Combat Techniques

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MCI 8204

MARINE CORPS INSTITUTE

STAFF NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS

ADVANCED DISTANCE EDUCATION

PROGRAM

COMBAT TECHNIQUES

MARINE BARRACKS

WASHINGTON, DC

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MCI Course 8204 i Course Introduction

COMBAT TECHNIQUES (8204)

Course Introduction

Scope An outstanding gunnery sergeant should be able to train and advise Marines on a vast variety of subjects. Gunnery sergeants must be technically and tactically proficient in many areas to accomplish this responsibility.

This course covers many techniques that will enhance your ability to assist junior Marines in their quest to be better Marine combat leaders. Combat Techniques is merely a starting point for what a gunnery sergeant needs to know to lead Marines into combat.

Table of Contents

This course contains the following study units:

Study Unit Title Page

-- Course Introduction i

1 Developing Techniques 1-1

2 Combat Leadership Techniques 2-1

3 The Offense 3-1

4 The Defense 4-1

-- Review Lesson Exercise R-1

Estimated Study Time

You will spend about 9 hours, 45 minutes completing this course. This includes the time to study the text, complete the exercises, and take the final exam.

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MCI Course 8204 ii Course Introduction

Course Introduction,

Continued

Reserve Retirement Credits

You earn three retirement credits for completing this course. You can earn reserve retirement credits at the rate of one credit for each 3 hours of estimated study time.

Note: If you are awarded credits for drill attendance during drill periods, reserve retirement credits are not awarded for the MCI study time.

Summary The all important gateways to successfully complete this course are summarized in the table below:

Step When you… Then you will…

1 Enroll in the program Receive your program material. 2 Complete the self-paced text Arrange to take the final examination. 3 Pass the final examination Receive a course completion

certificate.

Note: For more information, refer to the Program Introduction.

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MCI Course 8204 1-1 Study Unit 1

STUDY UNIT 1

DEVELOPING TECHNIQUES

Overview

Estimated Study Time 1 hour, 10 minutes

Unit Scope All tactical situations are unique. The solution used in one situation may not work in another. This study unit is designed to teach you how to develop techniques flexible enough to allow you to master unique situations used in combat.

Learning Objectives

After completing this study unit, you should be able to

• Describe the historical perspectives of combat techniques.

• Identify dangers and pitfalls involved with developing techniques.

• Identify the teaching techniques used to train your unit.

In This Study Unit

This study unit contains the following lessons:

Topic See Page

Lesson 1 A Historical Perspective on Techniques 1-3

Lesson 2 Dangers and Pitfalls 1-13

Lesson 3 Teaching Techniques 1-19

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MCI Course 8204 1-3 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1

LESSON 1

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON TECHNIQUES

Introduction

15 minutes

Lesson Scope This lesson discusses several trends in warfare that have emerged since the 18th century and the driving factors behind those trends. This lesson also focuses on the four major influences of techniques in warfare.

After completing this lesson, you should be able to

• State three important trends in techniques since the 18th century.

• State the driving factors behind these trends.

• State the four major influences on techniques.

In This Lesson This lesson contains the following topics:

Introduction 1-3

Trends Since the 18th Century 1-4

Driving Factors 1-6

Major Influences 1-7

Lesson 1 Exercise 1-10

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Trends Since the 18th Century

Definition of Technique

A technique is a means by which to transform a tactical decision into action. Example: Assume you face an enemy that is aggressive to the point of rashness. You decide to exploit this weakness by drawing the enemy into a trap. After considering the peculiarities of the terrain, the troops, the weapons available to you, and what you know about the enemy, you decide to set a trap in the form of an L-shaped ambush. The particular form of ambush you choose is the technique you will use to execute your decision.

Important Trends

Techniques are as old as warfare itself. From the 18th century onward, three important trends have emerged:

• Techniques have ever-shorter “lives”—techniques change more often, especially in wartime.

• Battalion and smaller units must master an ever-increasing range of techniques.

• The ranks that develop new and innovative techniques are more and more junior.

18th Century Example

In the 18th century, a successful battlefield technique was called “forming a square.” When an infantry unit was threatened with an attack by cavalry, it defended itself by forming a square. Regardless of what side of the square the cavalry attacked, the cavalry faced a solid wall of bayonets. Since horses are reluctant to impale themselves, the square remained an effective technique for nearly 200 years.

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Trends Since the 18th Century,

Continued

19th Century Example

By the 19th century, changes in weapons were becoming much more frequent than had been the case in the 18th century. As each side in a conflict devised new ways of using new weapons and as both sides came to realize the

capabilities of their new weapons, techniques changed more rapidly. For example, in the Civil War at the Battle of Bull Run in 1861, both sides

formed much as they would have in Napoleon’s time. However, by 1864, the defenders on the battlefield were often entrenching. The much longer range of the rifled musket, compared to the Napoleonic smooth bore, gave the defender a reason to protect himself from the enemy’s fire, which the attacker could not do. That advantage of the defender increased. By World War I, the trenches dominated the battlefield.

World War II Example

By World War II, the pace at which techniques changed had increased

markedly. New weapons quickly created a demand for new techniques. Each side was constantly working to find ways to beat the enemy’s techniques. This meant the enemy had to change again. Armies often found themselves fighting in parts of the world for which they were not prepared. Differences in terrain and weather demanded new techniques. These changes still exist today.

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Driving Factors

Primary

Driving Factors

The driving factor behind each of these trends are listed in the table below:

Trend Driving Factor

Techniques have ever-shorter lives. The increasing pace of technological change

• In the 18th century, a basic battlefield technique might last 100 years or more.

• By the 19th century, weapons began to change more rapidly.

• Consequently, techniques for using weapons also changed more rapidly, which continues today.

Battalion and smaller units must master an ever-increasing range of techniques.

As the capabilities and versatility increase with these weapons— machineguns, mortars, SMAWs, AT-4s, SAWs, and grenade launchers—the missions also increase.

The ranks that develop new and innovative techniques are more and more junior.

Since today’s squad leader has many types of weapons in his or her

squad—rifles, grenade launchers, and SAWs—he or she has many

opportunities and is obligated to be innovative.

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Major Influences

Four Major Influences on Techniques

Had you been an NCO or a junior officer in the 18th century, the techniques you learned during military training would not have changed throughout your entire military service. Today, techniques change often. To devise changes in techniques, you must understand what influences a technique:

• Weapons and equipment

• Terrain

• Tactics

• People

Weapons and Equipment

The infantry technique of maneuvering by fire teams is a good example of how introducing a particular type of weapon forces a change in techniques. Before the light machinegun, a relatively large number of rifle-armed

infantrymen (eight or more) had to provide the “critical mass” of fire needed to suppress an enemy machinegun position. However, small unit leaders soon discovered that a smaller team of two to four infantrymen armed with a light machinegun could do the job just as well, yet provide the enemy with less of a target. That left the squad with enough men to maneuver close enough to wipe out the enemy’s machinegun position with hand grenades, rockets, and its light machinegun.

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Major Influences,

Continued

Terrain Microterrain can have a very significant impact on techniques. For example, a wooded area may enable you to bring a squad up on the enemy’s flank undetected. A small gully may enable a fire team to get to the top of the hill before the enemy can see it. A very shallow depression, just inches deep, may permit a squad to crawl forward safely. Small unit leaders must have a keen appreciation for (terrain advantages and liabilities) the opportunities terrain can offer and how it can impact a technique.

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Major Influences,

Continued

Tactics Changes in tactical thought also bring changes in techniques. Eighteenth century line and column tactics would not survive on the modern battlefield. Advances in technology brought about changes in tactics, requiring changes in techniques also. In earlier times, fighting Marines used line and column (first generation) techniques such as “wheeling the line” and “deploying from column into line.” Fighting Marines today use “3rd generation” techniques like the three-element assault—for penetration—and the L-shaped ambush. These changes in techniques resulted from changes in tactics.

People Successful use of techniques depends greatly on the quality of your troops. This includes their level of training, combat experience, morale, and

cohesion. Each encounter offers the enemy a chance to learn about the way you fight. Depending upon how quickly the enemy learns, what works against him or her one time may not work the next.

Example In the 1967 Six Day War, the Israelis discovered Egyptian infantry units would collapse when charged by Israeli tanks. Consequently, the Israeli tankers developed a standing operating procedure (SOP) to immediately assault, without fire support, all Egyptian infantry encountered. However, this SOP proved very costly for the Israelis during the 1973 October War because the Egyptian infantry had also learned from the 1967 war. For the 1973 war, the Egyptian infantry was well trained in anti-tank techniques and well equipped with anti-tank weapons.

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MCI Course 8204 1-10 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1 Exercise

Lesson 1 Exercise

Estimated Study Time 10 minutes

Directions Complete exercise items 1 through 3 by performing the action required. Check your answers against those listed at the end of this lesson.

Item 1 Techniques are as old as warfare itself. Which of the following is one of three important trends that have emerged since the 18th century?

a. Techniques have ever-longer “lives.”

b. Battalion and smaller units must master a much smaller range of techniques.

c. The ranks that develop new and innovative techniques are more and more junior.

d. Techniques are smaller in scale than tactics.

Item 2 Which of the following is one of three primary driving factors behind the trends since the 18th century?

a. The increasing pace of technological change.

b. As weapons development leveled off, the techniques that a unit needed to master did too.

c. The small range of weapons at the small unit level allows the rank at which techniques must be developed through innovation has remained at the senior level.

d. The movement of populations from a rural to an urban environment.

Item 3 Which of the following is one of four major influences on techniques? a. Senior leadership

b. Weapons and equipment c. The Vietnam War d. Mass production

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Lesson 1 Exercise,

Continued

Answers The table below provides the answers to the exercise items. If you have any questions, refer to the reference page listed for each item.

Item Number Answer Reference

1 c 1-4

2 a 1-6

3 b 1-7

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LESSON 2

DANGERS AND PITFALLS

Introduction

10 minutes

Lesson Scope This lesson discusses the difficulties involved with developing techniques for warfare and some of the pitfalls that leaders find in their design.

• Explain why some techniques work well in training and not in combat.

• Describe the major pitfalls a leader may “fall into” when designing techniques.

Introduction 1-13

Difficulties in Developing Techniques 1-14

Pitfalls in Developing Techniques 1-15

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Difficulties in Developing Techniques

Two Main Difficulties

There are two difficulties to consider when developing effective techniques for training: • Training limitations • Pitfalls Training Limitations

When conducting live-fire exercises, the best training can only approach, but effectively simulate the reality of combat. Training that includes smoke, noise, and confusion is valuable because these are all common on any battlefield.

Technical Problems

Since training is not the same as combat, you can easily develop techniques that work in training, but fail in combat. Sometimes, the problem is purely technical.

Example: The problem with MILES equipment is that it fails to teach the value of suppressive fire in real combat. The MILES sensor “beep” that occurs from a near miss will not make you “hunker down” like a near miss from an enemy machinegun round. Using MILES equipment for training proves difficult to teach effective techniques for suppressing enemy fire while maneuvering.

Life or Death Since you cannot effectively replicate death or fear of death in training, you can develop techniques that only work when death or fear is not present. Example: In training, you will often see a squad or platoon assaulting “on line” while in combat, many of the men in that squad or platoon would die. The survivors will not be very eager to obey the next time someone orders them to assault on line.

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Pitfalls in Developing Techniques

Four Major Pitfalls

Because developing techniques is a creative activity, a leader can make an infinite number of possible mistakes. In fact, you can be sure that even the best techniques will contain any number of minor errors. However, there are four major pitfalls that you may encounter:

• Lockstep mentality • Obsolescence • Complexity • Patent solution Lockstep Mentality

The lockstep mentality creates rigid procedures that interfere with being effective.

Example: Teaching a Marine that there are three firing positions for the SMAW—standing, sitting, and prone—may undermine, rather than help his or her ability to use the weapon effectively. Marines may take that

information at face value and refuse to use other more innovative firing positions, such as kneeling behind a wall or resting the SMAW against a support.

Obsolescence Obsolescence is teaching techniques that are out-of-date.

Example: The unnatural fondness that some Marines have for attacking “on line.” In an earlier age when the dominant infantry weapon was the rifle, this made a certain amount of sense. The squad was the basic fire unit and needed to advance as a whole if it was to maintain its ability to fire effective volleys and achieve both mass in assault while maintaining suppression. Although this technique became obsolete with the introduction of light machineguns during World War I, many Marines still insist that their subordinates practice it.

Complexity Complexity is developing techniques that are so intricate that they just do not work in combat. The irony here is that it is often far more difficult to devise simple techniques instead of complicated ones. The solution is not to dilute complex techniques, but rather to keep searching for techniques that are inherently simple.

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Pitfalls in Developing Techniques,

Continued

Patent Solution Patent solution is the search for the technique that will work in every situation.

Example: The Japanese banzai attack in World War II—the Japanese tried to use it in every situation and it usually failed miserably. When they finally stopped using it on Iwo Jima, the Japanese became a much more dangerous opponent.

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Lesson 2 Exercise

Directions Complete items 1 through 3 by performing the action required. Check your answers against those listed at the end of this lesson.

Item 1 Since training is not the same as combat, you can easily develop techniques that work in training, but fail in combat. What is the main reason that MILES equipment is a training limitation?

a. MILES adds extra weight to the weapon and Marine that would not be present in real combat.

b. MILES uses blank ammunition instead of live ammunition. c. MILES fails to teach the value of suppressive fire in real combat. d. MILES requires batteries, which are a logistical burden.

Item 2 Because developing techniques is a creative activity, a leader can make an infinite number of possible mistakes. Which one of the following is one of the four major pitfalls that you may fall into as you design techniques? a. Rapid solution

b. Lockstep mentality c. Simplicity

d. Narrow spectrum

Item 3 Which innovation in military equipment was most influential in changing the way basic infantry techniques were developed in the first half of the 20th century? a. Tank b. Airplane c. Machinegun d. Helicopter

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Lesson 2 Exercise,

Continued

1 c 1-14

2 b 1-15

3 c 1-15

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LESSON 3

TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Introduction

Lesson Scope This lesson discusses how to foster an environment that is conducive to developing techniques and identifies three techniques that you can use to better train your unit.

After this lesson, you should be able to

• Explain how to create a training environment that fosters development and sustainment of techniques.

• Identify three techniques to help your unit develop into a better well-trained unit.

Introduction 1-19

Fostering Development 1-20

Development Techniques 1-22

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Fostering Development

Development of Techniques

There are several ways to create a training environment that fosters development: • Practice • Free play • Automatic • Adapt • Innovate

Practice How do you teach techniques? How do you make your unit proficient in techniques? The first and most important answer is practice.

There are many ways you can practice techniques. You can practice some of them alone. You can practice almost any movement technique until you get it right. Practicing in groups can also be effective and sometimes training requires the use of an aggressor.

Free Play Free play training offers the best opportunity to practice techniques because you must practice your techniques against an enemy with an opposing will. This more closely replicates the uncertainty your Marines will face in combat. A free play exercise also helps you identify the techniques you need to

improve.

Automatic In practicing techniques, your goal should be to make them automatic. This is something often observed in veteran combat units.

Example: If a veteran German infantry company fighting in the Soviet Union in World War II took fire from a village it was passing, all the company commander had to say was, “Combat in village.” Everyone knew what to do. They knew because they had fought through so many villages that it was all second nature to them. They had all the techniques down so smoothly that every infantryman knew just what to do and how to do it. It had become automatic. It is not easy to reach that level of performance in peacetime, but it should be your goal.

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Fostering Development,

Continued

Adapt The previous example illustrates another point about teaching techniques. While the techniques of fighting through a village were performed

automatically, each village usually presented a different situation. The members of the infantry company had also learned to adjust to this. They modified their techniques to the specific situation presented by each village. You must teach your Marines to adapt their techniques—to adjust them for the situation. The battlefield is not a drill field and each battlefield is somewhat different from every other battlefield. Therefore, in teaching techniques, you must introduce variations in the nature of the problem. If you practice movement techniques, do not always go over the same ground. If you practice the assault by penetration, the positions you assault should not always be the same. As the leader, you must ensure this kind of variation. For a given technique, the situation should be of the same general kind, but different in its details as the specific situation or problem changes. That is how you teach adaptability.

Innovate A key point in teaching techniques is that the instruction must encourage innovation. If a private or a sergeant develops a more effective technique to get the same result, he or she should be rewarded for doing so, not punished. Then, you need to adopt and put his or her innovation into practice.

Remember, modern techniques are not engraved on stone tablets. As a squad leader, platoon sergeant, or instructor, you have the latitude and humility to adjust techniques, discard old ones, and to adopt new ones that work better. You will have to do this in combat. You will have to develop your own “bag of tricks.” Similarly, you must give your subordinates the opportunity to innovate.

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Development Techniques

Application When teaching techniques, you should keep three things in mind: practice, adaptation, and innovation. To help your unit to be a better-trained unit, you should

• Create a good command climate.

• Make training realistic.

• Maximize free play.

Command Climate

To create a good command climate, answer the following questions first:

• Do you encourage initiative and innovation?

• Are you patient with subordinates who try to be imaginative and innovative, even though their techniques may not be very useful?

• Do you humiliate them for falling short, thereby ensuring that they will not make another attempt?

• Do you encourage your subordinates to contribute or do you direct everything yourself?

• Do you present them with problems and let them try to come up with techniques to solve them or do you just teach “the answer” and demand that everyone follow it?

Command climate must be the starting point for teaching adaptability and innovation in techniques. Of course, you can choose to practice techniques in a rigid, close-minded command climate. But your Marines will learn them and be trained as if they were still fighting in the 18th century. They will be trained in rigid drill, which they will perform the same way regardless of the situation. On the battlefield, this can easily lead to disaster. Good, modern techniques—adapted to the situation and the enemy—can only be learned in a command atmosphere that rewards initiative, imagination, and innovation. Creating that kind of command climate is your first responsibility.

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Development Techniques,

Continued

Realistic Training

Make your training as realistic and varied as possible. It is much easier to do things “the same old way” every time. Good training in techniques will be hard work for your unit and especially for you. The hardest for you may be the work involved in such efforts as

• Getting different ranges instead of always working over the same ground

• Getting permission to train differently from the way most units around you are probably training

• Setting up problems in which the aggressor is equal or superior to you in numbers, instead of the usual token force

• Simply dreaming up new problems that will force your Marines to adapt and innovate

Good trainers and leaders put as much time into planning their unit’s training as they do in conducting it. Facing all this extra work when many of your colleagues are not doing it will be a test of your character.

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Development Techniques,

Continued

Maximize Free Play

Make maximum use of free play exercises. A free play exercise has two forces—each doing everything it can to defeat the other. There is no scenario or script, just starting positions and missions. The aggressor should not be just a token force. The opposing forces should be well matched, with the aggressor sometimes superior in numbers.

Tactics Free play is so important because tactics and the enemy have a major

influence on your techniques. Tactics can only exist in a free play exercise. No tactical decisions can be made in an exercise that follows a script. Additionally, free play exercise faces you with an enemy who—like an enemy in combat—has a free, independent will. The enemy will try to figure out your techniques and turn them against you. Also, the enemy will try to use those techniques that you have not seen against you. Free play training forces you to do two things:

• Adapt your techniques to tactics and to the enemy.

• Come up with new techniques.

If you do not, you are likely to lose, first in free play training and then later in combat. In these respects, only free play training can help you prepare for combat.

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Lesson 3 Exercise

Directions Complete items 1 and 2 by performing the action required. Check your answers against those listed at the end of this lesson.

Item 1 To make your unit proficient in techniques, you must practice. Which of the following is the best form of practice?

a. Role reversal b. Free play

c. Hands on training d. Lecture

Item 2 Which of the following is one of three techniques that can be used to help your unit develop into a better-trained unit?

a. Create a good command climate. b. Minimize free play exercises. c. Work on tactical decision games. d. Coordinate lectures and guest speakers.

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Lesson 3 Exercise,

Continued

1 b 1-20

2 a 1-22

Study Unit 1 Summary

In this study unit, you learned how to develop techniques flexible enough to master unique situations used in combat.

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STUDY UNIT 2

COMBAT LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES

Overview

Estimated Study Time 1 hour, 30 minutes

Unit Scope This study unit discusses the time-proven, Marine Corps-endorsed techniques that Marine leaders use in tactical situations to analyze the situation, make decisions, develop plans, and communicate them to subordinates.

After completing this study unit, you should be able to

• Identify the troop leading procedures.

• Explain the types of tactical orders.

In This Study Unit

This study unit contains the following lessons:

Topic See Page

Lesson 1 Troop Leading Procedures 2-3

Lesson 2 Tactical Orders 2-19

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LESSON 1

TROOP LEADING PROCEDURES

Introduction

Lesson Scope This lesson discusses in detail the six troop leading procedures and how Marine leaders in tactical situations apply them.

• Explain the six troop leading procedures.

• Explain the elements leaders use to make an estimate of the situation.

• Identify points to keep in mind when making plans and decisions.

Topic See Page

Introduction 2-3

Leading Troops 2-4

Estimating the Situation 2-6

Combat Decision Making 2-12

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Leading Troops

Introduction Every Marine is a rifleman. Therefore, every Marine leader must know and understand how to lead Marine riflemen in a combat situation. Study unit 1 discussed the historical aspects of techniques, factors that influence them, and difficulties often encountered in developing and training units in techniques. This provides a useful framework for developing and evaluating the

techniques that you may have to use in a combat situation. This lesson discusses what you, as a leader, need to do in combat to accomplish your mission.

Steps The troop leading steps are a sequence of events that unit leaders use in most tactical operations. These steps do not always occur in a specific order, many times two or more may occur concurrently. Troop leading steps are simply a tool that aids leaders—especially beginners—in formulating initial plans and time schedules upon receipt of a mission.

The acronym BAMCIS has been developed to help define these steps:

Acronym Step

B Begin the plan.

A Arrange for reconnaissance. M Make reconnaissance.

C Complete the plan. I Issue the order. S Supervise.

Begin the Plan The receipt of a mission triggers the entire BAMCIS cycle; however, tactical planning is anticipatory and continuous. To make effective use of available time, the leader issues a warning order to his or her subordinates.

Arrange for Reconnaissance

Initially, the unit leader asks, “What information am I lacking?” If possible, the unit leader arranges for a physical reconnaissance of the objective, route, or defensive position. The unit leader considers the route, security,

subordinates to accompany him or her, and the time available for

reconnaissance. If a physical reconnaissance is impossible, the commander should at least use a map, aerial photo, or visual reconnaissance from a vantage point to conduct his or her leader’s reconnaissance.

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Leading Troops,

Continued

Make

Reconnaissance

The commander now acts to answer the leader’s questions through a

reconnaissance. The recon will either confirm the leader’s plan or cause him or her to make adjustments to it. On a physical reconnaissance, selected subordinate leaders normally accompany the commander. The personnel accompanying the leader will vary according to the tactical situation. The leader should take as many subordinate leaders as the situation requires, while other subordinate leaders supervise the preparations necessary for the

upcoming mission.

Complete the Plan

After updating the estimate of the situation with information gained during the reconnaissance, the leaders makes a decision as to how the mission will be accomplished with the operation order is complete.

Issue the Order The leader issues an order orally to the subordinate leaders.

Supervise The leader makes sure the plan is adhered to by

• Listening to his or her subordinate leaders as they issue orders

• Inspecting Marines and their equipment

• Observing them as they conduct rehearsals

He also ensures adherence to any established time line. If any changes to the original plan are required due to recent changes in the situation, the

commander must adjust the plan accordingly.

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Estimating the Situation

METT-T The estimate of the situation is a tool that aids a commander as he or she plans tactical operations. This tool is especially helpful to a decision-maker as a frame of reference, which serves to remind him or her of various factors normally considered during tactical planning.

The acronym METT-T has been developed to help define these factors:

Acronym Factor

M Mission E Enemy

T Terrain and weather

T Troops and fire support available T Time

These factors must be considered from both the friendly and enemy

perspectives. This may seem to be a complicated, awkward task at first, but with experience, the estimate of the situation becomes an efficient tool. In this lesson, you will be exposed to a modified version of the factors

considered in METT-T. Once the basics are mastered on the squad level, you will be introduced to additional factors during subsequent tactical planning classes to aid in tactical planning on the platoon level and above.

Mission Analysis

The first step in estimating the situation is mission analysis––it begins upon receipt of the mission. It is the means for the unit leader to gain an

understanding of the mission.

Task Analysis The unit leader must identify and understand all that is required for the

successful accomplishment of the mission. This includes tasks received in the unit’s task statement and coordinating instructions from the higher

commander’s operation order.

Limitations Limitations are restrictions on the friendly force’s freedom of action that prohibit the commander from doing something specific. Examples of limitations are

• Tactical control measures

• Rules of engagement (ROE)

• Statements such as Be prepared to…, Not earlier than…, On order… Continued on next page

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Estimating the Situation,

Continued

Enemy Forces The objective of an analysis of the enemy situation is to deduce the enemy’s most probable course of action. Its development comes from sources such as the enemy doctrine and historical data, as well as current enemy activities as indicated in the higher commander’s operation order. The information used to analyze the enemy situation includes

• Composition, disposition, and strength

• Capabilities and limitations

• Enemy most probable course of action (MPCOA)

Composition, Disposition, and Strength

The description of the enemy is composition, disposition, and strength. It is an identification of the forces and equipment the enemy can bring to bear within your unit’s zone or sector. Also considered are known and suspected enemy locations and strength estimates in relation to personnel, equipment, and support capabilities.

SALUTE The acronym SALUTE will be helpful in developing and organizing composition, disposition, and strength:

Acronym Element Query

S Size What is the size of the enemy force? A Activity What the enemy is doing?

L Location Where was the enemy last spotted? U Unit Which unit does the enemy belong to? T Time When was the enemy last observed?

E Equipment What weapons, engineer assets, etc. does the enemy have?

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Estimating the Situation,

Continued

Capabilities and Limitations

What can the enemy do to me? What can the enemy not do to me? The information listed under composition, disposition, and strength is analyzed in relation to the enemy’s ability to conduct operations against our unit. The enemy force is analyzed concerning its ability or inability to conduct various operations against our unit under any foreseeable situation. Is the enemy force capable of defending, reinforcing, attacking, withdrawing, or delaying? For example, can the enemy effectively attack at night? Can the enemy conduct a deliberate defense against us or does the enemy lack sufficient forces and equipment?

DRAW-D The acronym DRAW-D serves as a reminder of the minimum factors to be considered: Acronym Factor D Defend R Reinforce A Attack W Withdraw D Delay Enemy Most Probable Course of Action

What will the enemy try to do to me? Based on the analysis of the enemy’s capabilities and limitations, deduce the enemy’s most probable course of action in relation to our action. For example, the MPCOA is to withdraw to the northwest as a result of our attack and attempt to join other enemy forces west of objective Alpha.

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Estimating the Situation,

Continued

Terrain and Weather Analysis

The unit leader conducts analysis of the five military aspects of terrain relevant to the mission. Certain situations may elevate one element of the analysis to a level of importance above that of one or more of the remaining elements––extreme weather. Having received the higher commander’s analysis, a unit leader can more easily analyze the sector or zone with respect to friendly and enemy capabilities. Example: In offensive operations, the unit leader analyzes terrain and weather from the objective, working back to the assembly area.

OCOKA-W The acronym OCOKA-W has been developed to help conduct the terrain analysis:

Acronym Factor

O Observation and fields of fire C Cover and concealment O Obstacles K Key terrain A Avenues of approach W Weather Observation and Fields of Fire

What can and cannot be seen from where? What can and cannot be hit by fire? Observation is the influence of terrain on reconnaissance and target acquisition. Fields of fire are the influence of terrain on the effectiveness of weapons systems.

Cover and Concealment

Where can fires not hit me? Where can I not be seen? Cover is protection from effects of firepower. Concealment is protection from observation or target acquisition. The analysis of cover and concealment is often inseparable from the consideration of observation and fields of fire. Weapons systems must have both cover and concealment to be most effective and to increase survivability.

Obstacles Obstacles are any natural or manmade obstructions that canalize, delay, restrict, or divert the maneuver or movement of a force.

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Estimating the Situation,

Continued

Key Terrain Key terrain is any area that seizure, retention, or control affords a marked advantage to either combatant. Using the map and information already generated, the unit leader must identify terrain that could be used as positions for weapons or for units to dominate friendly or enemy approaches within the objective area. Remember, key terrain need not be occupied to be controlled. Direct or indirect fire can be used to control access to key terrain.

Avenues of Approach

Avenues of approach are movement routes to an objective. A viable avenue of approach usually offers mobility corridors. These are areas within the avenue of approach that permit movement and maneuver. They permit friendly and enemy forces to advance and withdraw, and to capitalize on the principles of mass momentum, shock, and speed. When friendly forces are attacking, friendly avenues of approach to the objective must be identified, and enemy avenues of approach that could effect friendly movement–– counterattack avenues––must be identified.

Weather Weather is analyzed using the five military aspects of weather: temperature and humidity, precipitation, winds, clouds, and visibility both day and night. To determine its cumulative effect on the operation, weather must be

considered in conjunction with the terrain associated with the unit’s mission. Weather effects equipment (including electronic and optical), terrain

(trafficability), and visibility––but its greatest effect is on the individual Marine. During inclement weather or in extreme heat or cold, the amount of time spent on leadership and supervision must increase as the severity of the weather increases. Inclement weather effects visibility and movement, unit efficiency and morale, and makes command and control more difficult. Poor weather conditions can be as much of an advantage to a unit as it is a

disadvantage, depending upon unit capabilities, equipment, and level of training.

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Estimating the Situation,

Continued

Troops and Fire Support Available

The fourth factor of METT-T is where you consider friendly capabilities. Any course of action the unit leader considers must take into account the number of Marines and support assets available for the operation. The mental and physical condition of the Marines, their level of training, the status of their equipment, fire support assets, and logistics must be considered.

Time The ability to appreciate the aspects and effects of time and space is one of the most important qualities in a leader. Time is vital to all operations; it drives planning and execution. The unit leader gets the indication of time available from the commander. The amount of time a unit has to prepare for or to execute an operation determines the detail possible during the planning process. Initial estimates of time should be used to identify any critical timing in the operation. Critical times can include planning time, LD time, movement time, defend-no-later-that time, time available to prepare and rehearse the attack or defense, time available for reconnaissance, and transportation means (helo, vehicular, foot-mobile, etc.). Both opposed and unopposed rates of movement should be considered.

Space Consider all distances:

• How far is your objective?

• How far is the fire support?

• How far away are the reinforcements?

Logistics Consider how much gear you need and how it will effect your movement. Also, consider when and where you can get resupplied if necessary.

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Combat Decision Making

Three Actions After you estimate the situation, you must make a decision and devise a plan. You should not think of these three actions as separate; they are all part of a single whole. In your mind, you will consider decisions and plans as you look over the situation. As you evaluate decisions and possible plans in your mind, you need to think back to the situation. All three actions––estimate the situation, consider and make a decision, and devise a plan––should blend together in your mind.

Indecisiveness Kills

Now that you have considered these actions together, consider a decision as something separate. You must consider it separately to emphasize that at some point, you, the commander, must make a decision. Military history is full of engagements and battles that were lost because the commander never made a decision, not even a bad one. Without a decision, the commander had no plan; without a plan, the commander’s unit simply waited for the enemy to take action, which invariably they did. And when the enemy acted, the indecisive commander had no plan to counter the threat.

Making Decisions

Being a leader means making decisions. In combat, this is always difficult. Information is missing or confusing; the potential consequences of a wrong decision may be your own death and the destruction of your unit. As you make your decision, you ultimately stand alone. You alone bear the

responsibility for it, and every one of your Marines know this. How do you deal with all this? The following excerpt from MCDP 1 Warfighting gets at the heart of the answer:

…since all decisions must be made in the face of uncertainty and since every situation is unique, there is no perfect solution to any battlefield problem. Therefore, we should not agonize over one. The essence of the problem is to select a promising course of action with an acceptable degree of risk, and to do it more quickly than your foe. In this respect, “a good plan violently executed now is better than a perfect plan executed next week.”

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Combat Decision Making,

Continued

Action With Risk

As part of the art of command, the first part of MCDP 1 Warfighting recommends––selecting a promising course of action with an acceptable degree of risk. No method can teach you this. You can only learn it by actually making military decisions in free play field exercises, war games, map exercises, etc., and later by critiquing decisions or seeing their results. This is why these activities should not take a substantial portion of your time.

Acting Quickly and Violently

The second part of the excerpt from MCDP 1 refers to action ––acting quickly, faster than your enemy, and violently. This is what your plan does. It turns your decision into quick, violent action. But this is more than just planning. It is a habit or better yet––a discipline. You must train and discipline yourself to decide quickly, then act quickly and violently in every tactical situation you face. There is a natural tendency to do the opposite—sit around considering this or that or wait for orders, hoping to see if something turns up. You must discipline yourself to act fast and hit the enemy violently, taking advantage of the fact that the enemy is probably sitting around trying to decide what to do and when to do it. By acting quickly, decisively, and violently, you impose your will on him, which is what combat is all about. Here are some points you should keep in mind as you make decisions and plans:

• Keep it simple.

• Be practical.

• Do not expect certainty.

• Accept risk.

• Always remember speed.

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Combat Decision Making,

Continued

Keep It Simple Delicate, complicated plans are unsuitable for combat. Simple plans are much more effective. However, a simple plan does not mean a “dumb” plan, such as charging into enemy gunfire. A simple, smart plan is your goal. Your plan should be simple enough to be understood and executed by your Marines, yet smart enough so that it does not fall apart the moment something goes wrong in combat. And remember that something always goes wrong in combat.

Be Practical Do not try to make your unit do something it cannot. Do not count on fire support you are unlikely to get. Do not expect a miracle.

Do Not Expect Certainty

War is always an uncertain business. It is no more certain for the enemy than it is for you. As a leader, you are expected to have the moral courage to make decisions in the face of uncertainty.

Accept Risk If you try to cover all the bases, you will be weak everywhere and will fail. You must decide what efforts you will count on to win and put everything you have into it. That means accepting risk elsewhere. Your attempt to go for a win involves risk and sometimes failure. If you fail, pick yourself up, estimate the situation, and try again.

Always Remember Speed

Speed wins more fights and battles than anything else. That means speed in estimating, speed in deciding, and speed in executing. Above all, war is time-competitive––the side that is consistently faster usually wins. The worst kind of leadership is the kind that always makes a good decision and has an excellent plan too late.

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Combat Decision Making,

Continued

Conclusion These points can help you, but they cannot tell you how to make good decisions and plans. Again, decision making and planning are part of the art of command, which you will develop by making military decisions and plans over and over. MCDP 1 states:

…A military decision is not merely a mathematical computation. Decision-making requires both the intuitive skill to recognize and analyze the essence of a given problem and the creative ability to deliver a practical solution. This ability is the product of experience, education, intelligence, boldness, perception, and character.

Remember, you cannot develop the ability to think by using memory devices and checklists alone. You must do it through practice. You must repeatedly place subordinates in tactical scenarios and have them estimate their

situations, make decisions, and justify their thinking. Then you can critique their thought processes. Through experience in map and sand table exercises, terrain walks, and field exercises, your subordinates will learn what things to look for in similar situations. In these ways, your subordinates learn to develop military judgment. Methods and techniques are only starting points. They cannot replace practice and experience in tactical decision-making exercises.

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Lesson 1 Exercise

Directions Complete items 1 through 3 by performing the action required. Check your answers against those listed at the end of this lesson.

Item 1 In which of the six troop leading procedures is the warning order issued? a. Complete the plan.

b. Begin the plan. c. Issue the order.

d. Arrange for reconnaissance.

Item 2 The acronym METT-T stands for mission; enemy; terrain and weather; troops and fire support available; ________________; space; and logistics.

a. tactical resupply b. time

c. topographical intelligence d. table of organization

Item 3 As you make decisions and plans, which of the following points should you keep in mind?

a. Expect certainty. b. Trade speed for stealth. c. Do not accept risk. d. Keep it simple.

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Lesson 1 Exercise,

Continued

1 b 2-4

2 b 2-6

3 d 2-13

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LESSON 2

TACTICAL ORDERS

Introduction

Lesson Scope This lesson discusses the three types of orders used by Marine leaders to communicate their plans and the components of those orders.

After this lesson, you should be able to

• Identify the three types of orders used to communicate plans to subordinates.

• Identify the components of a warning order.

• Identify and explain the acronym for the five-paragraph order.

• Describe fragmentary orders.

• Describe why fragmentary orders are so important.

In This Lesson The table below lists the topics covered in this lesson.

Topic See Page

Introduction 2-19 Preliminary Planning 2-20 Warning Order 2-22 Operations Order 2-25 Fragmentary Order 2-32 Lesson 2 Exercise 2-33

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Preliminary Planning

Communicate Your Plan

When you make a decision and develop a plan, communicate your plan to your subordinates. The task of communicating well is just as important as the other leadership tasks discussed so far. Good communication is the key for effectively putting your plan into action. You may be the most brilliant tactician in the Marine Corps, but if you cannot communicate your ideas to subordinates, your unit probably will not do what you want it to.

Understanding the Plan

To communicate well, you must make it clear to your subordinates what your plan is and what you want them to do. This may seem obvious, but

sometimes leaders give an elaborate, well-rehearsed brief, use a number of fancy techniques, and yet fail to make clear what they plan to do. When you develop a plan, you understand clearly what you want. However, the

challenge is to make sure your subordinate understand what you want, which is not easy.

Making Decisions Off Your Plan

There are several reasons why your subordinates must clearly understand your plan. One reason is that they will often find themselves in situations that call for a decision by you, but they cannot seek your guidance because they do not have time or cannot communicate with you. If they clearly understand your plan, they can make good decisions of their own that support what you are trying to accomplish. However, if you poorly communicate your plan, your Marines will probably make bad decisions and their efforts will be unfocused.

Simultaneous Decisions

In a force that uses maneuver warfare, clarity is also important because unit leaders at all levels make decision simultaneously. For example, if a Marine regiment is engaged in a tactical battle, the regimental commander, each company commander, and every rifleman makes decisions simultaneously. The regimental commander decides to commit his or her reserves against the flanks of an enemy column on the move. One company commander,

preparing to engage the screening elements of the same column, decides to dig in on a reverse slope and slow the column’s progress. At the same

moment, a rifleman in that company––who is skilled in using terrain––selects a defile to close in on the rear of an enemy machinegun team. Unless leaders at each level clearly understand the intent of the leaders one––and preferably two levels above them––their decisions are likely to be poor ones.

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Preliminary Planning,

Continued

Time Constraints

Clear communication of your intent is important for another reason—time constraints. Often in combat there is little time for orders to flow downward. In fact, you may not get your order until just before it is time to move out. Probably you have experienced the following frequent scenario in field exercises: A squad leader receives an order from the platoon commander with only a minute or two to issue his or her own order before moving out. Of course, this may be due to poor planning or unforeseeable events. Poor planning can be avoided. Remember, whenever events allow, get your orders to your subordinates in time for them to plan before they must act.

Speed Combat is time competitive. For a force that uses maneuver warfare, success depends largely on speed—speed in assessing situations, speed in making decisions, and speed in putting decisions into action. If you can do these things faster than the enemy, you “out-cycle” and force the enemy to react. In other words, you have the initiative. So often you will have little time

between receiving an order and acting on it. You will both get and give orders like “Get on the AMTRAC and follow me” because there will be no time for anything more. But, there is a great difference between getting that order when you know the commander’s intent and when you do not. If you know what your commander is trying to do, you will see the connection between the intent and the order. You will have an idea why you must get on the AMTRAC and follow. If you do not know the intent, you will have no idea what is going on.

Three Types To communicate plans in a timely manner, Marine leaders use combat orders. Combat orders are distinguished from administrative orders by their purpose and tactical action. The three basic types of combat orders are

• Warning orders

• Operation orders

• Fragmentary orders (FragOs)

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Warning Order

Purpose A warning order is a preliminary notice of an order or action that is to be followed. It contains as much available information and instructions as required before the detailed, follow-up order is completed. The warning order has several purposes:

• Allows subordinates as much time as possible to prepare for the contemplated action of operation

• Provides for the conservation of both time and energy

• Allows for current planning in all elements of the force

Time Lines Time lines with warning orders are essential. When you receive a mission, you want to get your unit’s preparations underway as quickly as possible. This is done through warning orders. If you do not issue a warning order, your Marines may sit around “waiting for word” when they could better be putting that time to valuable use.

Content The warning order’s contents vary based on the unique tactical situation. Generally, a warning order contains as much available information and

instructions as required for carrying out known requirements at specific times. Your unit’s standard operating procedures (SOPs) may prescribe the content of a warning order. A warning order should contain the following:

• Situation

• Mission

• General instructions

• Service support

• Command and signal

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Warning Order,

Continued

Detail Depending on how much time you have to prepare for an operation or action, warning orders may be very brief or may be quite detailed. A concise

warning order may be as simple as the following: “Corporal, redistribute ammo. Squad leaders, we clear route Mary in 10 minutes. Meet me at the CP in 3 minutes.” A detailed order may look like the patrol warning order format shown below:

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Warning Order,

Continued

Changing Format

The format of a warning order is not specified in doctrinal publications. This is because each situation requiring a warning order is unique and the means of transmission vary. Preparing a warning order requires you to apply sound military judgment. Some doctrinal publications––FM 101-5, FM 7-10, FM 7-20––recommend a certain format. While the format of a warning order may vary, you must ensure that you include the information your subordinates need. The key is to get your subordinate units’ preparation underway as quickly as possible.

Warning Order Sample

The warning order format from FM 7-20 is shown below:

1. SITUATION

- Brief description of enemy/friendly situations, attachments, and detachments

2. MISSION

- Use the restated mission derived from mission analysis

3. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

- Special team/tasks organizations

- Uniform/equipment changes that apply to all - Special weapons/ammunition/equipment

- Tentative time schedule (including the earliest time of movement, time and place the operation order will be issued, inspections, and rehearsals)

- Special/general instructions

4. SERVICE SUPPORT

- Logistics/CSS information beyond that included in the combat SOP

5. COMMAND AND SIGNAL

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Operations Order

Purpose An operations order is a directive issued by a commander to subordinate commanders. The acronym SMEAC is used by commanders at all echelons throughout the U.S. military to effect the coordinated execution of an operation: Acronym Factor S Situation M Mission E Execution

A Administration and logistics C Command and signal

At the small unit level, this format is commonly known as the five–paragraph order. Unlike the warning order and fragmentary order, the operations order must contain all five elements. The operations order converts your decision into a plan of action, gives direction to the efforts of your unit, and provides specific instruction to your subordinate units.

Applying SMEAC

The operations order is your tool to express to your subordinate what you want them to accomplish. Use the SMEAC format to write your order. Marines are taught the SMEAC format to help them organize information logically. Your operations order should answer each question in order as listed in the table below:

Acronym Factor Query

S Situation What are we facing? M Mission What are we going to do?

E Execution How are we going to do it?

A Admin and logistics How are we going to get what we need? C Command and signal How are we going to control it?

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Operations Order,

Continued

Five-Paragraph Order Sample

A sample format of a five-paragraph order is shown below:

1. SITUATION

a. Enemy forces

(1) Composition, disposition, and strength (SALUTE) (2) Capabilities and limitations (DRAW-D)

(3) Enemy’s most probable course of action (within your zone)

b. Friendly forces

(1) Higher (location, mission, and intent of next higher unit)

(2) Adjacent (mission and location of units having effect on your mission) (3) Supporting (nonorganic units providing fire or combat service support)

c. Attachments and detachments (nonorganic units attached and/or organic units detached)

2. MISSION (Who, what, when, where, and why)

3. EXECUTION

a. Commander’s intent (desired end-state of operation with respect to enemy and terrain)

b. Concept of operations

(1) Scheme of maneuver (commander’s plan to accomplish the mission) (2) Fire support plan (how fire support complements scheme of maneuver)

c. Tasks (missions to be accomplished by each subordinate unit, to include main effort and reserves)

d. Coordinating instructions (specific instructions and tasks that tie the plan together)

4. ADMINISTRATION AND LOGISTICS

a. Administration (medical evacuation plans, EPW procedures, civilian-military cooperation)

b. Logistics (resupply and transportation plans)

5. COMMAND AND SIGNAL

a. Signal (specific signal instructions for the operation)

b. Command (location of commander and other leaders as required, succession of command)

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Operations Order,

Continued

Orientation At the company level and below, operations orders are usually given orally. You should begin oral operation orders with an orientation of the planned area of operation. The purpose of an orientation is not to discuss the details of the order, but rather to orient your subordinates to terrain, enemy positions, checkpoints, targets, etc. before you issue your order. Use some kind of graphic aid to assist in orienting your subordinates. This may include a terrain model, a map overlay, or an actual look at the terrain.

Presentation of the Order

After the orientation, brief the operation order in the SMEAC format. Ensure that your subordinates hold their questions until you are finished. To present a clear picture, your order should contain information that is factual, concise, and well organized. It should be a mission type order. Allow time for questions at the end. Your subordinate leaders should conduct briefbacks to you so you are sure they understand the order.

Situation and Mission

The situation and mission paragraphs of your order are derived from your estimate of the situation (METT-T), which you should have done when you first received your mission. The situation contains information on the overall status of both friendly and enemy forces. You must provide information that is considered essential to your subordinate leaders’ understanding of the current situation. The situation also includes a subparagraph on nonorganic units attached to and/or organic units detached from your unit. You must give the effective time of attachment or detachment. If there are no attachments, state “none.”

Mission Statement

The mission statement is a clear and concise statement of what your unit is to accomplish. It is the heart of your order, which is why it stands alone with no references to other documents. The mission statement includes a task (what) and a purpose (why). The task describes the action to be taken and the purpose describes the desired result of that action. Of the two, the purpose is always predominant. While the situation may change, making the task obsolete, the purpose is more permanent and continues to guide your actions.