Dogmatism and Higher Education Among Urban Police officers in a Midwestern State
Billi J. Patzius
Research has been conducted linking the impact of higher education on dogmatism and behaviors consistent with the dogmatic personality, particularly among those employed in the helping professions. This study investigated the relationship between dogmatism and higher education among urban police officers in Missouri. Patrol officers from the St.
Louis City and Kansas City, Missouri, police departments were recruited as participants.
The dependent variable, dogmatism, was measured by the Rokeach (1960) Dogmatism Scale Form E and the independent variables were recorded on a demographic
questionnaire. Participant educational experience was recorded as having one of the following: high school diploma, two-year college degree, baccalaureate degree, and graduate degree from an accredited college or university. The questionnaire also recorded participant age, sex, race, years of service, city of employment, assigned district, and whether or not the participant chose to work in their assigned district. The results of the multiple regression analysis conducted in this study concluded the overall model is a statistically significant predictor of the dogmatism dependent variable at the .05
confidence level with an R Square value of .082. The independent variables in the study were not statistically significant predictors of dogmatism at the .05 confidence level.
Introduction
The government’s call for improved police performance and conduct has influenced police departments to lengthen the duration of academy training, test recruits for their psychological soundness, strengthen background investigations, and require educational attainment of at least a high school diploma or GED equivalency. In addition, more police departments have implemented eligibility requirements of a baccalaureate degree prior to entering the police academy or before an officer may be eligible for a promotion in rank. Those in support of higher education of at least a baccalaureate degree for law enforcement are armed with years of research that supports higher education as being influential in the development of morality, ethics, and a greater appreciation for diversity (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). However, research supporting higher education as influential in positive police performance is often
challenged by research finding no direct correlation between the two (Worden, 1990). White and Escobar (2008) stated:
The expectations placed on police officers today is greater than they have ever been before. We still expect them to prevent and solve crime, resolve our disputes, and respond with care and concern to our needs. Now we also expect police to employ sophisticated problem-solving, to engage the community, and to protect us from new threats of terrorism. Although the evidence linking college education to improved police performance is mixed, it seems clear that the new and emerging skills required to be an effective police officer in the twenty-first century are developed and enhanced through a college education. (p. 123)
Highly dogmatic persons are of interest to researchers because the opinions and characteristics shared by these individuals affect personality and cognitive processing
capabilities (Johnson, 2009). Johnson (2009) grouped dogmatism into cognitive characteristics, emotional characteristics, and behavioral characteristics (p. 136). Dogmatism affects individuals across these three spectrums and highly dogmatic individuals display more than just personality traits representative of closed-mindedness. Dogmatism affects decision making, cognitive processing, and behavior (Johnson, 2009). Police officers in particular have been an object of study in assessing dogmatism rates based on their professional positions as being highly
authoritarian and powerful. In addition, police officers are in constant connection with the public and the nature of their position is service oriented. Johnson (2009) indicated dogmatists over- simplify complex situations, and the more complex a situation becomes, the more it produces anxiety (p. 139). Anxiety is a normal response for many in complex situations, but for police officers who are continuously put into these positions, it is imperative they possess the ability to respond appropriately (Johnson, 2009). Zacker (1970) indicated 90 percent of police functions are designated to public service, and Sterling (1974) suggested police spend more time training in the area of human behavior due to their constant contact with the community. Being that police work is demanding of service-oriented individuals with a high tolerance of ambiguity, it is appropriate to assess for dogmatic beliefs among police officers to measure if the historical and present day support for higher education among police officers serves to impact dogmatic beliefs.
Dogmatism and Personality
A number of studies have researched the effects of dogmatism in predicting other personality factors and the success of highly dogmatic persons in varying academic and professional disciplines. The helping professions such as education, nursing, and police work have been instrumental in this type of research in an effort to implement policy and procedure in the selection and training of highly qualified individuals. As summarized by Johnson (2009), the dogmatic personality is considered a risk to any profession, specifically helping professions.
Johnson (2009) stated:
Dogmatic people who occupy positions of influential power destabilize existing democracies and prevent progressive political, scientific, and cultural transitions. Because questioning their established beliefs threatens their deep psychological needs for certainty and safety, dogmatists sidestep the duties of responsible citizenship – duties that demand
transparency and accountability…. With closed-minded certainty and unyielding arrogance, they waste their imaginative potential and injure their integrity. (p. 14)
Dogmatism is associated with a number of personality characteristics and traits. In their studies, Rokeach (1952) associated dogmatism to rigidity and anxiety, and Korn and Giddan (1964) correlated dogmatism to intolerance, insecurity, and austerity. Several other studies associated the highly dogmatic personality with low self-esteem, social isolation, and aggression (Byrne, Blaylock, & Goldberg, 1966; Norman, 1960; and Vacchiano, Strauss, & Schiffman, 1968). Sexton (1983) conducted a study using the D Scale to test the association between dogmatism and alienation. She administered the D Scale to 92 college students enrolled in an introductory psychology course. The study concluded a positive correlation between alienation and dogmatism. Sexton (1983) went on to conclude alienation and dogmatism shared other characteristics such as anxiety and low self-esteem. Rigby and Rump (1982) conducted a study on authoritarian personality characteristics and concluded “the distinction between attitudes toward authority and certain authoritarian personality traits – namely intolerance of ambiguity,
dogmatism, low creative independence, low emotional activation, and cognitive simplicity – is justified on theoretical ground” (p. 69).
Police and Dogmatism
Studies conducted on dogmatic beliefs among police officers have proven to be
inconclusive. A study conducted by Teasley and Wright (1973) found a significant increase in dogmatism among police recruits from the time they began the academy to the time they graduated. A study conducted by Matice (1978) found the opposite result, and police recruits scored lower on the dogmatism scale at graduation in comparison to their original score when they began training. Matice (1978) indicated the academy culture impacts recruits and being that each academy environment is different, it may be likely that results will continue to vary (p. 83).
In addition, studies linking higher education to attitudinal differences among police recruits have been inconclusive. Guller (1972) found police recruits who were about to finish college scored lower on the dogmatism scale. In opposition to this study, Weiner (1974) found that educational level was not correlated with the attitudes of police officers. Research on the impact of education on attitudinal changes is also inconclusive. There are a number of findings that support higher education as being significant in the development of a person culturally, ethically, and morally.
However, there are limitations to the research that are pointed out by Hudzik (1978). Hudzik (1978) noted one of the main issues with the research on the impact of higher education is that it is feasible to claim that people entering college are already different than those not entering college - making it is difficult to assess whether higher education is making the difference or if it is the inherent difference in the people who go to college.
Methodology
This study is designed as a correlational study and the researcher recruited patrol officers from urban police departments in the state of Missouri as participants in the study. The police departments utilized in the study are St. Louis and Kansas City. Patrol officers make up the majority of the officers within each department and were chosen in an effort to gather a large sample size that has consistent contact with the community and most accurately fits Dempsey and Forst's (2008) description of the urban police officer. Patrol officers from the Metro, Central, and East Districts within the Kansas City, Missouri, Police Department and the North, South, and Central Districts with the St. Louis Metropolitan Police Department were participants in the study and were contacted during role call meetings. Recruiting participation during role call meetings was less imposing on the officers because it was given before the participants were on formal duty and did not yield interruptions due to calls for service. In addition, collecting the data during role call meetings allowed the researcher access to a large sample size at each given meeting. The dependent variable, dogmatism, was measured by the Rokeach (1960) Dogmatism Scale Form E and the independent variables were recorded on a demographic questionnaire.
Participant educational experience was recorded as having one of the following: high school diploma, two-year college degree, baccalaureate degree, and graduate degree from an accredited college or university. The questionnaire also recorded participant age, sex, race, years of service, city of employment, assigned district, and whether or not the participant chose to work in their assigned district.
Results
The results of the descriptive statistics indicate participants from the St. Louis and Kansas City Police Departments scored similarly on the Dogmatism Scale regardless of education level, sex, age, department location, choice of district, and race. The difference in the mean scores for the race groups came close to statistical significance at p = .06, and indicated the participants who identified their race as “Other” scored the highest on the dogmatism scale. The “years of service” variable was the only variable that did show a statistical difference in mean scores for participants on the dogmatism scale. Participants were divided into three groups according to their years of service (Group 1: 4yrs or less; Group 2: 5-9yrs; Group 3: 10 yrs and above). The mean score on the dogmatism scale is higher for participants in Group 2 (N=89) with five to nine years of service than the participants in Group 3 (N=92) with ten years of service or more. The mean score for Group 1 (N=97) with four years of service or less, was not significantly different than the scores for Group 2 or for Group 3. The results of the descriptive analysis in this study adds to the body of knowledge in this conceptual area and indicates dogmatism scores are not affected by level of education, age, race, sex, department, and choice of district. An
unanticipated finding in this study suggested that dogmatism scores are, however, impacted by the participant’s years of service. Prior studies (Regoli & Poole, 1968; Hickman, 2008) support lower levels of negative personality characteristics among veteran police officers than their rookie counterparts. This study supports those findings because the results of the data analysis determined dogmatism scores were significantly lower for participants in Group 3 with ten years of service or more (M = 147.27) than participants in Group 2 with five to nine years of service (M = 160.01). Inferential statistical analysis concluded the overall model was a statistically significant predictor of the dogmatism dependent variable at the .05 confidence level. The R Square value of the total model was .082 and indicates 8.2% of the total model determines the amount of variance in dogmatism scale scores. This percentage is very small and although it reaches statistical significance, it does not reach practical significance due to the small effect size.
Multiple regression analysis also concluded that each of the independent variables in the study (education level, race, sex, age, years of service, department, and choice of district ) were not statistically significant predictors of the dogmatism dependent variable at the .05 confidence level. As stated previously, the research is severely limited and inconclusive in addressing the impact of variables such as education, age, sex, race, and officer years of service on dogmatism scores, and the results of this study do not support previous findings that education, or any of the other variables, impact dogmatism scores positively or negatively. There are several implications that can be drawn from the results of this study and they are discussed below.
Recommendations and Conclusions
The fact that the overall model was a statistically significant predictor of the dogmatism dependent variable at the .05 confidence level, does not necessarily implicate the model is a strong predictor of dogmatism. The R Square value of the total model was .082 and indicates 8.2% of the total model determines the amount of variance in dogmatism scale scores. This percentage is very small and although it reaches statistical significance, it does not reach
practical significance due to the small effect size. More importantly, the results of the study point to a lack of support concerning the relationship between education, sex, age, race, years of service, department, and choice of district on the dogmatism dependent variable. Two
conclusions may be drawn from these results: (1) the independent variables chosen for the study simply do not have a relationship with the dogmatism dependent variable, or; (2) the independent variables chosen for the study were not significant predictors of the dogmatism dependent
variable because the dogmatism scores were homogenous, and too low to reflect that the dogmatic personality even exists among the participant sample. The prevalence of dogmatism among the police profession needs to be assessed and the ability of the selection process to disqualify the dogmatic candidates should also be investigated. In addition, the impact of higher education experience on dogmatic belief systems was not supported in this study, so additional research on the characteristics of the decorated police officer may also serve to be useful to administrators. Lastly, drawing upon the student development research of Chickering (1969), additional research should be conducted on the development of the police personality. This type of data would serve to be critical to police administrators because it would provide a paradigm for training and service development specific to the policing profession. In conclusion, the descriptive and inferential results of the data support some of the previous findings in the
literature. However, the predictive ability of the independent variables, particularly the education variable, on the dependent variable, dogmatism, was nonexistent. This coupled with the results of the descriptive analysis produced some unanticipated outcomes, and from those outcomes, a number of implications were made that may be investigated in future research.
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Billi J. Patzius, Assistant Professor, Graduate Criminal Justice Administration Program Director, Lindenwood University 400 N. Kingshighway, St. Charles, MO. 63301
Bpatzius@lindenwood.edu
Presented at the Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education, Lindenwood University, St. Louis, MO, September 21-23, 2011.
