i e w
s e s s i o n was t a p e r e c o r d e d .
F i n a l Readi ng T a s k . The e x p e r i m e n t e r gave t h e c h i l d
s t o r y 4 , t he s t o r y t o be used t o measure r e a d i n g speed
when h e / s h e had been i n s t r u c t e d how t o use key words t o
l o c a t e i n f o r m a t i o n q u i c k l y . The c h i l d was i n s t r u c t e d t o
f i n d o u t " j u s t one t h i n g " f rom t he f o u r t h s t o r y : "How c o l d
i s i t i n New York C i t y d u r i n g t he w i n t e r ? " The c h i l d was
t o l d t o f i n d t h e answer "as q u i c k l y as you can by l o o k i n g
s w i f t l y down t h e page f o r key words such as w i n t e r and
t e m p e r a t u r e o r symbols such as a number and t h e d e g r e e
s y m b o l . " A f t e r a s k i n g t h e c h i l d t o r e p e a t wha t h e / s h e
was goi ng t o l o o k f o r and t o u n d e r l i n e t h e answer when
h e / s h e found i t , t h e c h i l d was g i v e n t he f o u r t h s t o r y . As
20
f rom when h e / s h e t u r n e d t he f i r s t page u n t i l h e / s h e began
t o u n d e r l i n e h i s / h e r a n s w e r . When t he c h i l d was f i n i s h e d
w i t h t h i s t a s k , h e / s h e was t ha nke d f o r h i s / h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n o
i n t h e s t u d y and t h e n s e n t back t o t he c l a s s r o o m .
S c o r i nq
Each c h i l d ' s i n t e r v i e w r e sponses were t r a n s c r i b e d i n t o
a w r i t t e n a c c o u n t f rom t he t a p e r e c o r d e d i n t e r v i e w . L e n g t hy
r e sponse s were t h e n r ecode d i n t o s h o r t s e v e r a l - w o r d
summaries t h a t were s e m a n t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e o r i g i n a l
r e p o r t s . A p r e l i m i n a r y e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e d a t a s u g g e s t e d
s e v e r a l r esponse c a t e g o r i e s f o r each i n t e r v i e w i t e m , i n
a d d i t i o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l l y p l a n n e d c a t e g o r i e s ( e . g^^, "use
o f p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e , " "use o f key w o r d s " ) , whi ch c o u l d
be used t o s c o r e t he c h i l d r e n ' s r e s p o n s e s . The response s
f o r each o f t h e p r o t o c o l s were t he n s cor e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y
by two j u d g e s based on t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s . The r e l i a b i l i t y
o f t h e s e s c o r i n g j ud g eme n t s was c a l c u l a t e d as t he p e r c e n t a g e
o f t h e 62 p r o t o c o l s whi ch t h e two j u d g e s s c o r e d i d e n t i c a l l y ;
i t was found t o be between 9 3 - 1 0 0 % . S c o r i n g d i s a g r e e m e n t s
bet ween j u d g e s were r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h mut ual a g r e e m e n t .
I n t e r j u d g e r e l i a b i l i t y was n o t f o r m a l l y assess ed i n i n s t a n c e s
where i t was c e r t a i n t h a t a gr ee me nt would be p e r f e c t , t h a t
i s , f o r q u e s t i o n s where a " y e s - n o " answer was a p p r o p r i a t e
21
and q u e s t i o n s where t he number o f r esponses g i v e n was t he
CHAPTER I I I
RESULTS
C h i l d r e n ' s knowl edge a bo u t skimming s t r a t e g i e s was
exami ned i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i n terms o f " b e h a v i o r a l " and
" v e r b a l " assessment t e c h n i q u e s . I n t he communi ca t i on o f
t h e r e s u l t s , t he b e h a v i o r a l d a t a w i l l be summarized f i r s t
a l o n g w i t h t he c h i l d r e n ' s v e r b a l r e p o r t s a b o u t t h e i r
r e a d i n g b e h a v i o r . N e x t , I n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e d t o c h i l d r e n ’ s
" v e r b a l k n o w l e d g e , " as exami ned by t he i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s ,
w i l l be p r e s e n t e d .
>-B e h a v i o r a l Data ^
The b e h a v i o r a l d a t a c o n s i s t e d o f t he amount o f t i m e
each c h i l d s p e n t r e a d i n g a p a r t i c u l a r l e n g t h o f passage ( i . e . ,
121 words) under f o u r d i f f e r e n t r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s . Under
t h e f i r s t t a s k c o n d i t i o n , t he c h i l d was asked t o r e a d t he
whol e s t o r y w o r d - b y - w o r d ( h e r e a f t e r c a l l e d whol e s t o r y
c o n d i t i o n ) . Under t he second c o n d i t i o n , t he c h i l d was
asked t o l o o k f o r one p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n and c o ù l d r e a d
t h e s t o r y q u i c k l y by u s i n g t he p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e
( p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e c o n d i t i o n ) . Under t he t h i r d c o n d i t i o n ,
t he c h i l d was asked t o l o c a t e one p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n and
c o u l d r e a d t he s t o r y q u i c k l y by u s i ng key words ( k e y word
c o n d i t i o n ) . Under t he f o u r t h c o n d i t i o n , t he c h i l d was
